14.12.

2016'

Reading
Models

by S. Razı

www.salimrazi.com

COMU ELT Department

Pre questions
! Do#you#recognize#every#letter#in#all#words#
when#you#read?#

! How#do#you#read#a#text#when#you#need#
detailed#information#about#it?#

! How#do#you#read#a#text#when#you#need#
general#information#about#it?#

! To#understand#the#text#better,#do#you#make#
use#of#your#previous#information#related#to#
the#topic?#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 2#

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Content
! Behaviourists#v.##

###Cognitive#psychologists#
! Metaphorical#reading#models#

! BottomGup#models#

! TopGdown#models#

! Interactive#models#

! Comparison#of#models#

! Conclusion#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 3#

Introduction:
Models of reading
! Reading#research:#specific#importance#by#the#1960s.#
! cognitive)psychology.#
! Focus#on#behaviouristic#aspects;#not#the#process#itself.#
! Difficulty#in#explaining#the#mental#event#of#reading#(Eskey,#2005).#
! No#crucial#attempts#to#build#an#explicit#reading#model:#till#1960s.##
! Impossible#for#behaviouristic#researchers#to#understand#the#
process#of#reading#as#they#were#occupied#in#behaviours#of#learners#
such#as#in#spoken#and#written#languages.#
! “The#behavio[u]rist#asks:#Why#don’t#we#make#what#we#can#observe#
the#real#field#of#psychology?”#(Watson,#1924G1925,#p.#6).#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 4#

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Previous researchers
! Investigated#eye#movements#in#a#behaviouristic#aspect.#
! Failure#in#explaining#the#complex#mental#process#of#reading.#
! The#first#investigation#into#reading:##
! Javal#(1879),#the#French#ophthalmologist,#verified#the#first#

depiction#of#the#eye#movements#in#the#reading#process.##
! Eyes#do#not#move#uninterrupted#in#the#search#of#the#graphic#

stimuli.#
! They#quickly#jump#and#also#make#pauses#at#particular#parts#of#

the#text.##

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 5#

What did behaviourists

blame for lack of reading
comprehension?

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 6#

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Previous researchers
blamed...
! Waldman#(1958)#examined#the#physical#factors#such#as#
####hyperopia,#myopia,#presbyopia,#and#astigmatism.#
! Blamed#them#for#the#lack#of#reading#comprehension#along#with#
tired#eyes.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 7#

Huey and reading

! Huey’s#(1908,#1968)#characterization#is#highly#appreciated.#
! Huey#regarded#reading#as#an#information#processing#activity.#
! Accelerated#the#exploration#of#significant#advances#in#reading#
during#the#1970s#and#1980s#(Harada,#2003).#
! Insists#on#readers’#active#role,#others#were#regarding#it#as#a#
passive#skill.#
! Calls#attention#to#the#importance#of#repetition#which#addresses#
controlled#and#automatic#processes#in#McLaughlin’s#(1987)#
information-processing.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 8#

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Thorndike and reading

! Thorndike’s#(1917)#efforts#deserve#appreciation#since#he#
resembles#the#process#of#reading#to##
! thinking.#

! a#complex#and#dynamic#reaction.#

! a#problem#that#needs#to#be#solved.##

! reasoning:#then,#good#readers#think#clearly.##

! His#ideas#accelerated#reading#comprehension#studies#rather#
than#merely#focusing#on#eye#movements#(Williams,#1978).#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 9#

Bartlett and reading

! Bartlett#(1932):#another#cornerstone#in#preGcognitive#reading#
psychology#research#era.#
! Reading:#as#effort#to#achieve#meaning.#
! The#impact#of#prior#knowledge#on#reading#comprehension.#
! Like#Huey#and#Thorndike,#Bartlett’s#efforts#were#not#taken#into#
consideration#in#preGcognitive#reading#psychology#research#era.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 10#

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Impact of cognitive psychology

! Such#studies#helped#researchers#reGevaluate#the#process#(Samuels#&#
Kamil,#1988).#
! Development#of#reading#models#accelerated#after#the#1960s.#
! The#passive#perception#replaced#with#an#active#one.#
! Distinctions#between#the#metaphorical#models#of#reading:#
! Bottom1up)models:)refers#to#readers#who#combine#small#parts#
to#see#the#big#picture.#
! Top1down)models:)refers#to#readers#who#try#to#see#the#big#
picture#from#the#first#moment#(Lewis,#1999).#
! Interactive)models:#by#the#late#1980s,#readers#combine#
elements#of#both#bottomGup#and#topGdown#models#as#the#most#
comprehensive#description#of#the#reading#process#(Anderson,#
1999;#Ediger,#2001;#Wallace,#2001).#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 11#

Other aspects of readers

! With#the#advent#of#topGdown#models,#psychologists#started#to#
observe#readers#in#a#variety#of#different#ways#with#the#hope#of#
helping#reading#researchers.#
! Teachers#were#recommended#to#focus#on#other#aspects#of#
readers’#in#classes.#
! For#example:#
! Fry#(1977,#p.#13)#directs#reading#teachers#to#investigate#
readers#in#terms#of#“[o]ral#reading,#…#[s]ilent#reading,#…#[e]ye#
movements,#…#[e]yeG[v]oice#[s]pan,#…#[l]atency#or#response#
time,#…#parts#of#the#word,#…#parts#of#a#passage,#…#
[c]orrelation#studies,#…#[and#v]arying#teaching#condition#
studies”.#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 12#

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Various reading models

! Various#reading#models#appeared.#
! Classified#in#two#broad#categories#(Grabe#&#Stoller,#2002,#p.#31):#
! metaphorical)reading)models!!
! bottomGup#
! topGdown#
! interactive#models##
! specific)reading)models!
! the#psycholinguistic#guessing#game#model#
! interactive#compensatory#model#
! word#recognition#models#
! simple#view#of#reading#model#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 13#

Metaphorical reading models v.

Behaviouristic research
! The!investigation!of!metaphorical!models:!
! goes#beyond#the#boundaries#of#behaviouristic#research.#

! Provides!researchers:!!
! an#understanding#of#what#readers#are#doing#during#the#

reading#process.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 14#

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Bottom-up Models
! Go#through#a#mechanical#pattern#by#
creating#a#pieceGbyGpiece#mental# Meaning

translation#of#the#information#in#the#text.# Sentence
! The#interaction#between#the#reader#and#
Word
the#text:#little#or#no#interference#from#the#
reader’s#own#background#knowledge.# Syllable
! Readers#need#to#succeed#in#each#step.#
Letter

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 15#

Bottom-up Models
! Readers#succeed#in#each#step#by#beginning#with#the#printed#letter,#
recognising#graphic#stimuli,#decoding#them#to#sound,#recognising#
words,#and#finally#decoding#meaning#to#achieve#the#general#meaning#
(Alderson,#2000;#Anderson,#1999;#Grabe#&#Stoller;#Nassaji,#2003).#
! Also#called#text2based-view,#text2driven-models,#data2driven-processes,#
decoding,#serial-models,#linguistic-processes,#skills2based-approaches,-
and#traditional-models.#
! Resembled#to#phonics-approach:#
! children#start#reading#by#learning#symbolGsound#correspondences.#
! Requires#great#effort.#
! Focuses#on#details.#
! Showing#the#big#picture#is#hard#in#bottomGup#models.#
16#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı#

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Bottom-up Models
! Bottom-as#the#smallest#units#such#as#‘letters#and#words’#and#top#as#
a#larger#unit#such#as#‘phrases#and#clauses’#(Carrell,#1988).#
! Readers#become#so#automatic#in#recognizing#such#small#units#that#
they#are#unaware#of#handling#of#this#process#(Aebersold#&#Field,#1997).#
! A#serial-model#as#reading#starts#with#the#printed#word#and#
continues#with#the#recognition#of#graphic#stimuli,#decoding#them#
to#sound,#recognising#words,#and#decoding#meanings#(Alderson,#2000).#
! “[D]ecoding#written#symbols#into#their#aural#equivalents#in#a#
linear#fashion”#(Nunan,#1999,#p.#252).#
! BottomGup#reading#strategies#are#followed#by#readers#who#are#low#
in#proficiency#as#achieving#the#meaning#is#dependent#on#readers’#
success#at#each#step#(Salatacı,#2000).#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 17#

Bottom-up processing''

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 18#

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To understand
how readers recognize words,
try to read the following text.

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 19#

laPec of etLster
! eseRarcsher#at#amebridCg#nyiversUit#onddcucte#a#
tsuyd#in#rdreo#to#neveistigat#the#mtpiac#of#rorde#of#
esttelr#in#orwsd.#heTri#ersulst#ndicidate#itltel#mipatc#
for#the#ettelsr#in#the#idmedl#of#the#orswd;#owrheve,#it#
is#uqiet#mpotirtan#to#lapec#nitiisal#and#last#etlster#in#
hreit#orrcetc#lpacse.#lthAouhg#the#rest#emraisn#to#be#
ropblemcati,#the#orwsd#are#ecorgnizeabl#insec#eardesr#
denityif#a#word#as#a#hwoel#iwthotu#eadglin#iwht#veyre#
ndiviidlua#etltre#in#it.#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 20#

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Explanation
! The#places#of#initials#and#last#letters#in#the#words#
which#are#longer#than#four#letters#are#changed.##

! In#this#case,#it#is#rather#complicated#to#recognize#
these#words.##

! Also#try#to#read#the#following#text.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 21#

Pacle of Leterts
! Rsearhecers#at#Cabmdrige#Uniervitsy#cndocuted#a#
sudty#in#oderr#to#inesvtiagte#the#imcapt#of#oderr#of#
letrets#in#wrdos.#Teihr#rsutels#indctaied#ltilte#imacpt#
for#the#lttrees#in#the#mdilde#of#the#wrdos;#hovewer,#it#
is#qitue#impartont#to#pacle#intiilas#and#last#letrets#in#
teihr#corcert#palecs.#Altohguh#the#rest#reanims#to#be#
prolebamtic,#the#wrdos#are#recgnoibzale#sncie#redares#
idneitfy#a#word#as#a#wolhe#wihtuot#deanilg#with#eervy#
inidviudal#lteetr#in#it.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 22#

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Explanation
! The#words#in#the#second#text#are#rather#recognizable#
since#the#initials#and#last#letters#remain#in#their#
correct#places.##
! The#places#of#only#two#letters#were#changed.#
! This#time#replacement#occurred#in#the#middle#of#the#
words.##
! Thus,#by#the#help#of#this#experience#it#can#be#inferred#
that#initials#and#last#letters#in#words#are#more#
important#than#the#ones#in#the#middle.#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 23#

Top-down models
! Opposed#to#bottomGup#models.#
! Also#called#inside2the2head-view,-cognitively2driven-processes,#
schema-theoric#models,#schematic-processes,#conceptually-driven-
processes,#strategy2based-approaches,#the-genre-approach,#and#
reader2driven-models.-
! Bring#background#knowledge#to#the#text#is#essential.##
! One#of#the#essential#characteristics#of#efficient#readers#(Quinn,#2003).#
! In#such#models#readers’#aims#in#reading#the#text#and#their#
expectations#from#the#text#lead#the#process#of#reading#primarily#
(Grabe#&#Stoller,#2002).#
! Resembled#to#whole2word-approach#where#children#start#reading#
by#learning#words’#global#shape#rather#than#symbolGsound#
correspondences#in#them.#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 24#

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Top-down models
! The#importance#of#schema#(Alderson,#2000).#
! Bring#background#knowledge#to#the#text#(Carrell,#1985#߃#
Carrell#&#Eisterhold,#1983;#Grabe#&#Stoller).#
! Form#expectations#about#the#forthcoming#information#in#the#text.#
! Question#their#expectations#while#reading#it.##
! Identify#genre#with#reference#to#particular#characteristics#that#
identify#the#type#of#the#text#(Wallace,#1992).#
! Genres#possess#specific#rules,#enable#readers#to#discriminate#
different#types#of#written#texts.#
! E.g.,#readers#who#are#able#to#identify#that#they#are#about#to#read#a#
letter#expect#to#start#with#a#salutation#which#is#followed#by#the#
aim#of#the#letter.##
! To#succeed,#readers##
! need#to#be#good#at#grammar#and##
! know#a#large#quantity#of#vocabulary.#
25#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı#

Top-down processing

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 26#

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Bottom-up processing''

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 27#

The Psycholinguistic
Guessing Game Model
! An#example#of#topGdown#processing#by#Goodman#(1967).#
! Not#necessary#to#read#every#letter#or#every#word#to#achieve#
meaning#as#it#is#possible#to#interpret#what#the#text#is#saying.##
! The#three#major#steps:#
! hypothesising,#
! sampling,#and#
! confirming.#
! To#achieve#the#meaning,#succeed#in#each#step#and#get#
information#that#is#based#on#background#knowledge.#
! Three#components:#
! process-strategies,##
! background-knowledge,#and#
! conceptual-abilities.#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 28#

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Reading as ‘reduction of
uncertainty’ (Smith, 1971)

! Reading-comprehension#is#based#on#only#a#small#portion#of#
information#that#comes#from#the#text.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 29#

‘The%captain%ordered%
the%mate%to%drop%
the%an___’

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 30#

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Reducing uncertainty
! How#do#we#reduce#uncertainty#in#a#text#by#dealing#with#four#
types#of#information?#
! Graphic)information:)knowledge#of#English#spelling#which#
directs#readers#with#limited#possibilities.#
! Phonetic)information:-the#limited#possibilities#of#sound.##
! Syntactic)information:)restricts#that#‘the’#can#be#
proceeded#merely#by#an#adjective#or#a#noun#phrase.#
! Semantic)information:)focuses#readers#on#the#items#that#
can#be#dropped#and#they#find#the#missing#vocabulary#
anchor.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 31#

Criticism: top-down models

! One#of#the#limitations#of#topGdown#model.##
! Requires#the#prediction#of#meaning#with#reference#to#context#
clues#and#integration#of#background#knowledge:#
! Then,#might#be#valid#only#for#skilful#and#fluent#readers#who#
can#be#considered#autonomous#at#reading#(Eskey,#1988).#
! Works#improperly#with#less#proficient#readers.#
! TopGdown#strategies#as#a#compensatory#strategy#(Paran,#1997).#
! To#Paran,#they#should#not#be#considered#as#a#goal#to#achieve.#
! TopGdown#strategies#are#effective#only#for#readers#whose#
linguistic#ability#is#poor.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 32#

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Interactive models
! The#interaction#of#bottomGup#and#topGdown#models#(Nara,#2003).##
! Also#called#parallel-and-the-interactive-compensatory-model.#
! Integrate#characteristics#of#both#models#(Anderson,#1999).#
! The#essential#part#of#reading#comprehension,#the#consistency#of#
the#author’s#and#readers’#background#knowledge.#
! “[R]eading#[is]#an#interactive,#sociocognitive#process#…,#involving#a#
text,#a#reader,#and#a#social-context#within#which#the#activity#of#
reading#takes#place”#(Ediger,#2001,#p.#154).#
! Readers#need#to#be#fast#and#efficient#in#recognising#the#letters:#
similar#to#skimming#a#text#in#topGdown#models#to#get#the#main#
idea#(Grabe#&#Stoller,#2002).#
! Predicting#the#forthcoming#information#and#integrating#
background#knowledge#with#the#text#is#an#underlying#principle#in#
interactive#models.#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 33#

Interactive models
! Combines#elements#of#both#bottomGup#and#topGdown#models.#

! Background#knowledge#is#a#major#contributor#to#text#
understanding.#

! Readers#combine#the#reading#material#with#their#background#
knowledge.##

! The#reader#needs#to#be#fast#in#order#to#recognise#the#letters.##

! Not#only#should#the#word#recognition#be#fast,#but#also#efficient.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 34#

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Interactive models
! The!interaction!between!the!reader!and!the!text:!!
! deals#with#readers’#prior#knowledge#which#is#relevant#to#the#text#

and#explains#why#activating#schemata#before#reading#and#
integrating#this#information#with#the#text#during#reading#results#
in#better#comprehension.#
! The!interaction!between!bottom9up!and!top9down!processes:!
! deals#with#the#interaction#between#bottomGup#and#topGdown#

models#of#reading#in#which#fluent#readers#need#both#decoding#
and#interpretation#skills.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 35#

Adegbite’s (2000) 3 aspects

! Readers#require#an#interaction#with#the#text#which#is#provided#by##
! recognizing#words,##
! decoding#its#content,#and##
! constructing#the#meaning.#
! TopGdown#and#bottomGup#procedures#may#assist#to#integrate#the#
higher#and#lower#levels#of#comprehension.#
! TeacherGcentred#or#learnerGcentred#presentation#is#replaced#with#
teacherGstudent#and#studentGstudent#interaction.#
! Reading#in#such#models#encourages#readers#to#explore#the#text#
culture#and#environment.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 36#

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How to shift reading models

! When#readers#start#reading,#they#focus#on#decoding#the#letters#to#
understand#what#words#mean#(Ur,#1996).#
! Little#or#no#inference#from#their#background#knowledge.#
! Understanding#largely#depends#on#decoding#letters.#
! As#soon#as#they#meet#a#meaningful#context,#they#bring#their#own#
interpretation#to#the#word#rather#than#merely#focusing#on#its#exact#
component#letters.#
! Almost#never#“read#anything#in#a#‘vacuum’”#(Willis,#1981,#p.#150).#
! Readers#already#know#something#about#the#subject#matter.#
! The#interaction#between#the#text#and#readers#is#not#a#unique#feature#of#
proficient#readers.##
! Another#interaction#between#the#text#and#readers#(Widdowson,#1980):#
! May#derive#the#meaning#that#they#need#from#the#text.#
! The#information#derived#from#such#an#interaction#can#never#be#complete#
or#precise.#
! Such#an#interaction#highly#depends#on#readers’#background#knowledge.# 37#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı#

Changing
existing knowledge
! Reading#is#a#kind#of#dialogue#between#the#reader#and#the#text#
(Ur,#1996).#
! Reading#process#is#not#considered#to#be#simply#a#matter#of#
extracting#information#from#the#text#(Grabe,#1988).#
! New#information#which#comes#from#the#text#may#result#in#a#
change#in#readers’#activated#background#knowledge.##
! That#is#why#reading#is#interactive#rather#than#active#or#passive.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 38#

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Comparing
metaphorical models
! BottomGup#models#=#lower2level-processes:#
! consist#of#recognizing#orthographic#and#
morpheme#structures#and#processing#
phonemic#information#
! TopGdown#models#=#higher2level-process:#
! the#author’s#intended#meaning#becomes#
more#argumentative.##
! Reading:#‘a#multivariate#skill’,#
! the#integration#of#lowerGlevel#and#higherG
level#skills#(Nassaji,#2003).#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 39#

Comparing
metaphorical models

! top9down!model:!looking#at#a#forest#

! bottom9up!model:!studying#the#individual#trees#in#a#
forest#

! bottom9up!model:!a#passenger#in#a#plane#which#flies#low#
–#watch#the#view#in#detail!

! top9down!model:!a#passenger#in#a#plane#which#flies#high#
–#observe#a#wider#view!

! interactive!model:!the#pilot#in#a#plane#–#watch#the#view#
according#to#the#needs#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 40#

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 14.12.2016'

Improving reading
! Improving#reading#requires#developing##

! a#large#vocabulary#pool;##

! decoding#meaning#faster;#and##

! becoming#proficient#both#in#bottomGup#and#topGdown#

models#to#achieve#detailed#or#general#meaning#according#to#
readers’#needs#(Nara#&#Noda,#2003).#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 41#

Flying and reading models

! Compare#readers#in#bottomGup#and#topGdown#processes#with#
passengers#on#a#plane#(Razı,#2004).#
! Flying#low#is#like#reading#in#bottomGup#processes:#
! Gives#the#advantage#of#seeing#the#details#around#
! Flying#high#is#like#reading#in#topGdown#processes:#
! Provides#a#general#idea#about#the#landscape#in#a#short#time.##
! Passengers#cannot#control#their#height;#similar#to#bottomGup#and#
topGdown#processes.#
! Being#able#to#control#the#plane,#becoming#a#pilot,#like#reading#in#
interactive#models.#
! focusing#on#the#details#or#getting#the#general#idea#in#accordance#
with#their#needs.#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 42#

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 14.12.2016'

Example:
Fictional flight vs.
reading a book

! Examine#the#following#pictures#to#resemble#reading#a#book#
to#a#fictional#flight#on#Earth#by#using#Google#Earth#on#the#
computer.##

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 43#

Earth on Google Earth v.

Cover of the Book

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 44#

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Explanation of the figure

! The#picture#on#the#left#shows#Earth#and#provides#general#
information#about#it.##

! It#is#impossible#to#see#the#details#in#this#picture.##

! The#cover#of#the#book#also#provides#general#information#about#
the#book.##

! Again,#you#cannot#receive#detailed#information#from#the#book#
title.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 45#

Overview of Turkey on Google Earth v.

Table of Contents of the Book

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 46#

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 14.12.2016'

Explanation of the figure

! You#can#obtain#general#information#about#the#landscapes#of#
Turkey.##

! Relatively,#you#can#also#get#such#information#by#examining#the#
table#of#contents#section#of#a#book.##

! Although,#you#can#learn#the#name#of#the#places#in#a#specific#
country,#you#cannot#learn#the#details#of#these#places.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 47#

Overview of Çanakkale on Google Earth

v. Info about Turkey in the Book

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 48#

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 14.12.2016'

Explanation of the figure

! The#photo#on#the#left#provides#more#detailed#information#about#
Turkey.##

! You#can#receive#more#detailed#information#about#the#sight.##

! Similarly,#the#text#also#provides#detailed#information#about#
Turkey.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 49#

Details of Çanakkale on Google Earth v.

Details about Çanakkale in the Book

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 50#

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 14.12.2016'

Explanation of the figure

! The#photo#on#the#left#provides#detailed#information#about#
Çanakkale.##

! You#can#also#receive#such#detailed#information#about#Çanakkale#
by#reading#the#text#on#the#right.#

Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 51#

Conclusion
! You#have#learned#about#the#metaphorical##

####models#of#reading.#

! Do#not#read#in#bottomGup#models#all#the#time.#

! You#can#learn#the#details#but#miss#the#main#idea.#

! Consdider#how#you#recognize#and#combine#little#pieces#of#
information#in#bottomGup#reading#models.#

! Remember#the#impact#of#background#information#on#reading#
comprehension.#

! In#Chapter#6,#you#will#learn#about#the#techniques#which#are#
used#to#assess#reading#comprehension.#
Reading#models#by#S.#Razı# 52#

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