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INTRODUCTION TO
MATERIAL CHEMISTRY

Prepared by: Tigabu. B (MSc.)

November 2024
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CHAPTERS
1. What Is “Materials Chemistry”?

2. Solid-State Chemistry

3. Metals

4. Semiconductors

5. Polymeric Materials

6. Nanomaterials
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CHAPTER ONE
What is Materials
Chemistry?

2017/2024
Tulu Awulia, Ethiopia
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1. Introduction
• Life in the 21st century: Dependent on advanced materials (macro-,
micro-, and nanoscopic building blocks)

• We are spoiled by the technology that adds convenience to our

lives such as
– Microwave ovens,
– Laptop computers,
– Digital cell phones, and
– Improved modes of transportation.
• However, we rarely take time to think about and appreciate the
materials that constitute these modern engineering feats.
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 25 years ago, the words “materials” and “chemistry” were rarely linked.
 Few researchers as the result described their research efforts as “materials chemistry.”
 These days “ materials chemistry” represent one of the major growth sector in
pure and applied chemistry.
 It accounts for the significant fraction of the publications in the chemical
sciences.
 Google search engine results for the key word “materials chemistry” compared
to others.

Google
outreach

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- A corollary to the increased number of publication is the expansion
in the size and number of journal dedicated to materials chemistry
- Example: J. Mater. Chem 6 issues/annum (1991)
to 48 issues/annum in 2007.
- Examples of journals dedicated to materials chemistry
- Soft matter, soft materials, small, ACS Nano, Applied Materials
and Interfaces etc
• The number of citations and impact factors also increased.
- (Impact factor in 2006 was 5.104)
• The number of downloads showed a dramatic increment
- > 1 million downloads in 2005 from the journal Chemistry of
materials
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What is a Material?
• A key to define material chemistry lies in defining what
constitutes a “material” in contrast to just a chemical.
 Some dictionary definitions are:
♯ The matter from which an article, fabric or structure is made.
♯ The matter from which a thing is made.
♯ A physical substance which things can be made from.
♯ A substance having properties which makes it useful in
machinery, structures, devices and products.
 Any solid-state component or device that may be used to address a
current or future societal needs (Fahlman, 2007).
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Working definitions proposed by IUPAC
• Materials chemistry is a new and highly interdisciplinary science
that involves the use of chemistry for the creation, characterization,
and application of materials with interesting or potentially useful
physical or chemical characteristics.
• Materials chemistry focused on understanding the
relationships between the arrangement of atoms, ions, or
molecules comprising a material, and its overall bulk
structural/physical properties.
• It includes about the structures/properties of existing
materials, synthesizing and characterizing new materials, and
using advanced computational techniques to predict structures
and properties of materials.

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1.1. Historical Perspectives
 Neolithic Age (10,000-300 B.C.): Was the first to realize that certain materials such as
limestone, wood, shells, and clay were most easily shaped into materials used as utensils,
tools, and weaponry.
 Chalcolithic Age (4,000-1,500 B.C.): Where Copper and Stone was used for a variety of
ornamental, functional, and protective applications.
 This civilization was the first to realize fundamental properties of metals, such as
malleability and thermal conductivity.
 Chalcolithic man was the first to practice top-down materials synthesis as they
developed techniques to extract copper from oxide ores such as malachite, for
subsequent use in various applications.
 Bronze Age (1,400 B.C.-0 B.C.): Metal alloys were used firstly.
 Bronze was made by melting tin and copper, and mixing them together.
 Artifacts from the Middle East (3,000 B.C): Are found to consist of arsenic-doped
copper, due to the wide availability of lautite (CuAsS) and domeykite ( Cu3As) ores,
which are rich in both arsenic and copper.
 However, due to arsenic-related casualties, these alloys were quickly replaced with tin–
copper alloys (bronze) that were widely used due to a lower melting point, higher hardness,
and lower brittleness relative to their arsenic forerunner.
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 Iron Age (1,000 B.C.-1,950 A.D.): The Chinese built upon the
existing iron-making technology, by introducing methods to create
iron alloys that enabled the molding of iron into desired shapes (i.e.,
cast iron production).
• Many other empirical developments were practiced.
• In the 18th and 19th century A.D. scientists began to understand
why these diverse procedures were effective.
• As society moves onto newer technologies, existing materials
become obsolete, or their concepts are converted to new
applications.
• The early world of materials discovery consisted solely of empirical
observations, without an understanding of the relationship between
material structure and properties.

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1.2. Considerations in the design of new materials
“Synthesis Approach”
There are two rationales for the synthesis of materials.
a) Top-down: Transforms complex natural
products into desirable materials.

b) Bottom-up: Self-assembly of individual atoms

or molecules.
This approach starts with basic building blocks (atoms,
molecules, ions) and forms more complex structures.

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Top-down: Larger/bulk materials are broken down into smaller
nanoscale components.
Bottom-up: Build materials by assembling them atom by atom or
molecule by molecule.

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Precipitation method

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Transformation of complex natural
products into desirable materials

BOTTOM-UP
Self-assembly
wood
of individual
atoms and
TOP-DOWN molecules.

Fabrication of plastics
through polymerization of
paper Golf ball covers monomers

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Lithography
Etching features on silicon
wafers for chip production
• Top-down

• Bottom-up
Self-assembly
Manipulate the design of materials from
the atomic level provides an
unprecedented control over resultant
properties.

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• Interdisciplinary Investigation
Protein TEM image

Biology
&
Medicine Physics
&
Nano drug delivery NanoChemistry
&
Materials
Mechanics
&
Electronics
Nano mechanics
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Material: any solid-state substance or device that may be used to
address a current or future societal need.

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Metals Polymers
 Ferrous metals and alloys (irons,  Thermoplastics polymer (Molded)
carbon steels, alloy steels etc).  Thermoset polymer (Irreversible )
 Nonferrous metals and alloys  Elastomers (Stretched )
(aluminum, copper, etc).

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Ceramics: Hard and chemically non-reactive.
Composites
 Glasses and Glass ceramics  Reinforced plastics
 Graphite  Metal-matrix composites
 Diamond  Ceramic-matrix composites
 Sandwich structures
 Concrete

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1.3. Design of New Materials Through a
“Critical Thinking” Approach
Critical thinking is a kind of thinking in which you question,
analyse, interpret, evaluate and make a judgement about what you
read, hear, say, or write.
• It is essential to use critical thinking to logically solve
problems.
• These skills are also very applicable for the design of
new materials.
• The development of new materials is governed by the
current societal need and availability of resources.
 However, the adoption of a material depends primarily on
its cost.
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Essential components of any new
development:

• Define the societal need;

• Perform a comprehensive literature
survey;
• Understanding of the process;
• Dissemination:- Publication in scientific
literature.

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1.4. Characterizing Materials
Characterization is essential for designing new materials and improving
existing ones. The process typically includes (4):
1. Structural Characterization: Understanding the arrangement of atoms/molecules since it influences the
material's properties.
 X-ray Diffraction (XRD): Determine the crystalline structure and crystallite size.
 Electron Microscopy (SEM, TEM): Provides surface morphology/degree of roughness and topography.
 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): Provides 3D surface topography at high resolution, often at the nanoscale.
 Raman Spectroscopy/IR: Provides insight into the vibrational modes of molecules, helping to identify
chemical bonds and phases in materials, especially for polymers and molecular solids.

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2. Chemical Composition Analysis
 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): Measures the elemental composition and electronic
state/confg. of materials' surfaces.
 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX): Often integrated with electron microscopes, it
detects and quantifies elements in a material.
 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS): A powerful technique for detecting
trace elements and metals in materials.
 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): Used to identify organic materials, molecular
functional groups, and bonding environments.

EDX

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3. Thermal Characterization: Thermal stability and energy storage.
 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC): Measures the heat
flow in and out of a material as it is heated or cooled, helping to
identify phase transitions (e.g., melting, glass transition).
 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA): Monitors weight loss of a
material as it is heated, providing information about thermal
stability and composition.

 Thermal Conductivity Measurements: Determine how well a

material conducts heat, which is essential in electronics,
thermoelectrics, and insulation.
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4. Electrical and Optical Characterization: For materials used in
electronic, photonic, or energy applications, their electrical and optical
properties are key.
 Electrical Conductivity/Resistivity: Measures how easily
electrons flow through a material, crucial for semiconductors,
conductors, and superconductors.
 UV-Vis-NIR Spectroscopy: Measures light absorption and
transmissions helping to understand the optical properties of
materials, including band gap and transparency.
 Photoluminescence (PL) Spectroscopy: Used to study
semiconductor and nanomaterials, this technique involves
measuring emitted light when the material is excited by photons,
giving insight into electronic states.
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1.5. Categorizing Materials Chemistry

In materials chemistry, materials can be categorized based on their

functionality (how they perform specific tasks), structure (how they
are physically organized at the macroscopic or microscopic level), or
biological properties (how they interact with biological systems).

1. Functional Materials
 Functional materials are designed and optimized for specific
functions or tasks.
 These materials typically exhibit electrical, optical, or
magnetic behaviors that make them useful in a wide variety of
technological applications.
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a) Electrical Functional Materials: are crucial for electronics, energy
storage, and energy conversion technologies. Their ability to conduct,
insulate, or store electrical energy.
 Conductors: Materials that allow the free flow of electrical charge, like
metals (e.g., copper, gold) or conductive polymers (e.g., polyaniline).
 Semiconductors: Their electrical properties can be precisely
controlled, often used in transistors, solar cells, and integrated
circuits (e.g., silicon, gallium arsenide, perovskite solar cells).

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 Superconductors: Zero electrical resistance below a critical temperature, used in
applications like MRI machines, quantum computing, and magnetic levitation
(e.g., YBCO (Yttrium barium copper oxide), MgB2).
 Dielectrics/Insulators: Prevent the flow of electrical charge and are used to
insulate wires and electronic components (e.g., Ceramics like barium titanate or
polymers).

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b) Optical Functional Materials: Interact with light and applicable
for imaging, sensing, and lighting technologies. They can absorb, emit,
transmit, or reflect light based on their optical properties.
 Photovoltaic Materials: Materials that convert light into electricity,
like silicon for traditional solar cells or newer materials like organic
photovoltaics or perovskites.

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 Optoelectronic Materials: Facilitate the conversion between light and electricity
(photons and electrons).
 Used in light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, and displays.
 Examples include organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and materials used for
quantum dots.
 Photonic Materials: Materials that manipulate light for specific functions, such as
waveguides, fibers, and lasers.
 Examples include materials for fiber-optic communication and light-guiding materials.

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c) Magnetic Functional Materials
Magnetic materials are used in data storage, and energy conversion
technologies.
 Ferromagnetic Materials: Materials that exhibit permanent
magnetization (e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel) and are used in motors,
data storage (hard drives), and sensors.
Spins that can align parallel to each other.

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Antiferromagnetic/Spintronic Materials: Materials where the
spins of electrons align in opposite directions, and they are used in
advanced data storage (e.g., magneto-resistive random-access
memory, MRAM).
Magnetocaloric Materials: Materials that heat or cool when
exposed to a magnetic field, useful for refrigeration technologies
(e.g., gadolinium alloys).

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Magnetocaloric
Materials
(e.g., gadolinium
alloys

Antiferromagnetic Materials
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2. Structural Materials
Designed primarily for their strength, durability, and ability to
withstand mechanical stresses.
Are backbone of construction, manufacturing, and transportation
industries.

a) Strength and Durability: Structural materials must have high

strength, toughness, and resilience to handle mechanical stress,
environmental factors (e.g., corrosion), and wear/protection.
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 Metals: Materials like steel, titanium, and aluminum alloys are
widely used in construction, transportation (automobiles, airplanes),
and machinery because of their high strength-to-weight ratios.
 Composites: Made from two or more constituent materials (e.g.,
carbon fiber-reinforced polymers) to combine the strengths of each
material, such as high strength, low weight, and flexibility. Used
in aerospace, automotive, and sporting goods.

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 Polymers: Used for flexible structures, insulating materials, or
lightweight products. For instance, high-performance polymers like
Kevlar are used in bulletproof vests, while thermoplastic polymers
are used for packaging.
 Ceramics: These are used where high temperature, hardness, and
resistance to wear and corrosion are needed (e.g., for engine parts,
cutting tools, or insulating materials).

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b) Flexibility and Toughness: Materials like elastomers (e.g., rubber)
or polymeric materials are designed to provide flexibility, impact
resistance, and the ability to return to their original shape after
deformation.
 Elastomers: These materials exhibit significant elastic deformation
and return to their original shape after stress. Commonly used in
seals, tires, and gaskets.

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 Polymers and Thermoplastics: Polymers like polycarbonate and
polyethylene are flexible and used in automotive bumpers, medical
devices, and protective coatings.

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3. Biological Materials

 Biological materials derived from natural sources.

 These materials are designed to interact with biological systems

without causing harm, used in medical, or drug delivery systems.

 Biodegradable Polymers: used for controlled drug release or

implants (e.g., polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL)).

 Hydrogels: These water-absorbent materials are used in wound

care, and drug delivery systems due to their similarity to natural
tissues.
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1.6. Materials Sustainability
 It’s no secret that the world is facing some major environmental challenges.
 From climate change to diminishing of resources, we’re starting to see just how
unsustainable our ways have become.
 One of the key areas where we can make a difference is in the way we use materials.
 By using and promoting sustainable materials, we can help ensure that there is enough for
future generations and that we’re not damaging the environment in the process.
 With all the natural disasters and shortages of resources from around the world, it’s crucial
that we use materials that can be put back into the cycle to be repurposed and upcycled
again and again.
What it meant by sustainable material?
 They are materials that can be reused or recycled without damaging the environment.

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Examples of sustainable materials
• Natural materials Bamboo linen
hemp clay
Wood stone
wool sand

• Innovative materials
Recycled plastic
lumber
Recycled paper
Organic cotton
Beeswax wraps
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• Sustainable development: Planning to reduce the environmental impacts of
materials production, use, and disposal by considering future generation.
The selection of a material, processing technique, or end-use for a product should
coincide with the three pillars of sustainability.
♣ Environmental => pollution prevention, natural resource use.
♣ Social => better quality of life for all members of society.
♣ Economic => fair distribution and efficient allocation of resources.
Example solar panel
 55% of Ethiopian doesn’t have access to
electricity.
• Substitute fossil fuel based electric power
stations.
 lower green house gas (GHG) emission.
• Uses silicon as an input.
 During conversion of sand to silicon GHG
release to the environment.
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The sustainability of a product must take into account its production,
use, and disposal/re-use.

Cradle-
to-grave

Cradle-to-cradle

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application
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Four primary phases of life cycle of a material
1st Material extraction and processing
 Mining, refining, smelting.
 Requires high temperatures and sophisticated reaction conditions.
 Use fossil fuel => release NOx, SOx, and CO2.
 Energy-intensive characterization techniques.
2nd Product manufacturing
 Energy-intensive steps utilize metals, polymers (plastics), or ceramics that were
isolated/refined.
 Requires high temperatures and use fossil fuel => release NOx, SOx, and CO2.
3rd Use by consumers
 Fossil-fuel based transportation:-fabrication plants to stores.
 Packaging materials:- plastics, papers….
4th Recycling and/or disposal
 Electricity and high temperatures are needed for cleaning, and repurposing recycled
materials.
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