MET401 DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

QUESTION BANK
PART A

MODULE 1

1. What is critical speed of a shaft?

The critical speed of a shaft is the theoretical angular velocity at which the shaft's natural
frequency is excited, leading to resonance. This phenomenon occurs when the rotational
speed approaches the natural frequency, causing significant vibrations. At this point, even
small initial deflections can result in large oscillations, often termed "whirling." The critical
speed is influenced by factors such as the shaft's stiffness, mass, and any unbalanced loads
attached to it. It is crucial to ensure that operating speeds do not exceed about 75% of the
critical speed to avoid excessive vibrations and potential failure
2. What are the causes of failure in shafts?
• Shaft failures can occur due to several factors:
• Tension: Excessive pulling forces can lead to cracks and fatigue failures.
• Torsion: Twisting forces from high torque can cause diagonal cracks or bends,
especially in poorly fitted couplings.
• Compression: Overloading or incorrect gear ratios can cause shafts to warp or bow.
• Fatigue: Continuous cycling of stress can lead to cracks and eventual breakage,
often exacerbated
3. Differentiate between torsional rigidity and lateral rigidity of a shaft.

Aspect Torsional Rigidity Lateral Rigidity

Definition Resistance to angular twist Resistance to deflection
along the rotational axis along the lateral axis
Importance Critical for shafts under Important for maintaining
twisting moments, affecting balance in high-speed
performance in engines operations
 Measurement Measured using shear Measured using bending
modulus and polar moment stiffness properties
of inertia

4. Enumerate the various types of flat belt drives.

Flat belt drives come in several types:
• Open Belt Drive: The pulleys rotate in the same direction.
• Crossed Belt Drive: The pulleys rotate in opposite directions.
• Compound Belt Drive: Multiple belts are used with more than one pulley.
• Variable Speed Belt Drive: Allows for adjustments in speed through movable
pulleys.
• Multiple Belt Drive: Uses multiple belts on a single pulley for increased power
transmission
5. Explain why I section is usually preferred in the case of a connecting rod?
The I-section is preferred for connecting rods due to its structural efficiency. It provides
high strength and stiffness while minimizing weight, which is crucial for performance. This
design helps effectively transmit forces experienced during engine operation while
reducing inertia forces, contributing to better overall performance and durability. The I-
section also allows for greater bending strength without significantly increasing material
usage
6. Compare the strength and stiffness of a hollow shaft of same outside diameter as that
of a solid shaft.
Strength Comparison
When comparing the strength of a hollow shaft to a solid shaft with the same outside
diameter:
• Torque Transmission: The torque transmitted by a hollow shaft is greater than
that of a solid shaft. This is because the polar section modulus of a hollow shaft
is higher, allowing it to handle greater torque without yielding. For example,
for a hollow shaft with an outer diameter Dand an inner diameter d, the torque
capacity can be expressed as:
This indicates that the hollow shaft can transmit more torque for the same material and outer
diameter due to its design, which utilizes material more effectively.

• Shear Stress Distribution: The maximum shear stress in a hollow shaft occurs at the
outer surface, while in a solid shaft, only the outer material is fully utilized.
Consequently, even though solid shafts may have higher tensile strength, hollow
shafts are often stronger in practical applications where torque is concerned.

Stiffness Comparison

For stiffness, the comparison between hollow and solid shafts also favors the hollow design
under certain conditions:

• Stiffness Definition: Stiffness in shafts can be defined in terms of their resistance to

deformation under load. It is influenced by both the material properties and the geometry
of the shaft.

• Polar Moment of Inertia: The polar moment of inertia JJ for both types of shafts plays a
crucial role in determining their stiffness under torsion. For a solid shaft:

• Effective Material Usage: In a hollow shaft, material is distributed further from the
center axis, which increases its polar moment of inertia compared to a solid shaft of equal
weight. This results in higher torsional stiffness for the hollow shaft when designed with
optimal inner diameters.
7. Explain about the material for used for flat belts
1. Leather
Properties: Leather is flexible, durable, and has good frictional properties.
Applications: Historically used in many applications, though its usage has declined with
the advent of synthetic materials.
Advantages: Good grip and ability to handle tension well; however, it can stretch over
time.
2. Rubber
Properties: Rubber belts can be reinforced with fabric or steel cords to enhance strength
and flexibility.
Applications: Commonly used in industrial machinery, conveyors, and automotive
applications.
Advantages: Excellent wear resistance, high flexibility, and good grip on pulleys.
3. Synthetic Materials
Polyurethane (PU): Known for its high elasticity and resistance to oils and chemicals.
Suitable for various applications where durability is critical.
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride): Offers good chemical resistance and is often used in conveyor
systems.
Nylon and Polyester: These materials provide high tensile strength and are commonly
used in reinforced belts.
4. Canvas
Properties: Made from cotton or synthetic fibers, canvas belts are durable and flexible.
Applications: Often used in lighter-duty applications where high flexibility is required.
Advantages: Economical and easy to handle; however, they may not withstand heavy
loads as effectively as rubber or synthetic options.
5. Fabric-Reinforced Materials
Many modern flat belts incorporate fabric reinforcements (e.g., polyester or nylon) to
improve tensile strength while maintaining flexibility.
These belts can be designed to handle specific loads and operational conditions
effectively.
8. Which theories of failure are applicable for shafts? Why?
 Several theories of failure can be applied to shafts, including:
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca Criterion): This theory states that yielding
occurs when the maximum shear stress in a material reaches a critical value. It is
applicable for ductile materials and is often used in shaft design to ensure that shear
stresses do not exceed safe limits.
Distortion Energy Theory (von Mises Criterion): This theory is based on the concept
of distortion energy and states that yielding occurs when the distortion energy in a
material reaches a critical level. It is more suitable for ductile materials and is widely
used in engineering applications, including shafts.
Fatigue Failure Theory: This theory addresses the failure of materials under cyclic
loading. It is crucial for shafts subjected to fluctuating loads, as it helps predict the life of
the shaft based on stress cycles.
These theories are essential for ensuring the reliability and safety of shafts in mechanical
systems, as they account for different types of stresses and loading conditions
encountered during operation.
9. What is the advantage of having I section in connecting rods?
The I-section design in connecting rods offers several advantages:
High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: The I-beam shape provides excellent strength while
minimizing weight, which is crucial in high-performance applications like racing engines
where reducing mass can enhance performance.
Resistance to Bending and Buckling: The I-section effectively resists bending moments
and buckling under load, making it suitable for handling the high tensile and compressive
forces experienced during engine operation.
These characteristics make I-section connecting rods ideal for applications where
performance and reliability are critical.
10. Define equivalent torsional moment and equivalent bending moment? State when
these two terms are used in the design of shafts.
Equivalent Torsional Moment and Equivalent Bending Moment
Equivalent Torsional Moment: This is a measure of the twisting effect on a shaft due to
applied torques. It is used to evaluate the shear stress in the shaft caused by torsional
 loads. The equivalent torsional moment is calculated considering factors such as dynamic
loading and any additional forces acting on the shaft.
Equivalent Bending Moment: This refers to the bending effect on a shaft due to applied
loads that create bending stresses. It is used to assess the normal stress in the shaft caused
by bending moments. The equivalent bending moment takes into account factors such as
the distribution of loads along the length of the shaft and any dynamic effects.
Usage in Shaft Design: Both equivalent torsional and bending moments are critical in
the design of shafts, particularly in applications where shafts are subjected to combined
loading conditions (both torsion and bending). Engineers use these terms to ensure that
shafts can withstand operational stresses without failing, allowing for safe and efficient
performance.
11. Why Are Connecting Rods Made of I Sections?
Connecting rods are often made with an I-section design due to several advantages:
• High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: The I-section provides excellent strength while
minimizing weight, which is crucial in high-performance applications like engines
where reducing mass can enhance efficiency and performance.
• Resistance to Bending and Buckling: The I-section effectively resists bending
moments and buckling under load, making it suitable for handling the high tensile
and compressive forces experienced during engine operation.
• Material Efficiency: The design allows for optimal material usage, concentrating
strength where it is most needed without adding unnecessary weight.
These characteristics make I-section connecting rods ideal for applications requiring
strength, reliability, and performance.
12. What types of stresses are induced in shafts?
Shafts experience several types of stresses due to various loading conditions:
Shear Stress: Induced by torsional loads, shear stress arises when torque is applied to the
shaft. This stress is critical in determining the shaft's ability to withstand twisting forces.
Bending Stress: Caused by forces acting on the shaft, such as those from gears or pulleys,
bending stress can be tensile or compressive depending on the direction of the force. It is
significant when evaluating how the shaft will perform under load.
 Combined Stresses: In many applications, shafts are subjected to both torsional and
bending loads simultaneously, leading to a combination of shear and bending stresses.
This requires careful analysis to ensure that the shaft can handle the total stress without
failure
13. What Is the Manufacturing Method for Connecting Rod?
Connecting rods are typically manufactured using one of the following methods:
• Forging: This is the most common method, where metal is heated and shaped
under high pressure. Forging enhances the mechanical properties of the material,
providing better strength and fatigue resistance.
• Machining: After forging, connecting rods may undergo machining processes
(like turning and milling) to achieve precise dimensions and surface finishes.
• Casting: In some cases, connecting rods may be cast from molten metal into
molds, although this method is less common for high-performance applications
due to potential weaknesses in the material.
These methods ensure that connecting rods can withstand the high stresses encountered in
engines while maintaining a lightweight design.
14.
 MODULE 2

1. What is the function of a clutch?

The function of a clutch is to engage and disengage power transmission between the engine
and the gearbox. This mechanical device allows for smooth gear changes and helps control
the vehicle's movement by temporarily disconnecting the engine's power from the wheels.
When the clutch pedal is pressed, it disengages the connection, allowing the driver to
change gears without damaging the transmission. Releasing the pedal re-engages the
clutch, restoring power flow to the wheels
2. Why are cone clutches better than disc clutches?
• Cone clutches are often considered better than disc clutches for several reasons:
• Higher Friction Area: Cone clutches have a larger contact area due to their shape,
which provides better grip and can handle higher torque.
• Smoother Engagement: The design allows for smoother engagement and
disengagement, reducing shock loads on the drivetrain.
• Less Wear: They generally experience less wear over time compared to disc
clutches because of their gradual engagement characteristics.
• Compact Design: Cone clutches can be more compact, making them suitable for
applications where space is limited
3. What is the principle of operation of a centrifugal clutch? What are its applications?
The principle of operation of a centrifugal clutch relies on centrifugal force generated by
the rotating components. As the engine speed increases, weights or shoes within the clutch
are forced outward against a spring mechanism, engaging the clutch and connecting the
engine to the output shaft. When engine speed decreases, centrifugal force reduces,
allowing springs to disengage the clutch.
Applications of centrifugal clutches include:
• Motorcycles: To allow smooth acceleration without manual engagement.
• Go-karts: For automatic engagement as speed increases.
• Small Engines: Used in lawn mowers and other equipment where manual operation
is impractical
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of band brake?
Advantages of Band Brakes:

• Simple Design: Easy to construct and maintain.

• Effective at Low Speeds: Provides strong braking force at low speeds.
• Adjustable: Can be adjusted for wear over time.

Disadvantages of Band Brakes:

• Heat Dissipation Issues: Can overheat if used continuously, leading to reduced

performance.
• Limited High-Speed Performance: Less effective at high speeds compared to disc brakes.
• Wear and Tear: The band material can wear out quickly, requiring replacement
5. What are the types of brake lining?
Brake linings come in various types, including:
• Organic Linings: Made from materials like rubber and fibers; they provide good
performance but wear out faster.
• Semi-Metallic Linings: Contain metal fibers for better heat dissipation; offer good
performance but can be noisy.
• Ceramic Linings: Made from ceramic materials; they provide excellent stopping power
with less dust but can be more expensive.
• Asbestos Linings: Once common but now largely phased out due to health concerns; they
provided good performance but posed safety risks
6. How clutch is different from coupling?
Definition and Function
Clutch: A clutch is a mechanical device that allows for the engagement and disengagement
of power transmission between a driving shaft (like an engine) and a driven shaft (like a
gearbox). It enables the operator to control the connection, allowing for smooth starts,
stops, and gear changes.
Coupling: A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the
purpose of transmitting power. Couplings can be rigid or flexible and are designed to
maintain a permanent connection between shafts.
Feature Clutch Coupling
Connection Type Temporary connection; Permanent or semi-permanent
allows for disconnection connection; does not allow
during operation. disconnection during normal
operation.
Usage Context Used in applications where Used in continuous service
intermittent service is applications (e.g.,
required (e.g., vehicles). machinery).
Power Transmission Transmits power while Transmits power at the same
allowing variable speed. speed as the driving shaft.
Mechanism for Engagement Provides rapid engagement Lacks mechanisms for quick
and disengagement via connection/disconnection;
operator input. typically fixed.
Examples Disc clutch, centrifugal Rigid coupling, flexible
clutch. coupling, universal coupling.

7. What are the requirements for a good friction material used for the brakes?

Requirements for Good Friction Material Used for Brakes

The effectiveness of brake systems heavily depends on the quality of friction materials
used. Here are essential requirements for good brake friction materials:
1. High Friction Coefficient
• The material should provide a high coefficient of friction to ensure effective stopping
power under various conditions.
2. Thermal Stability
• It must withstand high temperatures generated during braking without losing its
performance characteristics or degrading (e.g., fading).
3. Wear Resistance
• Good wear characteristics are essential to ensure longevity and reduce maintenance
frequency.
4. Low Noise and Vibration
• The material should minimize noise and vibrations during operation to enhance user
comfort.
5. Moisture Resistance
• It should perform well in wet conditions, maintaining friction levels even when exposed to
moisture.
6. Compatibility with Other Materials
• The friction material should be compatible with other components in the brake system (e.g.,
rotors or drums) to prevent premature wear.
7. Cost-Effectiveness
• While performance is critical, the material should also be economically viable for mass
production and replacement.
8. Environmental Considerations
• Modern materials should consider environmental impacts, such as low toxicity and
recyclability.
8. Why heat-dissipation is necessary in clutches?
• Heat dissipation in clutches is necessary due to the following reasons:
• Prevent Overheating: During engagement and disengagement, friction generates
heat. Excessive heat can lead to thermal degradation of the clutch material,
reducing its effectiveness and lifespan.
• Maintain Performance: Proper heat management ensures consistent
performance by preventing fading (loss of friction) that can occur at high
temperatures.
• Enhance Safety: Overheated clutches can fail suddenly, leading to potential
safety hazards. Effective heat dissipation mechanisms help mitigate this risk
9. What is a Self-Actuating or Self-Energizing Brake?
A self-actuating (or self-energizing) brake is a type of brake system that utilizes the
motion of the braking components to increase the braking force applied.
Key Characteristics:
• Mechanism: When the brake is applied, the rotation of the drum or disc causes the
brake shoes or pads to be forced against the braking surface with greater force
than initially applied by the operator.
 • Efficiency: This mechanism enhances braking efficiency by amplifying the force
without requiring additional effort from the operator.
• Applications: Commonly used in drum brakes and some types of disc brakes
where increased braking force is beneficial.
• Self-actuating brakes improve overall braking performance and reduce operator
effort, making them advantageous in various automotive and industrial
applications.
10. What Is an Internal Expanding Shoe Brake? Where Do You Use It?
An internal expanding shoe brake is a type of braking system that uses brake
shoes mounted inside a drum. When hydraulic or mechanical force is applied, the shoes
expand outward against the inner surface of the drum, creating friction that slows down
or stops the rotation.
Key Features:
• Self-Energizing Action: As the drum rotates, it helps push the shoes outward
against the drum surface, increasing braking force.
• Compact Design: The internal arrangement allows for a more compact braking
system compared to external brakes.
Applications:
• Internal expanding shoe brakes are commonly used in:
• Automobiles: Often found in rear drum brakes.
• Heavy Machinery: Used in construction equipment where reliable braking is
essential.
• Industrial Equipment: Employed in various machines requiring effective stopping
power.
11. Why Are Clutches Usually Designed on the Basis of Uniform Wear?
Clutches are designed on the basis of uniform wear for several reasons:
• Consistent Performance: Designing for uniform wear ensures that all parts of the
clutch engage evenly over time, leading to consistent performance throughout its
lifespan.
 • Extended Lifespan: By distributing wear evenly across the friction surfaces,
uniform wear minimizes localized overheating and degradation, which can lead to
premature failure.
• Predictable Maintenance: Uniform wear allows for more predictable maintenance
schedules, as wear rates can be estimated based on usage patterns, helping in
planning replacements before failure occurs.
This design philosophy enhances reliability and efficiency in various applications
where clutches are used.
12. What Is an Internal Expanding Shoe Brake? Where Do You Use It?
An internal expanding shoe brake is a braking system that uses brake shoes mounted
inside a drum. When hydraulic or mechanical force is applied, the shoes expand outward
against the inner surface of the drum, creating friction that slows down or stops rotation.
Key Features:
• Self-Energizing Action: The rotation of the drum helps push the shoes outward
against the drum surface, increasing braking force.
• Compact Design: The internal arrangement allows for a more compact braking
system compared to external brakes.
Applications:
• Internal expanding shoe brakes are commonly used in:
• Automobiles: Often found in rear drum brakes.
• Heavy Machinery: Used in construction equipment where reliable braking is
essential.
Industrial Equipment: Employed in various machines requiring effective stopping power.
 MODULE 3
1. Explain hydrodynamic theory.
Hydrodynamic theory pertains to the behavior of fluids in motion and is particularly
relevant in the context of lubrication in bearings. It describes how a lubricant film forms
between two surfaces (like a journal and bearing) when one surface moves relative to the
other.
Key aspects include:
Fluid Film Formation: As the shaft rotates, it drags lubricant into the gap between the shaft
and bearing, creating a pressure that supports the load.
Pressure Distribution: The lubricant film can develop pressure due to the motion, which
helps prevent metal-to-metal contact.
Load Carrying Capacity: The theory explains how sufficient film thickness can support
loads without causing wear, thus enhancing the lifespan of mechanical components.
2. Discuss the significance of bearing modulus in the design of journal bearings.
The bearing modulus is a crucial parameter in the design of journal bearings as it relates to
the load-carrying capacity and performance of the bearing.
Significance includes:
• Load Distribution: It helps in determining how load is distributed across the bearing
surface, which is vital for minimizing wear and ensuring longevity.
• Design Optimization: A higher bearing modulus indicates better performance under
load, allowing for optimized designs that can handle specific operational
conditions.
• Lubrication Requirements: It influences lubrication needs, as a well-designed
bearing with appropriate modulus can maintain effective lubrication under varying
loads.
3. Briefly describe the design procedure of journal bearings.
The design procedure for journal bearings typically involves several steps:
• Load Analysis: Determine the loads acting on the bearing during operation.
• Material Selection: Choose appropriate materials for both the journal and bearing
based on factors like strength, wear resistance, and thermal properties.
 • Dimensional Specifications: Calculate dimensions such as diameter, length, and
clearance based on load requirements and expected operating conditions.
• Lubrication Design: Decide on lubrication methods (e.g., oil or grease) and ensure
adequate supply to maintain a hydrodynamic film.
• Performance Evaluation: Analyze performance under expected operating
conditions using hydrodynamic principles to ensure sufficient film thickness and
load capacity.
• Testing and Validation: Prototype testing may be conducted to validate design
assumptions and performance metrics.
4. Define static and dynamic load carrying capacity of ball bearing.
Static Load Carrying Capacity (C₀): This is the maximum load a bearing can withstand
without permanent deformation when stationary or subjected to very slow movement. It
reflects the ability of the bearing to endure loads without structural damage.
Dynamic Load Carrying Capacity (C): This refers to the maximum load that a bearing can
support while in motion without experiencing fatigue failure over a specified number of
revolutions (usually defined as L10 life). It is crucial for determining how long a bearing
will last under operational conditions.
5. What is L10 and L50 life of ball bearing?
L10 Life: This is defined as the number of hours or revolutions at which 90% of a group
of identical bearings are expected to operate without failure due to fatigue under specific
load conditions. It represents a reliability measure for predicting bearing life.
L50 Life: Also known as average life, this indicates that 50% of bearings will have failed
after this time period under similar conditions. The L50 life is typically calculated as five
times the L10 life, providing a broader perspective on expected performance across a
population of bearings.
6. What are the types of lubrication for bearings?
Types of Lubrication for Bearings

Bearings require proper lubrication to reduce friction, dissipate heat, and prevent wear. The
major types of lubrication for bearings are:

1. Grease Lubrication

• Description: Grease is a semi-solid lubricant, typically composed of a base oil, thickener,

and additives. It adheres well to bearing surfaces and provides a sealing effect.

• Advantages:

• Longer lifespan due to reduced leakage.

• Minimal maintenance required once applied.

• Effective in preventing contamination.

• Applications: Commonly used in various industrial applications where low maintenance

is desired.

2. Oil Lubrication

• Description: Oil lubrication involves using liquid lubricants, either mineral or synthetic
oils, which can flow freely within the bearing.

• Methods of Application:

• Oil Bath: Bearings are immersed in oil; suitable for low to medium-speed
applications.

• Oil Drip: Oil is dripped onto the bearing; effective for cooling and lubrication at
moderate speeds.

• Oil Splash: Oil is splashed onto the bearing by rotating components; suitable for
higher speeds.

• Forced Oil Circulation: Oil is circulated through the bearing to maintain optimal
temperature and lubrication; ideal for high-speed or high-temperature
applications.
 • Advantages:

• Better cooling properties compared to grease.

• Easier to replace and drain.

• Applications: Used in high-speed machinery and applications requiring efficient heat

dissipation.

3. Dry Lubricants

• Description: These lubricants do not require oil or grease and include materials like
graphite or molybdenum disulfide (MoS2).

• Advantages:

• Suitable for environments where liquid lubricants could cause contamination.

• Effective in high-temperature or vacuum conditions.

• Applications: Often used in specialized applications like aerospace or clean rooms.

7. What are the causes of bearing failure?

Causes of Bearing Failure
Bearing failures can occur due to various factors, leading to reduced performance or
complete breakdown. Common causes include:
1. Insufficient Lubrication
Lack of proper lubrication can lead to increased friction, overheating, and wear.
2. Contamination
Dirt, dust, or foreign particles entering the bearing can cause abrasive wear and damage.
3. Misalignment
Improper alignment of shafts can lead to uneven load distribution and increased stress on
the bearings.
4. Overloading
Exceeding the load capacity of a bearing can result in deformation or fatigue failure.
5. Excessive Speed
 Operating at speeds beyond the design specifications can lead to overheating and
premature failure.
6. Material Defects
Manufacturing defects in the bearing material can lead to weaknesses that result in failure
under load.
8. Advantages and Disadvantages of Rolling-Contact Bearings Over Sliding Contact
Bearings
Advantages:
• Lower Friction: Rolling-contact bearings generally have lower friction compared
to sliding contact bearings, leading to improved efficiency and reduced heat
generation.
• Higher Load Capacity: They can support higher loads due to their design, which
distributes load over a larger surface area.
Disadvantages:
• Sensitivity to Misalignment: Rolling-contact bearings can be more sensitive to
misalignment than sliding contact bearings, potentially leading to premature failure
if not properly aligned.
• Cost: Generally, rolling-contact bearings are more expensive than sliding contact
bearings due to their complex design and manufacturing processes.
These factors should be considered when selecting bearing types for specific applications
based on operational requirements and cost considerations.
9. Why are Ball and Roller Bearings Called Antifriction Bearings?

Ball and roller bearings are referred to as antifriction bearings because they utilize rolling
elements (balls or rollers) to minimize friction between moving parts. Unlike sliding
contact bearings, which rely on a continuous surface contact that generates higher friction,
antifriction bearings allow for smooth rolling motion, significantly reducing frictional
resistance. This results in:

• Lower Energy Loss: Reduced friction leads to less energy being wasted as heat,
improving overall efficiency.
 • Less Wear: The rolling action minimizes wear on both the bearing and the shaft,
extending the lifespan of both components.
• Higher Load Capacity: Antifriction bearings can support heavier loads while
maintaining lower friction levels, making them suitable for high-speed
applications.
These characteristics make antifriction bearings essential in various mechanical systems
where efficiency and durability are critical
10. Advantages and Disadvantages of Rolling-Contact Bearings Over Sliding Contact
Bearings
Advantages:
• Lower Friction: Rolling-contact bearings generally have lower friction compared
to sliding contact bearings, leading to improved efficiency and reduced heat
generation.
• Higher Load Capacity: They can support higher loads due to their design, which
distributes load over a larger surface area.
Disadvantages:
• Sensitivity to Misalignment: Rolling-contact bearings can be more sensitive to
misalignment than sliding contact bearings, potentially leading to premature
failure if not properly aligned.
• Cost: Generally, rolling-contact bearings are more expensive than sliding contact
bearings due to their complex design and manufacturing processes.
• These factors should be considered when selecting bearing types for specific
applications based on operational requirements and cost considerations.
11. What is Bearing Modulus as Applied to the Journal Bearing?
Bearing modulus is a critical parameter used in the design of journal bearings. It is
defined as a dimensionless number that helps assess the performance characteristics of
the bearing under various operating conditions. The formula for bearing modulus
 Usage:

It is used to ensure that the bearing operates within safe limits to avoid excessive wear or
failure.

Engineers use it to determine optimal operating conditions, ensuring that the lubrication
regime transitions appropriately between thin film and thick film lubrication.

12. Enumerate the Advantages of Needle Roller Bearings

Needle roller bearings offer several advantages, including:

• High Load Capacity: Due to their long, thin cylindrical rollers, needle roller bearings have
a high length-to-diameter ratio, allowing them to support substantial radial loads while
maintaining a compact design.
• Compact Design: Their small size and low radial section height make needle roller bearings
suitable for applications where space is limited, enabling more efficient use of available
space.
• Low Friction Resistance: Needle roller bearings exhibit low friction due to their rolling
motion, which enhances mechanical efficiency and reduces power consumption in
applications.
 MODULE 4
1. State and explain the law of gearing.
The law of gearing states that for two meshing gears to maintain a constant angular velocity
ratio, the common normal at the point of contact between the gear teeth must always pass
through a fixed point on the line of centers, known as the pitch point.
This condition ensures that:
• The gears can transmit motion smoothly without slipping.
• The angular velocity ratio remains constant throughout the engagement, which is
essential for efficient power transmission.
• In practical terms, this law is satisfied by using involute tooth profiles, which allow
for consistent contact between teeth as they rotate, ensuring effective load transfer
and minimal wear over time
2. Give an account on different modes of failure of gear tooth.
Gear tooth failures can occur due to various reasons, including:
• Bending Fatigue: Repeated loading can lead to cracks and eventual breakage of the
tooth due to bending stresses.
• Pitting: Surface fatigue can cause small pits to form on the tooth surface, leading to
material loss and reduced efficiency.
• Scuffing: Insufficient lubrication can cause metal-to-metal contact, leading to
severe wear and damage.
• Tooth Shear: Excessive loads can cause the teeth to shear off, particularly in gears
with inadequate design margins.
• Wear: Continuous operation can lead to gradual material loss from the tooth
surfaces, affecting performance and alignment.
• Understanding these failure modes is crucial for designing durable gears and
ensuring reliable operation
3. Explain why dynamic factors need to be considered in the design of gears.
Dynamic factors must be considered in gear design because:
 • Load Variations: Gears often operate under varying loads due to changes in speed
and torque during operation. Dynamic analysis helps predict how these variations
affect performance.
• Vibration and Noise: Dynamic interactions between gears can lead to vibrations
that not only affect performance but also contribute to noise generation. Proper
design minimizes these effects.
• Fatigue Life: Dynamic loads can significantly influence the fatigue life of gear
teeth. Considering these factors helps in predicting lifespan and ensuring reliability.
• Resonance Issues: Gears can resonate at certain speeds, leading to excessive
vibrations and potential failure. Understanding dynamic behavior allows for better
damping solutions.
• Incorporating dynamic factors into design ensures that gears perform effectively
under real operating conditions, enhancing durability and efficiency
4. Explain interference and undercutting in gears.
Interference occurs when the teeth of two mating gears collide during rotation, preventing
proper meshing. This typically happens when:
• The pressure angle is too steep or the tooth profiles are improperly designed.
• It leads to increased wear or damage if not addressed.
Undercutting, on the other hand, refers to a condition where part of a gear tooth is removed
during manufacturing or operation, weakening the tooth structure. This generally occurs
when:
• The root radius is too small relative to the pitch diameter.
• It reduces the strength of the gear tooth and can lead to premature failure.
• Both interference and undercutting are critical considerations in gear design to
ensure optimal performance and longevity
5. What are the advantages of helical gears over spur gears?
Helical gears offer several advantages compared to spur gears:
• Smooth Operation: Helical gears engage gradually due to their angled teeth,
resulting in smoother operation with less noise and vibration.
• Higher Load Capacity: They can handle higher loads because multiple teeth are in
contact simultaneously during engagement.
 • Better Alignment: Helical gears provide better axial alignment due to their design,
which helps distribute forces more evenly.
• Reduced Wear: The gradual engagement reduces wear on both teeth surfaces,
enhancing durability.
These characteristics make helical gears suitable for high-speed applications where
smoothness and efficiency are critical
6. What is beam strength in case of helical gears?
• Beam strength in helical gears refers to the ability of the gear tooth to resist bending
stresses when subjected to loads. It is a critical factor in determining how much
load a helical gear can safely transmit without failing due to bending fatigue.
• The beam strength is influenced by:
• Tooth Geometry: The shape and size of the tooth affect its ability to withstand
bending forces.
• Material Properties: The strength of the material used for manufacturing impacts
overall beam strength.
• Calculating beam strength helps engineers ensure that helical gears are designed
adequately for their intended applications, preventing premature failure while
maximizing performance
7. Draw a neat sketch and indicate terminology used in spur Gear
Key Terminology
Pitch Circle: The imaginary circle where the gear teeth effectively engage. It is crucial for
determining the gear's size and spacing.
Addendum: The radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of the gear tooth.
Dedendum: The radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth space.
Root Diameter: The diameter of the circle that passes through the bottom of the tooth
spaces.
Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.
Circular Pitch: The distance measured along the pitch circle between corresponding points
on adjacent teeth.
Pressure Angle: The angle between the line of action (the line along which force is
transmitted between meshing teeth) and a line perpendicular to the pitch circle.
 Backlash: The clearance or play between mating teeth, which allows for thermal expansion
and lubrication.
Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the arc of action to the circular pitch, indicating
how many teeth are in contact during operation.
8. What is virtual or equivalent number of teeth in case of helical gears?
Virtual or Equivalent Number of Teeth in Helical Gears
The virtual or equivalent number of teeth in helical gears refers to an adjusted count that
accounts for the helix angle of the teeth when calculating gear ratios and interactions.
Definition:
The virtual number of teeth is calculated by considering how many effective teeth are
engaged during meshing due to the helical design, which can be different from simply
counting physical teeth.

Importance:

• This concept is crucial for understanding load distribution and ensuring smooth operation,
as it helps in analyzing how helical gears interact compared to spur gears, especially under
varying loads and speeds.

9. What is the Stub Involute Gear Tooth System?

The stub involute gear tooth system is a specific design of gear teeth characterized by
shorter teeth compared to standard involute gears.
Key Features:
• Shorter Teeth: Stub involute gears have a reduced tooth height, which allows for a
more compact design.
 • Involute Profile: The tooth profile follows an involute curve, which ensures smooth
engagement and disengagement during operation.
• Improved Strength: The design enhances the strength of the teeth due to the reduced
length, making them less prone to bending and breakage.
• Applications:
Stub involute gears are often used in applications where space is limited or where higher
load capacities are required without increasing the size of the gear.
10. Advantages of Helical Gears Over Spur Gears
• Helical gears offer several advantages compared to spur gears:
• Smoother Operation: Helical gears engage gradually due to their angled teeth,
resulting in quieter and smoother operation with less vibration.
• Higher Load Capacity: They can handle higher loads because multiple teeth are in
contact simultaneously during engagement, distributing the load more evenly.
• Better Alignment: Helical gears provide better axial alignment due to their design,
which helps reduce misalignment issues.
• Reduced Wear: The gradual engagement reduces wear on both teeth surfaces,
enhancing durability.
These advantages make helical gears suitable for high-speed applications where
performance and reliability are crucial.
11. State Two Important Reasons for Adopting Involute Curve for Gear Tooth Profile.
Constant Velocity Ratio: The involute profile allows for a consistent angular velocity ratio
between meshing gears throughout their engagement. This means that as gears rotate, they
maintain a smooth and continuous motion without slipping, which is critical for efficient
power transmission.
Ease of Manufacturing and Assembly: Involute gears can be manufactured with relative
ease using standard cutting tools and methods. Additionally, they allow for slight
misalignments during assembly without affecting performance, making them more
practical in real-world applications.
12. State Desirable Properties of a Good Lubricant
A good lubricant should possess several desirable properties:
 • Low Viscosity at Operating Temperature: It should flow easily at operating
temperatures to reduce friction effectively while maintaining an adequate film
thickness.
• High Viscosity Index (VI): A high VI indicates that viscosity changes little with
temperature fluctuations, ensuring consistent lubrication performance across
varying conditions.
• Thermal Stability: The lubricant should resist breakdown at high temperatures to
prevent sludge formation and maintain its lubricating properties over time.
• Good Load-Carrying Capacity: It should withstand high pressures without breaking
down or losing its lubricating effectiveness.
• Corrosion Resistance: A good lubricant should protect metal surfaces from
corrosion caused by moisture and other environmental factors.
• Compatibility with Seals and Gaskets: It should not degrade seals or gaskets used
in machinery, ensuring long-term reliability.
These properties are essential for ensuring effective lubrication and prolonging the life of
mechanical components in various applications.
13. What Are the Advantages of 20 Degree Full Depth Involute Teeth Gears?
The advantages of using 20-degree full depth involute teeth gears include:
• Improved Strength: The 20-degree pressure angle provides better tooth strength
compared to lower pressure angles, allowing for higher load capacities and
durability.
• Better Tooth Engagement: The involute profile ensures smooth engagement and
disengagement of teeth, resulting in reduced noise and vibration during operation.
• Ease of Manufacturing: Full depth involute gears can be manufactured using
standard gear-cutting tools, making them cost-effective and easier to produce.
14. Compare the Contact Between Mating Teeth of Parallel and Crossed Helical Gears
Aspect Parallel Helical Gears Crossed Helical Gears
Teeth engage along a line Teeth engage at an angle,
Tooth Contact parallel to the axis, leading to complex contact
 allowing for smooth patterns that can increase
transmission of torque. friction.
Load is distributed evenly Load distribution may be
along the length of the uneven due to the angle of
teeth, reducing wear and engagement, potentially
Load Distribution improving lifespan. leading to increased wear.
Generally more efficient Typically less efficient due
due to better alignment and to increased sliding friction
Efficiency contact characteristics. between the teeth.
 MODULE 5
1. What are the uses of bevel gears?
• Bevel gears are primarily used to transmit power between shafts that are at an angle
to each other, typically at 90 degrees. Their applications include:
• Automobiles: Used in differential drives to allow wheels to rotate at different
speeds.
• Industrial Machinery: Found in food packaging equipment, welding positioning
equipment, and lawn and garden machinery.
• Marine Applications: Employed in propulsion systems and thrusters.
• Aerospace: Utilized in rotorcraft drive systems and auxiliary gearboxes.
• Heavy Machinery: Incorporated in cement mills, cone crushers, and various mining
equipment
2. Classify bevel gears.
• Bevel gears can be classified into several types based on their tooth design and
alignment:
• Straight Bevel Gears: Feature straight teeth and are the simplest form.
• Spiral Bevel Gears: Have curved teeth that allow for smoother engagement.
• Zerol Bevel Gears: Similar to spiral bevel gears but with a spiral angle of zero,
reducing thrust loads.
• Hypoid Bevel Gears: Allow for non-intersecting axes and have a hyperbolic pitch
surface.
• Miter Gears: Have equal numbers of teeth and are used for shafts positioned at right
angles
3. What is the formative number of teeth in case of bevel gears?
The formative number of teeth in bevel gears refers to the effective number of teeth that
contribute to the gear's ability to transmit torque without interference. It is calculated based
on the geometry of the gear, including factors like the pitch diameter and tooth profile. This
number is crucial for determining the gear's strength and performance characteristics.
4. What are the characteristics of worm gears?
Worm gears have several distinct characteristics:
• High Torque Transmission: They can provide significant gear reduction ratios,
allowing for high torque output.
• Self-Locking Ability: Worm gears can prevent back-driving, making them useful in
applications requiring safety and stability.
• Compact Design: They allow for a more compact arrangement compared to other
gear types, saving space in machinery.
• Smooth Operation: The sliding contact between the worm and worm wheel results
in quieter operation compared to spur or bevel gears
5. Enumerate the applications of worm gears.
• Worm gears are used in a variety of applications, including:
• Elevators and Lifts: For smooth lifting operations.
• Conveyor Systems: To control movement direction and speed.
• Automated Machinery: In robotics for precise movements.
• Winches and Hoists: For heavy lifting tasks.
• Industrial Gearboxes: To reduce speed while increasing torque
6. Describe the design procedure of worm gears.
The design procedure for worm gears typically involves several key steps:
• Load Analysis: Determine the loads that will be transmitted through the gear system
during operation.
• Material Selection: Choose appropriate materials for both the worm and worm
wheel based on strength, wear resistance, and thermal properties.
• Gear Ratio Calculation: Define the required gear ratio based on application needs
(input speed vs. output speed).
• Geometry Design: Calculate dimensions such as pitch diameter, lead angle, and
tooth profile based on design requirements.
• Lubrication Design: Ensure proper lubrication methods are considered to minimize
wear and heat generation during operation.
 • Performance Evaluation: Analyze performance under expected operational
conditions, considering factors like efficiency and thermal effects.
7. What is a Herringbone Gear? What are its Advantages?
• Herringbone gears are a type of gear characterized by their unique "V" shaped tooth
arrangement, which consists of two helical gears with opposite helix angles. This
configuration allows for smoother power transmission and balances axial thrust
forces, which is a significant advantage over traditional helical gears.
Advantages of Herringbone Gears:
• Reduced Axial Thrust: The opposing helix angles cancel out the axial forces that
typically arise in helical gears, eliminating the need for thrust bearings. This
reduces wear on the bearings and enhances the overall efficiency of the system.
• High Load Capacity: Herringbone gears can handle higher loads due to their design,
which allows more than two teeth to be engaged at any time, providing better load
distribution.
• Smooth Operation: The continuous engagement of teeth leads to reduced vibration
and noise, making them suitable for applications requiring quiet operation.
• Improved Efficiency: The design minimizes energy losses during power
transmission, resulting in higher efficiency compared to other gear types.
• Versatility in Applications: Herringbone gears are used in various industries,
including marine propulsion, turbines, and heavy machinery, where high torque and
reliability are essential.
8. What is a Herringbone Gear? What are its Advantages?
Herringbone gears are a type of gear characterized by their unique "V" shaped tooth
arrangement, which consists of two helical gears with opposite helix angles. This
configuration allows for smoother power transmission and balances axial thrust forces,
which is a significant advantage over traditional helical gears.
Advantages of Herringbone Gears:
• Reduced Axial Thrust: The opposing helix angles cancel out the axial forces that
typically arise in helical gears, eliminating the need for thrust bearings. This
reduces wear on the bearings and enhances the overall efficiency of the system.
 • High Load Capacity: Herringbone gears can handle higher loads due to their design,
which allows more than two teeth to be engaged at any time, providing better load
distribution.
• Smooth Operation: The continuous engagement of teeth leads to reduced vibration
and noise, making them suitable for applications requiring quiet operation.
• Improved Efficiency: The design minimizes energy losses during power
transmission, resulting in higher efficiency compared to other gear types.
• Versatility in Applications: Herringbone gears are used in various industries,
including marine propulsion, turbines, and heavy machinery, where high torque and
reliability are essential.
9. How Will You Estimate the Wear Strength of Bevel Gear?
• To estimate the wear strength of bevel gears, several factors must be considered:
• Material Properties: Assessing the material's hardness and wear resistance is
essential. Common materials include steel alloys treated for hardness.
• Tooth Geometry: The design of the tooth profile affects wear resistance. A well-
designed tooth shape can distribute loads more evenly and reduce localized wear.
• Load Conditions: Evaluating the operational loads (both static and dynamic) that
the bevel gear will encounter helps in determining wear strength.
• Lubrication: Proper lubrication reduces friction and wear; thus, understanding
lubrication methods and conditions is crucial for accurate estimation.
• Testing Standards: Utilizing established testing standards (like ASTM or ISO) for
wear testing can provide quantitative data on wear resistance under controlled
conditions.
• By considering these factors, engineers can estimate the wear strength of bevel
gears effectively and ensure their reliability in applications.
10. Why is the Efficiency of Worm Gear Drive Low?

The efficiency of worm gear drives is generally low due to several reasons:

• Sliding Contact: Worm gears operate on a sliding contact principle between the
worm and worm wheel, leading to higher friction losses compared to rolling contact
bearings.
 • Heat Generation: The sliding motion generates significant heat, which not only
contributes to energy loss but can also lead to thermal degradation of lubrication
over time.
• High Load Capacity vs. Speed Ratio: While worm gears provide high torque at low
speeds, this comes at the cost of efficiency; they are designed for heavy loads rather
than speed.
• Material Limitations: The materials used for worm gear construction may have
limitations in terms of heat resistance and durability under high loads, affecting
overall efficiency.
• These factors contribute to worm gear drives typically having efficiencies ranging
from 50% to 90%, depending on design and operating conditions.
11. How Will You Estimate the Wear Strength of Bevel Gear?
To estimate the wear strength of bevel gears, consider the following factors:
• Material Properties: Assessing the hardness and wear resistance of materials used
in manufacturing bevel gears is essential. Common materials include hardened steel
or specialized alloys designed for high wear resistance.
• Tooth Geometry: The design and shape of the tooth profile affect wear resistance.
A well-designed tooth shape can help distribute loads evenly and reduce localized
wear.
• Load Conditions: Evaluating operational loads (static and dynamic) helps
determine how much stress the gear will experience during use.
• Lubrication: Proper lubrication reduces friction and wear; thus, understanding
lubrication methods and conditions is crucial for accurate estimation.
• Testing Standards: Utilizing established testing standards (like ASTM or ISO) for
wear testing can provide quantitative data on wear resistance under controlled
conditions.
• By considering these factors, engineers can effectively estimate the wear strength
of bevel gears to ensure reliability in applications.
12. What Kind of Contact Occurs Between Worm and Worm Wheel? How Does It
Differ from Other Types of Gears?
 The contact between a worm and a worm wheel occurs through sliding contact rather
than rolling contact, which is typical in most other types of gears (like spur or helical
gears).
Key Characteristics:
• Sliding Contact: The worm's threads slide against the teeth of the worm wheel
during operation, leading to higher friction compared to rolling contact gears.
• High Reduction Ratios: Worm gear sets provide significant gear reduction ratios
in a compact design, making them suitable for applications requiring high torque
at low speeds.
Differences from Other Gears:
• Efficiency: Worm gear drives generally have lower efficiency due to sliding
friction, while rolling-contact gears have higher efficiency due to reduced
frictional losses.
• Self-Locking Feature: Worm gears often exhibit self-locking characteristics,
preventing back-driving when not powered, which is not typically found in other
gear types.
These differences make worm gear systems unique and suitable for specific applications
where high torque and compact designs are essential.
13. What Is the Relationship Between Actual and Virtual Number of Teeth and the Pitch
Angle in Bevel Gears?
In bevel gears, the pitch angle, actual number of teeth, and virtual number of teeth
interact to achieve the desired motion transfer, especially when shafts intersect at an
angle. Let's break down their relationship more intuitively:
Actual Number of Teeth:
This is the literal count of teeth on each bevel gear.
The ratio of the actual number of teeth on the mating gears determines the gear ratio,
which directly influences speed and torque transmission.
Pitch Angle:
This angle is defined by the cone shape of a bevel gear and dictates how two bevel gears
mesh. The pitch angle changes depending on the shaft angle. For instance, in standard
right-angle bevel gears (90°), the pitch angles add up to 90°.
 Virtual Number of Teeth:

This is an adjusted or “virtual” tooth count used in calculations to allow bevel gears to be
analyzed as though they were spur gears.
It’s calculated by scaling the actual number of teeth based on the pitch angle,
transforming the bevel gear into an equivalent spur gear for simplified analysis.
The virtual number of teeth can also influence the selection of a bevel gear’s tooth
profile, aiming for smooth meshing and load distribution.
Ze= Z / Cos δ
14. Why Is the Efficiency of Worm Gear Drive Low?
The efficiency of worm gear drives is generally low due to several factors:
• Sliding Contact: Worm gears operate on a sliding contact principle between the
worm and worm wheel, leading to higher friction losses compared to rolling
contact gears.
• Heat Generation: The sliding motion generates significant heat during operation,
which not only contributes to energy loss but can also lead to thermal degradation
of lubrication over time.
• High Load Capacity vs. Speed Ratio: While worm gears provide high torque at
low speeds, this comes at the cost of efficiency; they are designed for heavy loads
rather than speed.
• These factors contribute to worm gear drives typically having efficiencies ranging
from 50% to 90%, depending on design and operating conditions.