Technical Report Structure

A technical report structure in business and industry should contain the following sections:

1. Letter of transmittal
2. Title page
3. Abstract
4. Table of contents
5. List of illustrations
6. Executive summary
7. Glossary and list of symbols
8. Introduction
9. Body
10. Conclusion
11. Recommendations
12. Appendix
1. Letter of Transmittal

The components of a report are not written in the same order in which they appear e.g. the letter of transmittal is the
first thing the reader sees, but it is probably the last to be created. It introduces the purpose and content of the report
to the principle reader. It gives you an opportunity to emphasize whatever you think, your reader will find
particularly in the attached material. It enables you to point out any errors or omission in the material. Transmittal
letter contains the following element.
• A statement of title and purpose of report.
• A statement of who authorized the project and when
• A statement of method used in the project or of the principal results, conclusion and recommendations.
• An acknowledgement of any assistance you received in preparing the material.
2. The title page

Usual elements of title page in a technical report are:

• Title
• Name and position of writer
• Name and position of principle reader
• Date of submission
A good title must be informative. It. answers two basic questions:

1. What is the subject of the report

2. What type of report is it? E.g. sea pollution - control devices
Define the type of report by using a generic term such as analysis, recommendations e.g summary, review etc. For a
simple title page, centre the title (typed in full capital letter) about a third of the way down the page, then add the
readers and writer's position, the organization’s name and date.
3. The abstract
Format and Structure of a Technical Report
In a technical report structure, the abstract is like a brief technical summary, usually not more than 200 words of the
report. Its directed to readers who are familiar with the technical subject and need to know whether to read the full
report or not. This can use technical terminology and refer to advanced concepts. Basic types of abstract are
descriptive and informative abstracts. The descriptive abstract sometime called topical or table of contents abstract.
It does not provide the import results, conclusion or recommendations. It lists the topic covered giving equal
coverage to each. The informative abstract states the problems the scope and methods, and the major results,
conclusion or recommendations.
4. The table of contents

The table of contents in the technical report structure enables different readers to turn to specific pages to find the
information they want. Well organized report becomes ineffective if table of contents, is not clear. T.O.C provide
only guide to report's structure, coverage and pagination. The headings that appear in the report are listed in T.O.C.
For effective T.O.C make sure the report has effective headings.
5. The list of illustrations

It is a T.O.C for the figures and tables in the technical report. If the report contains figures but not tables, it is called
the list of figures. But if the report contains tables but not figures so is called the list of tables only. List of
illustrations may be on the same page as the table of contents, or may be on the separate page. If it begins on a
separate page, it should be listed in the table of contents.
6. The executive summary

Sometimes called executive overview or the management summary in the technical report structure. It is a one page
condensation of a report. Managers don’t need a detailed and deep understanding of various projects undertaken in
their organization because of limitations in time and specialization. The background of the project is also discussed
clearly herein. The specific problem that is to be solved through the project is clearly discussed; also the conclusion
and recommendations are discussed in a full separate paragraph.
7. The glossary and list of symbols

A glossary is an alphabetic list of definitions. It is useful if you are addressing a multiple audience that includes
readers who will not be familiar with the technical vocabulary used in the report. An asterisk or any other notation
can be used along the word to tell the audience that the word is defined in glossary. It is generally placed at the end
of the report just before the appendix. Though if the glossary is a brief one, so can be placed right after the table of
contents. A list of symbols is structured like glossary, but rather than defining words and phrases, it defines the
symbols and abbreviations used in the report. Like glossary, the list of symbols may be placed before the appendices
or after the table of content.
8. Introduction

The material which you are about to present in the main body of the report must be set in context depending on the
type of project/report. This section gives the reader the necessary background information and leads straight into the
report itself. A typical introduction can include the following content:
• Main aim/s, objective/s and scope (the parameters) of the report
• identify the importance of the current project for scientific knowledge or commercial operations
• an overview of the report’s sections
• method(s) of approach
 • indications of scope and limitations of the study
• outline of material presented in rest of report.
9. Body

This will include all the main content of the report like what task was at hand, what were the findings, what
methodology was used to find the findings, comparison and discussion of the results. This is usually the longest and
most important part in the structure of the report so the material must be presented logically to make it is easy to
read. It is divided into numbered and headed sections. These sections separate the different main ideas in a logical
order.
10. Conclusion

It answers the questions raised by the original research problem or objectives of the study. The conclusions should
be a condensed version of the intervening sections giving the key findings of the work. No new scientific
argument should be presented here - everything should have already been discussed in the "Discussion".
• reference to original aim(s) and objective(s) of report,
• limitations and advantages of the findings,
• objective opinion, evaluation or judgement of the evidence
The conclusion must arise from the evidence discussed in the body of the report. It should not, therefore,
subjectively tell the reader what to do, this job is performed by the recommendations section.
11. Recommendations

In some reports recommendations are also required along with conclusions. The recommendations should emerge
from the conclusions of the report. Recommendations tell the reader what to do: what decision to make, what course
of action to take, what solution is superior or what further work needs to be undertaken. The recommendations
section should never contain any new evidence and should arise from the information presented in the body and
conclusion sections.
Recommendations in the technical report structure should be feasible and appropriate to the problem; for example,
their cost should be realistic to the budget and they should be ethical. They should be as concrete and specific as
possible; they should read as a list of things the client should do. They can be written in descriptive as well as bullets
form, whatever is desired. Let your reader know why you are recommending an action by supplying the reasons for
your decision drawn from the conclusions of the report.
12. Appendix

In the technical report structure, an appendix is any section that follows the body of the report (and the list of
references or bibliography, glossary or list of symbols). Appendices provide information that is too bulky to be
presented in the body or that will interest only a small number of readers. For conciseness in the report, this
information is separated from the body. Examples of the kind of material that are usually found in the appendix
include maps, large technical diagrams or charts, computations, test data and texts of supporting documents.
Appendices are usually lettered, rather than numbered and are listed in the table of contents.
The main purpose of technical writing is to provide information about a particular item, such as a computer or a
new drug or a new piece of technology or research. Explain how an object works or how to complete a project.

types of technical reports.

i. Policies and procedures for organizations. These operating documents contain rules and regulations for both the
organization and its members.
ii. Recommendations reports. In this type of writing, you compare several options against a set of requirements as a
way to find one specific action or product to recommend.
iii. Feasibility reports. These documents consider a project or idea in terms of their viability according to a variety
of technical, social and economic factors.
iv. Background reports. Intended to provide background details on a technical topic, these documents are written for
readers who require the technical information for specific needs.
v. Business plans. Defined simply, these are proposals for starting a new business — a formal statement of the
business goals and the plan for achieving them.
vi. Research reports. These documents present findings culled for researches, both from laboratories and from the
field.
vii. Technical specifications. Typically created for new products, these documents present descriptive and
operational information needed by those who will use it for a variety of reasons within

REFERENCES
If you are writing a scientific report, an academic paper, or a document where you make statements that you’ve
acquired from somewhere else, you’ll most likely need to cite those references.
Why reference? You need to tell your readers where your evidence comes from so they can check for themselves
and see if that evidence is valid and reliable for the point you are making. You also need to reference to make it quite
clear which are your own ideas and which are borrowed from others. Statements of fact that are NOT common
knowledge will likely need a reference.
Citations are the ‘hooks’ in the body of the document that are a shortcut to the full publication details in the
References list; e.g. the citation (Johnstone and Storr 2005) is the hook to these full details: Johnstone, R.E. and
Storr, G.M. 2005. Handbook of Western Australian Birds. Volume 2: Passerines (Blue-winged Pitta to Goldfinch).
Western Australian Museum, Perth, Western Australia.
How you cite and reference a source, and how you format it, will depend on the style set by the school, university,
company, organisation etc. The citation above is a variation on the Harvard author/date style.
These details should include:
➢ surname(s) and initial(s) of the author(s);
➢ the date of publication;
➢ the title of the text;
➢ if it is a paper, the title of the journal and volume number;
➢ if it is a chapter of an edited book, the book's title and editor(s)
the publisher and place of publication*;
➢ the first and last page numbers if it is a journal article or a chapter in an edited book.

Definition of Fact
The fact is something, that has actually taken place or known to have existed, which can be validated with pieces of
evidence. They are strictly defined, and can be measured, observed and proven. It refers to something that makes
statements true and used in connection with research and study.
A fact can be an event or information, based on real occurrences which can be tested through verifiability, i.e. they
are supported by proofs, statistics, documentation, etc. Therefore, a fact is nothing but a verifiable truth or reality
which are agreed upon by consensus of people.
Definition of Opinion
The term ‘opinion’ is defined as the personal view or judgment about a subject, that may or may not be substantiated
by the facts or positive knowledge. In other words, an opinion is an inconclusive statement, used in subjective
matters, which cannot be proved true or false. It is what a person thinks or feels about something or someone. Hence
it is not a true but biased information.
Opinion is highly influenced by a person’s feelings, thoughts, perspective, desires, attitude, experiences,
understanding, beliefs, values, etc., which cannot be tested by concrete evidence. Therefore, due to individual
differences, every person’s opinion on a particular matter is also different.
Key Differences Between Fact and Opinion
The difference between fact and opinion on the following grounds:

1. The fact is described as the statement that can be verified or proved to be true. Opinion is an expression of
judgment or belief about something.

2. Fact relies on observation or research while opinion is based on assumption.

3. The fact is an objective reality whereas opinion is a subjective statement.
4. Facts can be verified with the help of evidence or statistics. On the contrary, opinion is not supported by
any evidence.

5. Facts explain what actually happened. Unlike an opinion, that represents a perception about something.
6. One important feature of the fact is that it is universal and does not differ from person to person. As against
this, every human being has a different opinion on a particular subject and so, it varies from one person to
another.

7. Facts are shown with unbiased words, however, opinion is expressed with biased words.
8. Facts can change anybody’s opinion, but vice versa is not possible.
9. Facts are real information and so it cannot be challenged or debated, but if we talk about opinions, they can
be debated.

BASIS FOR
FACT OPINION
COMPARISON

Meaning Fact refers to something that can be Opinion refers to a judgement or

verified or proved to be true. belief about something.

Based on Observation or research. Assumption or personal view.

What is it? Objective reality Subjective statement

Verification Possible Not possible

Represents Something really happened A perception about something

Change Universal Differs from person to person

 Words Shown with unbiased words. Expressed with biased words.

Debatable No Yes

Influence Facts has the power to influence Opinion does not have the power
others. to influence others.

Types of Information System:

Information system Operation support
Management system support system.
Transaction Process of control Enterprise collaborate Management Decision support Executive information
processing system system (PCS) system (ECS) information system system (DSS) system (EIS) (TPS) (MIS)
Information System is divided into two types:
1. Operation Support System.
2. Management Support System.
1. Operational Support System: - The role of operational support system is to efficiently process business
transaction, control industrial process support enterprise communication and update corporate database. - The
Information system generally deals with the support of business operations known as operation support system
produces a variety of information product for external and internal use, however such products produced by OSS
needs further processing for efficient use by manager. The various Operation Support System are: i) Transaction
Processing System (TPS) ii) Process Control System (PCS) iii) Enterprise Collaboration System (ECS)
i) Transaction Processing System (TPS): - It is a category of OSS that generally record and process data resulting
from business transaction. - It is generally process sales, purchase, inventory and other organizational database.
These database then provide the data resources that can be processed and used by DSS and EIS. - TPS processed
transaction into two ways: o Batch Processing o Real Time Processing v Batch Processing: Data is accumulated
over a period time and processed periodically. v Real Time Processing: Data is immediately processed after a
transaction occurs. Ex: Sales and Inventory Processing
ii) Process Control System (PCS): - It is a category of OSS in which decision about a physical production process
are automatically made by computer through routine decisions that control operational process. Ex: A petroleum
refining center uses electronic sensors which are linked to the computers to continuously monitor chemical
processes and make instant adjustments that control the refined process.
iii) Enterprise Collaboration System (ECS): - It is the information system that uses a variety of information
technology to help the people to work together. - ECS helps to collaborate and communicate ideas, share resources
and co-ordinate work effort of an organization. - The aim of an ECS is to use the information technology to enhance
productivity and creativity of organization and work group in an organization. Ex: E-mail, chat, video conferencing
etc.
2. Management Support System: - This is generally deals with providing information and support for effective
decision making. - It refers to computer technology and system theory to data processing in an organization. - It
helps in designing system frameworks for organizing information system application. - It helps in management
decision making and processing of data generated by business operation. The various management support systems:
i) Management Information System (MIS) ii) Decision Support System (DSS) iii) Executive Information System
(EIS)
i) Management Information System (MIS): - MIS is a form of MSS that provides managerial enduser with
information product that support their day to day decisions. - It provides a variety of information in the form of
report and display to management that contain information specified in advance by manager. - Information is
generally provided on demand or periodically to the managers. Ex: Sales manager may use their network computer,
net web browser to get instant display of the sales, result of their product and access their daily sales report.
ii) Decision Support System (DSS): - Decision support systems are computer based information systems that
provide interactive information support to managers and business professionals during the decision making process.
- It provides managerial enduser with information in an interactive manner i.e, analytical modeling, data retrieval
information presentation capability. Ex: Product pricing, Risk Analysis
iii) Executive Information System (EIS): - An Information System that provides Strategic information tailored to the
needs of executives and other decision makers (top management). - It provides top management with immediate and
easy access to select information about key factors that are critical to organizational strategic objectives. Ex: The top
level executives may use the touch screen to instantly view text and graphics that display the key areas of the
organization.
Gantt Chart
A Gantt chart is a project planning tool that can be used to represent the timing of tasks required to complete a
project. Because Gantt charts are simple to understand and easy to construct, they are used by most project managers
for all but the most complex projects. In a Gantt chart, each task takes up one row. Dates run along the top in
increments of days, weeks or months, depending on the total length of the project. The expected time for each task is
represented by a horizontal bar whose left end marks the expected beginning of the task and whose right end marks
the expected completion date. Tasks may run sequentially, in parallel or overlapping. As the project progresses, the
chart is updated by filling in the bars to a length proportional to the fraction of work that has been accomplished on
the task. This way, one can get a quick reading of project progress by drawing a vertical line through the chart at the
current date. Completed tasks lie to the left of the line and are completely filled in. Current tasks cross the line and
are behind schedule if their filled-in section is to the left of the line and ahead of schedule if the filled-in section
stops to the right of the line. Future tasks lie completely to the right of the line. In constructing a Gantt chart, keep
the tasks to a manageable number (no more than 15 or 20) so that the chart fits on a single page. More complex
projects may require subordinate charts which detail the timing of all the subtasks that make up one of the main
tasks. For team projects, it often helps to have an additional column containing numbers or initials which identify
who on the team is responsible for the task. Group the tasks under major headings that correspond to the steps in the
design process, such as: Problem Definition, Project Planning, Gathering Information, Conceptual Design, Concept
Selection, Detail Design, Implementation, Testing, Documentation, etc. Often the project has important events that
you would like to appear on the project timeline, but which are not tasks. For example, you may wish to highlight
when a prototype is complete or the date of a design review. You enter these on a Gantt chart as "milestone" events
and mark them with a special symbol, often an upside-down triangle
Creating a Gantt Chart
Step 1: Identify Essential Tasks
useful information contains all of the activities needed for a project or project phase to be listed.
For each task the earliest start date and the estimated duration need to be noted.
Step 2: Identify Task Relationships
The chart shows the relationship between the tasks in a project. Some tasks will need to be completed before you
can start the next one, and others can't end until preceding ones have ended.
Step 3: Input Activities into Software or a Template
You can draw your charts by hand or use specialist software, such as Gantto, Matchware, or Microsoft Project. Some
of these tools are cloud-based, meaning that you and your team can access the document simultaneously, Several
Gantt templates have been created for Microsoft Excel.
Step 4: Chart Progress
As your project moves along, it will evolve. Update the chart to reflect changes as soon as they occur. It helps to
keep the plans, the team, and the sponsors up to date.

Most Common Types of Plagiarism to Stay Away from!

Plagiarism, or passing someone else’s work as your own, is not a new phenomenon in research. It has gained greater
attention with the advent of technology that has made it easier to uncover instances of plagiarism. There are many
types of plagiarism already described. Although no degree of plagiarism is acceptable, it can range from complete
plagiarism, as the most egregious act of fraud, to accidental plagiarism.

However, not all types of plagiarism are alike. When analyzing whether something is an act of plagiarism, the
determination of whether it was intentional or unintentional, plays an important role. That is why, knowledge about
plagiarism is a key learning component at colleges and universities. It addresses the gravity of both intentional and
unintentional plagiarism.

Types of Plagiarism
With respect to the gravity and frequency of plagiarism, a survey of scientific researchers has produced a ranking of
plagiarism types. While complete plagiarism represents the most serious offense, paraphrasing is the one that is the
most common. It is, thus, very important to consider and understand all the various types of plagiarism and how they
occur.

Complete Plagiarism
Complete plagiarism is the most severe form of plagiarism where a researcher takes a manuscript or study that
someone else created, and submits it under his or her name. It is equivalent to intellectual theft and stealing.

Source-based Plagiarism
Plagiarism may occur because of the different types of sources. For example, when a researcher references a source
that is incorrect or does not exist, it is a misleading citation. Plagiarism also occurs when a researcher uses a
secondary source of data or information, but only cites the primary source of information. Both these types lead to
an increase in the number of references sources. This, in turn, increases the citation number of the references.

Finally, data fabrication and falsification are also forms of plagiarism. Data fabrication is the making up of data and
research findings, while data falsification involves changing or omitting data to give a false impression. The
consequences of this type of plagiarism can be grave, particularly when it comes to medical research, because it can
adversely affect clinical decisions.

Direct Plagiarism
Direct or verbatim plagiarism occurs when an author copies the text of another author, word for word, without the
use of quotation marks or attribution, thus passing it as his or her own. In that way, it is like complete plagiarism, but
it refers to sections (rather than all) of another paper. This type of plagiarism is considered dishonest and it calls for
academic disciplinary actions. It is not as common, but it is a serious infraction of academic rules and ethics.

Self or Auto Plagiarism

Auto-plagiarism, also known as self-plagiarism or duplication, happens when an author reuses significant portions
of his or her previously published work without attribution. Thus, this type of plagiarism is most likely to involve
published researchers, rather than university students. The severity of this kind of infraction is under debate,
depending on the copied content. Many academic journals, however, have strict criteria on the percentage of
author’s work that is reusable. Many journals run manuscripts through a plagiarism-detection software before
considering them for review.

Paraphrasing plagiarism
This is, as published on Wiley, the most common type of plagiarism. It involves the use of someone else’s writing
with some minor changes in the sentences and using it as one’s own. Even if the words differ, the original idea
remains the same and plagiarism occurs. Because students often do not have a clear understanding of what
constitutes plagiarism, there are recommendations for research and writing available to reduce the risk of
paraphrasing plagiarism.

Inaccurate Authorship
Inaccurate authorship or misleading attribution can happen in two ways:

In one form, when an individual contributes to a manuscript but does not get credit for it. The second form is the
opposite: when an individual gets credit without contributing to the work. This type of plagiarism, whichever way it
occurs, is a violation of the code of conduct in research.

It is also possible to commit this form of plagiarism when someone else edits a manuscript, leading to substantive
changes. In this case, the recommendation is to acknowledge the contributors at the time of publication, even if they
are not listed as authors.

Mosaic Plagiarism
Mosaic plagiarism may be more difficult to detect because it interlays someone else’s phrases or text within its own
research. It is intentional and dishonest.

Accidental Plagiarism
Whether intended or unintended, there is no excuse for plagiarism and the consequences are often the same.
However, plagiarism may be accidental if it occurred because of neglect, mistake, or unintentional paraphrasing.
Students are likely to commit accidental plagiarism, so universities should stress on the importance of education
about this form of plagiarism.

These are some of the different types of plagiarism that are common in the research community. How many of these
have you encountered? How did you deal with them? Please share your thoughts with us in the comments section
below.