Biology 11/11/2024

Topics
1% law

The '1% law' states that only 1% of energy taken in by one trophic level is converted into biomass
available to the next trophic level.

This law helps explain energy transfer efficiency in ecosystems.

The remaining 99% of energy is lost as heat or used for metabolic processes.
Higher trophic levels typically have fewer organisms due to the energy loss.
Primary producers (plants) occupy the first trophic level and have the most available energy.

10% Law

The '10% Law' states that only about 10% of the energy available at one trophic level is
transferred to the next trophic level.

Energy is lost as heat through metabolic processes and feces.

Higher trophic levels have less energy available than lower levels.
This law helps explain why food chains are limited in terms of the number of trophic levels.
It emphasizes the inefficiency of energy transfer in ecosystems.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, including the diversity of species, ecosystems,
and genetic material.

Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecological balance and providing essential ecosystem
services.
Biodiversity can be measured at different levels, including genetic diversity, species diversity,
and ecosystem diversity.
Human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change are major threats
to biodiversity.
Biodiversity conservation efforts involve preserving endangered species, protecting habitats,
and promoting sustainable practices.

Biogeochemical cycles

Biogeochemical cycles are natural processes that involve the movement and transformation of
chemical elements and compounds in the environment.
 There are four main biogeochemical cycles: the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus
cycle, and water cycle.
These cycles play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of nutrients and energy in
ecosystems.
Each cycle involves the cycling of elements between the atmosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Human activities can disrupt biogeochemical cycles, leading to environmental problems such
as pollution and climate change.

Climate change

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in weather patterns and average temperatures on
Earth, primarily attributed to human activities such as burning fossil fuels.

Increasing greenhouse gas emissions from human activities is the main driver of climate
change.
Major effects of climate change include rising sea levels, more frequent extreme weather
events, and loss of biodiversity.
The Earth's climate has always varied naturally, but the current rate of global warming is
unprecedented.
Mitigation and adaptation strategies are necessary to minimize the negative impacts of
climate change.

Conservation Biology

Conservation Biology is a branch of science that focuses on understanding and protecting

biodiversity and ecosystems.

Conservation Biology aims to study the threats facing species and ecosystems and develop
strategies for their preservation.
It involves conducting research on endangered species, habitats, and ecological systems.
Conservation Biology also addresses the impact of human activities on the environment and
works towards sustainable practices.
It encompasses the assessment and management of conservation areas, including the
establishment of protected areas and wildlife corridors.

disturbance

In the context of life sciences, disturbance refers to any event or environmental factor that
disrupts the normal functioning of an ecosystem or organism.

Disturbances can range from natural events like wildfires, hurricanes, or floods to human-
induced activities like habitat destruction or pollution.
These disruptions can have both immediate and long-term effects on the population
dynamics and biodiversity of an ecosystem.
 The concept of disturbance is crucial in understanding how ecosystems respond and recover
from perturbations.
Scientists study the effects of disturbance to better understand the resilience and stability of
ecosystems in the face of environmental change.

Ecosystem

An 'Ecosystem' encompasses a specific interaction of living organisms and their physical

environment, engaging in nutrient cycle and energy flow.

It is categorized into terrestrial and aquatic systems.

It involves various abiotic components such as temperature, light, and soil.
The health of an ecosystem is measured by biodiversity.
Human activities can dramatically affect ecosystem balance.

Environment

The environment refers to the external conditions and surroundings that an organism or a group
of organisms interact with.

The environment includes both biotic factors (living organisms) and abiotic factors (non-
living factors).
Organisms depend on the environment for resources such as food, water, shelter, and mates.
Changes in the environment can have significant impacts on the distribution and behavior of
organisms.
Interactions between organisms and their environment can lead to evolutionary adaptations
and changes in populations.

Food chain

A 'Food chain' illustrates the interdependence of organisms for nutrients. It depicts how energy
and matter flow from primary producers to various levels of consumers.

Each level of a food chain is a trophic level, starting with producers (normally plants).
Secondary consumers are carnivores, feeding on first-level consumers or herbivores.
'Food chains' represent a linear sequence, unlike 'food webs' which show interconnections.
Energy decreases along the food chain, with only a small percentage passing to the next
level.

Habitat destruction

Habitat destruction is the process where the natural environment of an organism or species is
dramatically altered or eliminated, threatening survival.
 This is primarily caused by human activities like deforestation and mining.
It often leads to biodiversity loss.
Invasive species can further degrade destroyed habitats.
Reduction of habitat area also increases species vulnerability.

Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning of the ozone layer in the Earth's stratosphere caused
by the release of chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

UV radiation increases due to ozone depletion, leading to harmful effects on human health,
plants, and marine organisms.
CFCs are primarily responsible for ozone depletion, as they break down ozone molecules
when released into the atmosphere.
International agreements like the Montreal Protocol have been implemented to phase out the
production and use of ozone-depleting substances.
Ozone depletion can result in an increase in skin cancers, cataracts, reduced crop yields, and
disruptions in marine food chains.

Pollution

Pollution refers to the introduction of harmful substances into the environment, causing
detrimental impacts on organisms and ecosystems.

Substances considered pollutants can be of any state: solid, liquid, or gaseous.

Air, water, and soil pollution are major types, each affecting different forms of life.
Noise and light are even considered pollutants when they disrupt the natural patterns of
species.
Species can adapt, move, or perish when faced with significant pollution.

Sustainable development

Sustainable development ensures that resources are used in a way that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

It focuses on balancing economic growth, environmental protection, and social responsibility.

Promotes the efficient use of resources to minimize waste and environmental impact.
Strives to maintain ecosystem health and biodiversity for long-term viability.
Employs renewable energy sources and sustainable practices for long-lasting benefits.

Trophic levels

Trophic levels represent stages in a food chain, showing the hierarchical flow of energy and
matter from producers to consumers.
 Producers (plants) are at the base or first trophic level.
Herbivores, who consume producers, are at the second trophic level.
Carnivores and omnivores making up the third and higher levels.
Energy transfer between levels is typically inefficient, often 10% or less.

Waste segregation

Waste segregation is the process of sorting and separating different types of waste materials to
enable proper disposal methods.

It helps in managing waste more effectively.

Segregating waste reduces environmental pollution.
Proper waste segregation can facilitate recycling efforts.
Segregation prevents mixing of hazardous materials with other waste, promoting safety.

Key Terms
Acid rain

Acid rain refers to the rainfall with a pH lower than 5.6 due to high levels of sulfuric and nitric
acids in the atmosphere.

Acid rain can occur naturally from volcanic eruptions, but it is mainly caused by human
activities such as burning fossil fuels.
The acidic pH of acid rain can damage plants, soil, and aquatic ecosystems.
Acid rain can increase the acidity of lakes and rivers, leading to the death of fish and other
aquatic organisms.
Acid rain can also damage buildings, statues, and monuments made of limestone or marble.

Biomagnification

Biomagnification is the process by which certain harmful substances, such as pesticides and
heavy metals, become more concentrated and potentially more toxic as they move up the food
chain.

Substances that are not easily broken down, such as DDT and mercury, are prone to
biomagnification.
Biomagnification can have detrimental effects on the health of organisms higher up in the
food chain.
Top predators, such as eagles and polar bears, are particularly vulnerable to biomagnification
due to their diet.
Biomagnification is a long-term process and can take years or even decades to become
noticeable.
Carbon cycle

The carbon cycle is the natural process by which carbon atoms are exchanged between the
Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, and geosphere.

Carbon is constantly being cycled between the different reservoirs through processes such
as photosynthesis, respiration, and combustion.
The carbon cycle plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and regulating Earth's climate.
Burning fossil fuels and deforestation disrupt the carbon cycle, leading to an increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide and global warming.
The carbon cycle is interconnected with other biogeochemical cycles, such as the nitrogen
cycle and the water cycle.

Carbon footprint

The carbon footprint is a measure of the amount of greenhouse gases, specifically carbon
dioxide, released into the atmosphere as a result of activities by individuals, organizations, or
products.

The carbon footprint is commonly used to assess the environmental impact of human
activities.
It includes both direct emissions, such as burning fossil fuels, and indirect emissions, such as
those associated with the production and transportation of goods.
Reducing carbon footprint is essential for mitigating climate change and promoting
sustainability.
Calculating and reducing carbon footprint can be achieved through measures like energy
conservation, using renewable energy sources, and adopting eco-friendly practices.

Carrying capacity

Carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of individuals of a species that an ecosystem
can support based on its available resources.

Carrying capacity is determined by factors such as food availability, habitat space, and
competition with other species.
When a population exceeds its carrying capacity, it can lead to resource depletion, increased
competition, and ultimately a decline in population size.
Carrying capacity can vary over time and be influenced by natural disasters, human activities,
and changes in environmental conditions.
Understanding carrying capacity is crucial for managing and preserving ecosystems and
preventing the collapse of species populations.

Climate adaptation
Climate adaptation refers to the process by which organisms adjust to changing environmental
conditions to survive and reproduce.

Adaptation can occur through genetic changes, behavioral adjustments, and physiological
responses.
Species may shift their ranges geographically to seek suitable habitats.
Populations with higher genetic diversity are more likely to adapt to new climatic challenges.
Selective pressures from the environment drive adaptations over generations.

Climate resilience

Climate resilience refers to the ability of organisms to withstand and adapt to changes in climate,
ensuring their survival and reproduction.

It involves genetic, physiological, and behavioral strategies.

Key factors include phenotypic plasticity and genetic diversity.
Adaptations such as changes in breeding timing or diet can improve resilience.
Species with higher climate resilience have a greater chance of persisting in changing
environments.

Conservation easements

Conservation easements are legal agreements that limit land use to protect natural resources,
biodiversity, and wildlife habitats.

They can be voluntary agreements between landowners and conservation organizations or

government entities.
Landowners may receive tax benefits or financial incentives in exchange for placing a
conservation easement on their property.
Conservation easements can help prevent habitat destruction, promote sustainable land
management, and safeguard ecosystems for future generations.
They are typically permanent, running with the land even if the property changes ownership.

Deforestation

Deforestation refers to the clearing, removal, or destruction of forests or trees, often due to
human activities such as logging, agriculture, or urbanization.

Deforestation can lead to a loss of biodiversity, as many species rely on forest ecosystems
for survival.
Deforestation is a major contributor to climate change, as trees help absorb carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.
The removal of trees and vegetation can increase soil erosion, leading to degraded land and
reduced agricultural productivity.
Deforestation can disrupt local water cycles and contribute to water scarcity and decreased
water quality in affected areas.
Desertification

Desertification is the process by which fertile land gradually turns into desert due to various
factors such as climate change, deforestation, and unsustainable agriculture.

Desertification can result in the loss of biodiversity and the displacement of local
communities.
Overgrazing by livestock is a significant cause of desertification, as it strips vegetation and
exposes soil to erosion.
Human activities such as mining and excessive groundwater extraction can contribute to
desertification.
Efforts to combat desertification include implementing sustainable land management
practices and reforestation initiatives.

Ecological footprint

An 'Ecological footprint' refers to the measure of human demand on earth's ecosystems and
natural resources.

It accounts for resources consumed and waste produced.

A larger footprint suggests greater environmental impact.
It guides understanding of overconsumption and sustainability.
It can be reduced through eco-friendly practices.

Ecological succession

Ecological succession is the process of change in species structure of an ecological community

over time, often following a disturbance.

This process can be primary or secondary, where primary starts with a lifeless substrate and
secondary on an existing one.
Transition between stages typically sees initially high species diversity reduce to dominance
by a few species.
Succession does not always reach a stable 'climax' community, reflecting a dynamic
equilibrium.
Human activities, like logging or farming, can disrupt this process, damaging the ecosystem.

Ecosystem services

Ecosystem services refers to the numerous and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the
natural environment and properly-functioning ecosystems.

Such services include provisioning like food and water; regulating, such as disease and flood
 control.
They also consist of supporting services like nutrient cycles and crop pollination.
Cultural services, those that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits are also
part.
The understanding and appreciation of these services plays a crucial role in sustainable
resource management.

Ecotourism

Ecotourism is a form of tourism that focuses on sustainable practices and conservation of

natural environments.

Ecotourism aims to provide education and awareness about the importance of preserving
biodiversity.
It supports local communities by generating income and creating jobs.
Ecotourism activities include wildlife watching, hiking, and nature photography.
It promotes responsible travel, minimizing negative impacts on ecosystems and wildlife.

Endangered species

Endangered species refer to the group of organisms that are at risk of extinction in the near
future due to various factors.

Threats include habitat destruction, climate change, over-exploitation.

Conservation efforts aim to prevent extinction.
The IUCN Red List classifies species' conservation status.
Legal protections can be put in place to safeguard them.

Environmental impact assessment

Environmental impact assessment is the evaluation of potential effects, both positive and
negative, that a project or development may have on the environment.

It helps identify and mitigate environmental risks.

It includes analyzing air and water quality, biodiversity, and land use.
Stakeholder engagement is crucial in the assessment process.
The goal is to ensure sustainable development and minimize ecological damage.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is an enrichment of water by nutrient salts causing structural changes to the

ecosystem such as increased production of algae and aquatic plants

Often results from excess phosphates and nitrates in waterways

 Can cause reduced oxygen levels in the water, harming aquatic life
Typically a result of agricultural run-off or sewage discharge
In extreme cases, can create 'dead zones' where no aquatic life can survive

Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a
species. It is fundamental to adaptability and survival.

It's crucial for the survival of a species in a changing environment.

Higher diversity enables greater resilience against diseases.
It's driven through the process of evolution by natural selection.
Diversity is increased by mutation and sexual reproduction.

Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases are atmospheric gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, that trap heat and
contribute to the greenhouse effect, resulting in global warming.

They absorb and emit radiation within the thermal infrared range.
They include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, increase greenhouse gas concentrations.
The greenhouse effect is essential for maintaining Earth's temperature suitable for life.

Green infrastructure

Green infrastructure refers to natural and semi-natural areas that provide ecosystem services,
such as urban parks, forests, and wetlands.

Helps mitigate climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide and reducing urban heat island
effects.
Improves air quality by filtering pollutants and providing oxygen through photosynthesis.
Supports biodiversity by creating habitats for a variety of plant and animal species.
Helps manage stormwater runoff, reducing the risk of flooding and improving water quality.

Habitat fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation refers to the division of large, continuous habitats into smaller, isolated
areas, significantly impacting biodiversity and ecosystem health.

It often results from human activities like deforestation and urbanization.

Fragmentation can lead to a decrease in species diversity and population.
It affects animals' ability to find food, mates, and avoid predators.
Patches created by fragmentation can have different microclimates, affecting species
 adaptation.

Invasive species

Invasive species are non-native organisms that, when introduced into an ecosystem, can cause
harm to the environment, economy, and human health.

They have aggressive propagation, often causing biodiversity loss.

Invasive species significantly affect ecosystem services.
Their introduction is frequently a result of human activities.
Control and eradication are often quite challenging and costly.

Natural selection

Natural selection refers to the process by which certain species survive and reproduce more
successfully due to advantageous traits.

It's often described as 'survival of the fittest'.

Based on the theories of Charles Darwin.
Genetic mutations play a critical role.
Environmental factors heavily influence natural selection.

Nitrogen cycle

The 'Nitrogen cycle' is a biogeochemical process involving the conversion of nitrogen into
multiple organic and inorganic forms, essentially cycling it through the ecosystem.

Nitrogen is vital for all organisms as it is a component of proteins and nucleic acids.
The cycle consists of fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.
Certain bacteria play key roles, converting atmospheric nitrogen into forms organisms can
utilize.
Human activities, like burning fossil fuels, can drastically disrupt the nitrogen cycle.

Non-renewable resources

Non-renewable resources are finite, cannot be replenished on a human timescale, and include
fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

These resources contribute to pollution and climate change.

Their extraction can harm ecosystems and wildlife.
They are a major source of energy for human activities.
Efforts are being made to find alternative energy sources.
Overfishing

Overfishing refers to the practice of catching fish from a body of water at a rate that the species
cannot replenish, leading to a decline in fish populations.

Causes include industrial fishing, illegal practices, and lack of effective management.
It can lead to ecosystem imbalance, causing impacts on other marine species.
Overfishing significantly contributes to the depletion and extinction of aquatic species.
In mitigating overfishing, strategies include conservation policies and sustainable fishing
practices.

Ozone layer

The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the sun's ultraviolet
radiation, protecting life on the planet.

Ozone is made up of three oxygen atoms.

Ozone depletion is caused by chemicals like CFCs.
The ozone hole is a thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica.
UV radiation can cause skin cancer and harm ecosystems.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process where green plants convert sunlight into chemical energy, using
water, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll.

It occurs in chloroplasts within plant cells.

Light-dependent and light-independent reactions form the two stages.
The end products are glucose and oxygen.
The process is crucial for life on Earth, as it releases oxygen and serves as a primary energy
source.

Pollinator decline

Pollinator decline refers to the global decrease in populations of bees, butterflies, and other
insects essential for pollination.

Pollinators play a crucial role in the reproduction of plants by transferring pollen between
flowers.
Causes of the decline include habitat loss, pesticide use, climate change, and disease.
Pollinator decline can have devastating effects on ecosystems, agriculture, and food security.
Conservation efforts, such as planting native flowers and reducing pesticide use, are
essential for supporting pollinator populations.
Renewable resources

Renewable resources are natural materials that can be replenished over time, such as sunlight,
wind, and water, providing sustainable energy sources.

Renewable resources help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change.
They have lower environmental impact compared to non-renewable resources like fossil
fuels.
Examples include geothermal energy, biomass, and hydroelectric power.
Proper management of renewable resources is crucial to ensure their availability for future
generations.

Restoration ecology

Restoration ecology is a scientific process focused on repairing damaged, degraded, or

destroyed ecosystems through active human intervention and action.

It involves re-establishing the ecological processes that underpin healthy ecosystems.

Restoration techniques can include reforestation, erosion control or removal of non-native
species.
It aids in increasing biodiversity and promoting resilience against environmental changes.
This discipline often involves interdisciplinary cooperation, including ecological theory,
conservation biology, and landscape architecture.

Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture refers to practices that aim to produce food by maximizing

environmental conservation, social responsibility, and economic profitability.

Sustainable agriculture focuses on long-term resource management and minimizing negative

impacts on the environment.
It incorporates techniques like crop rotation, organic fertilizers, and integrated pest
management to reduce reliance on chemical inputs.
It promotes biodiversity and soil health through practices like agroforestry, cover cropping,
and conservation tillage.
Sustainable agriculture also emphasizes fair treatment of farm workers and the local
community, ensuring social and economic sustainability.

Urban ecology

Urban ecology explores the interactions between organisms and their environment in urban
areas, studying how species adapt to human-made habitats.

Urbanization impacts biodiversity by altering habitat structure.

 Urban heat island effect increases temperatures in cities, affecting plant and animal
populations.
Invasive species thrive in urban environments, outcompeting native species for resources.
Urban ecology investigates ways to promote biodiversity and sustainability in urban settings.

Wetlands

Wetlands are diverse ecosystems characterized by water-saturated soil that support a wide
range of plants and wildlife.

Wetlands act as natural filters, improving water quality by trapping pollutants and sediments.
They provide important habitat for migratory birds and other wildlife.
Wetlands play a crucial role in flood prevention by absorbing and storing excess water.
They are valuable carbon sinks, helping to mitigate climate change by storing large amounts
of carbon dioxide.

Wildlife corridors

Wildlife corridors are strips of habitat connecting fragmented habitats, allowing animals to move
between them, facilitating gene flow and species survival.

Corridors help prevent isolation of populations, reducing inbreeding.

These pathways can also aid in migration during seasonal movements.
Human development often fragments habitats, making corridors crucial for maintaining
biodiversity.
Corridors benefit plant species by enabling seed dispersal and genetic diversity.