MBEYA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

EE8208: Electrical Network Analysis

II
SEMESTER 2, ACADEMIC YEAR 2023/2024

Course Instructor: Eng. Fredy F. Loita

College of Engineering and Technology, CET

Department of Electrical and Power Engineering

1
Second Order Circuits: Introduction
A second order circuit is characterized by a second-
order differential equation. It consists of resistor(s) and
the equivalent of two energy storage elements.
The following circuits are the typical examples of the
second order circuits.
Initial and final values for second order circuits
When finding initial values it is important to remember
that:
(i) The voltage v(t) across capacitor has polarity and
current i(t) through the inductor has direction,
Using circuit diagrams we can represent as shown below;
(ii)The capacitor voltage is continuous and the
inductor current is continuous, mathematically we
state as follows;
+ −
v c (0 ) = v c (0 )
+ −
i L (0 ) = i L (0 )
t = 0 − is the time just before the switching event,
t = 0 + is the time just after the switching event,
Assuming that the switching event takes place at t = 0.
Example 1
The switch in the circuit below has been closed for a
long time. It is open at t = 0. Find the following:
(a) i(0 + ), v(0 + )
di(0 + ) dv(0+)
(b) ,
dt dt

(c) i (), v()

Solution:
(a) If the switch is closed a long time before t = 0, it means
that the circuit has reached dc steady state at t = 0.
(b) At DC steady state inductor acts like a short circuit
while capacitor acts like an open circuit.

Thus, we can have the following circuits ;

− t = (0 + ) t →
t = (0 )
 − 12V
i (0 ) = = 2 A, i (0 + ) = i (0 − ) = 2 A
4 + 2
v(0 − ) = 2i (0 − ) = 4V , v(0 + ) = v(0 − ) = 4V

At t = 0 + the switch is open, the same current flows

through both the inductor and capacitor.

+ +
iC (0 ) = i (0 ) = 2 A
dv dv iC
C = iC , =
dt dt C
dv (0 + ) i (0 + ) 2
= = = 20V / s
dt C 0.1
di di vL
vL = L , = . Obtain v L by KVL in fig b
dt dt L
− 12 + 4i (0 + ) + v L (0 + ) + v(0 + ) = 0
V L (0 + ) = 12 − 8 − 4 = 0
di (0 + ) v L (0 + ) 0
= = = 0A / s
dt L 0.25

(c) As t →  the circuit reaches steady state, the

inductor acts like short circuit and capacitor like open
circuit.
i() = 0 A, v() = 12V
The source free series RLC circuits
Consider the series RLC circuit below. The circuit is being
excited by the energy initially stored in the capacitor and
inductor. The energy is represented by the initial capacitor
voltage Vo and initial inductor current Io.
At t = 0,
0
1
v(0) =  idt = Vo
C −
i (0) = I o
Applying KVL around the loop
t
di 1
Ri + L +  idt = 0
dt C −
To eliminate the integral we differentiate with respect
2
to t and rearrange terms. We get, d i R di i
+ + =0
dt 2 L dt LC
This is the second order differential equation.
To solve the equation we need to have two initial
conditions, such as the initial value of i and its first
derivative or the initial value of i and v.
The initial value of the derivative of i is obtained
from the equation,
di (0)
Ri(0) + L + Vo = 0
dt
The experience from first order circuits suggests that
the solution to our differential equation is of
exponential form.
So we let i = Ae st where A and s are constants to be
determined. Substituting i and its derivative in the
equation
d 2 i R di i
We obtain 2
+ + =0
dt L dt LC
AR st A st
As e +
2 st
se + e =0
L LC
Ae ( s + s + )= 0
st 2 R 1
L LC
R 1
s + s+
2
=0
L LC
 2
R  R  1
s1 = − +   −
2L  2L  LC
2
R  R  1
s2 = − −   −
2L  2L  LC
s1 = − +  − o
2 2

s 2 = − −  − o
2 2

R 1
 = , o =
2L LC
The roots s1 and s2 are natural frequencies,
 is the damping factor,
o is the resonant frequency,
There are two possible solutions of i.
i1 = A1e s1t
i2 = A2 e s2t
Thus natural response of the series RLC circuit is,
i(t ) = A1e s t + A2 e s t where A1 and A2 are the constants
1 2

to be determined from the initial values of i(0) and

di(0)/dt
Overdamped response
The response is overdamped when the roots of the
circuit’s characteristic equation are real and distinct.
For overdamped condition   o and the response
is i(t ) = A1e s t + A2 e s t
1 2

Where
s1 and s2 are two real and distinct roots,
A1 and A2 are the constants obtained from the initial
values of i(0) and di(0)/dt.
Critically damped response
The response is critically damped when the roots
of the circuit’s characteristic equation are equal and
real.
For critically damped condition  = o and the
response is i (t ) = ( A t + A )e −t
1 2
Where
 is the root of the characteristic equation,
A1 and A2 are the constants.
Underdamped response
The response is underdamped when the roots of
the circuit’s characteristic equation are complex
conjugate.
For underdamped condition   o and the
response is i(t ) = e −t ( B1 cosd t + B2 sin d t )
Where
 is the real part of the complex root,
 d is the imaginary part of the complex root,
which is called the damping frequency
B1 and B2 are constants.
 Observations

• The behavior depicts the idea of damping

• Damping is the gradual loss of initial stored energy as
there is continuous decrease in the amplitude of response
• The damping effect is due to the presence of resistance,
R
• Underdamped cases, where  o : the response is not
only underdamped but also oscillatory
• Oscillatory is due to the two types of storage elements
which allows the flow of energy back and forth between
them
 Observations
• The difference between overdamped and critically
damped is essentially that the critically damped,
decays faster.
• If we desire the fastest response without oscillation,
the critically damped is the right choice
• In the circuits where the responses /outputs required
are sinusoidal or near sinusoidal the preference
would be underdamped case
• Where also is required for the natural turn-off of
power semiconductor devices the preference is
underdamped
Example 2
Find i(t) for the circuit below. Assume that the circuit
has reached steady state at t = 0 − .
Solution:

For t < 0, the switch is closed and the resulting circuit is

shown below;

10V
i (0) = = 1A
4 + 6
v(0) = 6i (0) = 6V

i(0) is the initial current through the inductor,

v(0) is the initial voltage across the capacitor.
For t > 0, the switch is opened and the voltage source
is disconnected. The circuit changes to the following
equivalent circuit.
the 9Ω is the combination of
the 3Ω and 6Ω in series.
R 9
 = = =9
2( )
2L 1
2
1
o = = = 10
LC 1 1

2 50
s1, 2 = −   2 −  o2
s1, 2 = −9  81 − 100
s1, 2 = −9  j 4.359
The response of the circuit is underdamped (    ) , therefore
i(t ) = e −9t ( A1 cos 4.359t + A2 sin 4.359t )
We now obtain A1 and A2 using initial conditions.
At t = 0, i(0)=1=A1
For source free series RLC circuits

= − Ri (0) + v(0) = −29(1) − 6 = −6 A / s

di 1
t =0
dt L
Note that v(0)=Vo=-6V.
Taking derivative of i(t)
di
= −9e −9t ( A1 cos 4.359t + A2 sin 4.359t ) + e −9t (4.359)(− A1 sin 4.359t + A2 cos 4.359t )
dt
At t = 0
-6=-9(A1+0)+4.359(0+A2)
We already solved for A1=1, then
-6=-9+4.359A2
A2=0.6882
Therefore the complete solution is

i(t ) = e −9t (cos 4.359t + 0.6882sin 4.359t ) A

Source free parallel RLC circuits

Consider the parallel RLC circuit below.

Assume
Io=initial inductor current,
Vo=initial capacitor voltage
0
1
i ( 0) = I O =  vdt
L
v ( 0) = V o

Applying KCL at the top node gives

t
v 1 dv
R
+
L 
−
vdt + C
dt
=0
Taking derivatives with respect to t and dividing by C
results in d 2v 1 dv 1
2
+ + v=0
dt RC dt LC
1 1
The characteristic equation is s +
2
s+ =0
RC LC

The roots of the characteristic equation are

2
1  1  1
s1, 2 =−    −
2 RC  2 RC  LC
s1, 2 = −   2 −  o2
1 1
= , o =
2 RC LC
The names of the terms for the parallel RLC circuits
remain the same as for series RLC circuits as they play
the same role in the solution.
For parallel RLC circuit there are three possible solutions.
Overdamped condition (   o )
v(t ) = A1e s1t + A2 e s2t

Where
s1 and s2 are two real and distinct roots,
A1 and A2 are the constants obtained from the initial
values of v(0) and dv(0)/dt.
Critically damped condition (  = o )
v(t ) = ( A1 + A2 t )e −t

Where
 is the root of the characteristic equation,
A1 and A2 are the constants.
Underdamped condition (  o )
v(t ) = e −t ( B1 cos d t + B2 sin  d t )
Where
 is the real part of the complex root,
 d is the imaginary part of the complex root,
B1 and B2 are constants.
By combining the following equations :
o
1
i (0) = I o =  vdt
L
v(0) = Vo
t
v 1 dv
+  vdt + C = 0
R L − dt
results in the equation, at t=0, dv/dt is
dv(0) (V + RI o )
=− o
dt RC

We need to know dv(0)/dt when solving for constants.

Example 3:
Find v(t) of the circuit below for t > 0.

.
Solution:
• When t < 0, the switch is open; the inductor
acts like a short circuit while the capacitor
behaves like open circuit.

50
v(0) =  40V = 25V
30 + 50
40V
i (0) = − = −0.5 A
30 + 50
dv(0) v(0) + Ri (0) 25 − 50(0.5)
=− =− −6
=0
dt RC 50  20  10
 When t > 0 the switch is closed and the circuit
becomes

The parallel RLC circuit acts independently of the voltage source.

The roots of the characteristic equation are:
1 1
= = −6
= 500
2 RC 2  50  20  10
1 1
o = = = 354
−6
LC 0.4  10
s1, 2 = −   2 −  o2 = −500  500 2 − 354 2 = −500  354
s1 = −854, s 2 = −146

Since   o we have overdamped response

At t = 0,we already know that v(0)=25, therefore
v(0) = 25 = A1 + A2  A2 = 25 − A1

Taking the derivative of v(t)

dv
= −854 A1e −854 t − 164 A2 e −164 t
dt
But we calculated dv(0)/dt =0, then
0=854A1+164A2
We now have two equations and two unknows

 A1 + A2 = 25

854A1 + 164A2 = 0
Solving the equations above we obtain
A1=-5.16, A2=30.16
The complete solution becomes
−164t −854t
v(t ) = 30.16e − 5.16e V
STEP RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUITS
Step response of a series RLC circuit
The step response is obtained by the sudden application
of a DC source.
Consider the series RLC circuit below:

Applying KVL around the loop for t > 0,

di
L + Ri + v = Vs
dt
But dv
i=C
dt

By combining the two equations above and rearranging

terms we get,
d 2v R dv v Vs
2
+ + =
dt L dt LC LC
The solution to the above equation will result to,
v(t ) = vt (t ) + vss (t )
Where,
vt(t) is the transient response,
vss(t) is steady state response,
When Vs=0, the transient response vt(t) has three possible
solutions.
For overdamped condition vt (t ) = A1e s1t + A2 e s2t
For critically damped condition v t (t ) = ( A1 + A2 t )e −t
For underdamped condition vt (t ) = e −t ( B1 cos d t + B2 sin d t )

The steady state response is the steady state or final value

of v(t).

For this circuit

arrangement
The final value of capacitor voltage is the same as the
source voltage Vs. Therefore the steady state response,
vss (t ) = v() = Vs
Hence, the complete solution of the step response for
series RLC circuit under three conditions can be:
Overdamped v(t ) = Vs + A1e s t + A2e s t
1 2

Critically damped v(t ) = Vs + ( A1 + A2t )e −t

Underdamped v(t ) = Vs + e −t ( B1 cos d t + B2 sin  d t )
Example 4:
For the circuit below, find v(t) and i(t) for t > 0.
For t < 0, the switch is closed, the capacitor behaves as
an open circuit while the inductor acts like a short
circuit. The initial current through the inductor is:
24V
i (0) = = 4A
5 + 1 and the initial voltage
across the capacitor is: v(0) = 1i (0) = 4V
For t > 0, the switch is opened, we have a series RLC
circuit with a voltage source.
The characteristic roots are;
R 5 1 1
= = = 2.5, o = = =2
2L 2  1 LC 1 0.25
 s1, 2 = −   2 − o2 = −1,−4

Since   o we have overdamped natural

response . The total response is therefore
(
v(t ) = v ss + A1e −t + A2 e −4t )
Where vf is the final vale of the capacitor voltage
which is equal to 24V.
Thus,
(
v(t ) = 24 + A1e −t + A2 e −4t )
We need to find A1 and A2 from the initial
conditions.
v(0) = 4V

Then: 4 = 24 + A1 + A2
The inductor current can not change abruptly and for this
circuit is the same as the current through the capacitor at
+
t=0
dv(0) dv(0) 4 4
i (0) = C =4 = = = 16
dt dt C 0.25
From the equation
(
v(t ) = 24 + A1e −t + A2 e −4t )
dv
= − A1e −t − 4 A2 e −4t
dt
At t = 0, dv(0)
= 16 = − A1 − 4 A2
dt
64 4
Solving for A1 and A2 we obtain A1 = , A2 =
3 3

Therefore v(t ) = 24 + 4 (e − 4t − 16e −t )

3

Since the inductor and capacitor are in series for t>0, the
inductor current is the same as the capacitor current.
dv
i (t ) = C
dt
Solving for i(t) from the above equations we obtain,
4
(
i (t ) = 4e −t − e − 4t
3
)A
Step response of a parallel RLC circuit
Consider a parallel RLC circuit below

We want to find i due to sudden application of a DC

current.
Application of KCL at the top node for t > 0,
v dv
+i+C = Is
R dt

di
v=L
dt
d 2i 1 di i Is
+ + =
dt 2 RC dt LC LC
The equation has same characteristic as the second order
differential equation for source free RLC parallel circuit. The
solution of the current consists the transient response and the
steady state response
i(t ) = it (t ) + iss (t )
The three possible solutions according to the three
conditions shall be
Overdamped i (t ) = I s + A1
1 e st
+ A
2
2 e s t

Critically damped i (t ) = I s + ( A1t + A2 )e −t

Underdamped i (t ) = I s + e −t ( B1 cos  d t + B2 sin  d t )
Example 5:
For the circuit below find i(t) for t > 0.
For t < 0, the switch is open, the circuit is partitioned into two
independent subcircuits. The 4 A current flows through the
inductor
i(0) = 4 A
Since 30, t  0
30u ( −t ) = 
 0, t  0
For t<0, the capacitor acts like an open circuit and the voltage
(initial) across it will be given by:
20
v(0) =  30 = 15V
20 + 20
For t > 0,
The switch is closed and we have a parallel RLC
circuit with a current source.The combined
resistance is R = 20 20 = 10
The characteristic roots are
1 1
= = −3
= 6.25
2 RC 2  10  8  10
1 1
o = = = 2.5
−3
LC 20  8  10
s1, 2 = −   2 −  o2 = −6.25  6.25 2 − 2.5 2
s1, 2 = −6.25  5.7282
s1 = −11.978, s 2 = −0.5218
Since   o
We have overdamped condition, the solution will be
−11.978 t −0.5218 t
i(t ) = I s + A1e + A2 e

Is is the final value of i(t) = 4A.

We use initial conditions to find the values of A1 and
A2.
At t=0,
4=4+A1+A2
Taking the derivative of i(t)
di
= −11.978 A1e −11.978 t − 0.5218 A2 e −0.5218 t
dt
 di (0)
At t =0, = −11.978 A1 − 0.5218 A2
dt

di (0) di (0) 15 15
But L = v(0) = 15  = = = 0.75
dt dt L 20

We know that A2=-A1

0.75 = (11.978 − 0.5218) A2  A2 = 0.0655, A1 = −0.0655

The complete solution for i(t) becomes

i(t ) = 4 + 0.0655(e −0.5218t − e −11.978t ) A
Second order op amp circuits
An op amp circuit with two storage elements that can
not be combined into a single equivalent is a second
order. The use of op amps in second order circuits
avoids the use of inductors which are heavy and bulky.
We shall consider only the RC second order op amp
circuits.
The analysis of second order op amp circuits follows
the same steps as those used for other second order
circuits.
Assignment:
Alexander & Sadiku: Example 8.11
Consider the op amp circuit below.
Find vo(t), for t > 0 when vs = 10u(t )mV
Given that R1 = R2 = 10k, C1 = 20F , C 2 = 100 F
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