Chapter-1

Introduction to signals

Classification of signals

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Classification of signals
• A signal is classified into continuous-
time and
several categories depending discrete-
upon the criteria time signals;
used for its classification: deterministic analog and
and
digital
• continuous-time and probabilistic
signals;
signals.
discrete-time signals;
• analog and digital signals; Signal
Classifica
• periodic and nonperiodic tion
signals;
energy and periodic and
• even and odd signals; power nonperiodic
signals; signals;
• energy and power signals;
• deterministic and probabilistic even and
signals. odd signals

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• If a signal is defined for all values of the independent variable t, it is called
a continuous-time (CT) signal (a)
• If a signal is defined only at discrete values of time, it is called a discrete-
time (DT) signal (b)
x(t ) = sin(t )

(a) 

t
−2 −1 0 1 2

xk  = sin(0.25k )

(b)
−2 6
k
−8 −6 −4 0 2 4 8

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Example 1.1
• Consider the CT signal 𝑥(𝑡) = sin(𝜋𝑡) as a function of time t.
x(t ) = sin(t )


t
−2 −1 0 1 2

• Discretize the signal using a sampling interval of 𝑇 = 0.25 s, and sketch

the waveform of the resulting DT sequence for the range −8 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 8
• Solution
• By substituting 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑇, the DT representation of the CT signal 𝑥(𝑡) is
given by 𝑥[𝑘𝑇 ] = sin(𝜋𝑘 × 𝑇) = sin(0.25𝜋𝑘). For 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ,

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals

xk  = sin(0.25k )

−2 6
k
−8 −6 −4 0 2 4 8

……

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
x (t )
1

t
− 0 .5  0.5

Fig. 1.4. Waveform for CT

rectangular function.

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Analog and digital signals
• The amplitudes of many real-world signals, change continuously, and these
signals are called analog signals.
• Digital signals, on the other hand, can only have a finite number of
amplitude values.
1.125

0.875
Fig. 1.5. Analog signal with its
0.625 digital approximation.
0.375

The waveform for the analog

Signal Value

0.125

−0.125
signal is shown with a line
plot; the quantized digital
−0.375
approximation is shown with
−0.625
a stem plot.
−0.875

−1.125
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sampling time t = kT

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Periodic and non-periodic signals
• A CT signal 𝑥(𝑡) is said to be periodic if it satisfies the following property:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 )
at all time 𝑡 and for some positive constant 𝑇0 .
• The smallest positive value of 𝑇0 is referred to as the fundamental period

• Likewise, a DT signal 𝑥[𝑘] is said to be periodic if it satisfies

𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑥[𝑘 + 𝐾0 ]
• The smallest positive value of 𝐾0 is referred to as the fundamental period

• A signal that is not periodic is called an aperiodic or non-periodic signal

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Periodic and non-periodic signals
3
(a) (d)
t t
−4 −2 0 2 4

−3

(b) (e) 

t
t 0
−2 −1 0 1 2

(c) 
(f)
 
3
−2 6 2
1
k
k
−8 −6 −4 0 2 4 8
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 1.6. Examples of periodic ((a), (b), and (c)) and aperiodic ((d), (e), and (f)) signals.
Do you know the fundamental periods 𝑇0 or 𝐾0 of each periodic signal?

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Periodic and non-periodic signals
• The reciprocal of the fundamental period of a signal is called the
fundamental frequency

• The unit of frequency is cycles per second (c/s) or hertz (Hz).

• Sometimes, we also use radians per second as a unit of frequency (is

referred to as angular frequency (𝜔0 ).
• Since there are 2𝜋 radians (or 360◦) in one cycle → 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Periodic and non-periodic signals
• A familiar example of a periodic signal is a sinusoidal function
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃
• The sinusoidal signal 𝑥(𝑡) has a fundamental period 𝑇0 = 2𝜋/𝜔0

• The sinusoidal signal 𝑥(𝑡) can be expressed as a function of a complex

exponential, using the Euler identity
𝑒 𝑗 𝜔0𝑡+𝜃 = cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃

• Since both the imaginary and real components are periodic, the complex
exponential 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔0𝑡+𝜃 is also a periodic signal with the same
fundamental period of 𝑇0 = 2𝜋/𝜔0

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Periodic and non-periodic signals
• Example: Determine if the CT signals below are periodic and find the
fundamental period!
a) 𝑥1 𝑡 = sin 4𝜋𝑡
b) 𝑥2 𝑡 = cos 3𝜋𝑡
c) 𝑥3 𝑡 = tan 10𝑡

d) 𝑥4 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗 2𝑡+7

e) 𝑥5 𝑡 = 2𝑡 + 5
f) 𝑥6 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Periodic and non-periodic signals
• Although all CT sinusoidals are periodic, their DT counterparts
𝑥[𝑘] = 𝐴 sin(Ω0 𝑘 + 𝜃) may not always be periodic.

• Proposition 1.1
An arbitrary DT sinusoidal sequence 𝑥[𝑘] = 𝐴 sin(Ω0 𝑘 + 𝜃) is periodic iff
Ω0
is a rational number
2𝜋

• Its fundamental period is evaluated from the relationship

Ω0 𝑚 2𝜋
= ⟹ 𝐾0 = 𝑚
2𝜋 𝐾0 Ω0
• The fundamental period is calculated with 𝑚 set to the smallest integer

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Periodic and non-periodic signals
• Example: Determine if the DT sequences are periodic?
𝜋𝑘 𝜋
a) 𝑓[𝑘] = sin +
12 4

3𝜋𝑘
b) 𝑔[𝑘] = cos +𝜃
10

c) ℎ[𝑘] = cos 0.5𝑘 + 𝜙

d) 𝑝[𝑘] = 𝑒 𝑗 7𝜋𝑘/8+𝜃

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Harmonics of periodic signals
• Consider two sinusoidal functions
𝑥(𝑡) = sin(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃) and 𝑥𝑚 (𝑡) = sin(𝑚𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃)
▫ The angular frequency of the signal 𝑥𝑚 (𝑡) is 𝑚 times the angular
frequency of the signal 𝑥(𝑡)

• The CT signal 𝑥𝑚 (𝑡) is referred to as the 𝒎𝐭𝐡 harmonic of 𝑥 𝑡

x1 (t ) = sin(2t ) x2 (t ) = sin(4t )
 

t t
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.7. Examples of harmonics.

(a) Waveform for the sinusoidal signal 𝑥1 (𝑡) = sin(2𝜋𝑡);
(b) waveform for its second harmonic given by 𝑥2 (𝑡) = sin(4𝜋𝑡)

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Is linear combination of two signals periodic?
• Proposition 1.2
A signal 𝑔(𝑡) that is a linear combination of two periodic signals, 𝑥1 (𝑡) with
fundamental period 𝑇1 and 𝑥2 (𝑡) with fundamental period 𝑇2 as follows:
𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡)
is periodic iff
𝑇1 𝑚
= = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑇2 𝑛
• Example 1.5
Determine if the following signals are periodic. If yes, determine the
fundamental period.
a) 𝑔1 (𝑡) = 3 sin(4𝜋𝑡) + 7 cos(3𝜋𝑡)
b) 𝑔2 (𝑡) = 3 sin(4𝜋𝑡) + 7 cos(10𝑡)

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Is linear combination of two signals periodic?
• Illustration of the above result graphically, two signals 𝑔1 (𝑡) and 𝑔2 (𝑡)
g1 (t ) = 3sin(4t ) + 7 cos(3t ) g 2 (t ) = 3sin(4t ) + 7 cos(10t )

10 10

8 8

6 2s 6
2s
4 4

2 2

0 0

−2 −2

−4 −4

−6 −6

−8 −8

−10 −10
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.8. Signals (a) 𝑔1 (𝑡) and (b) 𝑔2 (𝑡).

Signal 𝑔1 (𝑡) is periodic with a fundamental period of 2 s, while 𝑔2 (𝑡) is not periodic

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Even and odd signals
• A CT signal 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) is said to be an even signal if
𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑥𝑒 (−𝑡)
• Conversely, a CT signal 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) is said to be an odd signal if
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = −𝑥𝑜 −𝑡
xe (t ) xo (t )
5 5

t t
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8

−5
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.10. Example of (a) an even signal and (b) an odd signal

• An even signal is symmetric about the vertical axis

• An odd signal is antisymmetric about the vertical axis

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Even and odd signals
• Additional examples of even signals: Figs. 1.6(a) and (b),
additional examples of odd signals: Figs. 1.6(c) and (e).
• Most practical signals are neither odd nor even. For example, the signals
shown in Figs. 1.6(d) and (f), and 1.8(a).
• Such signals are classified in the “neither odd nor even”
• Neither odd nor even signals can be expressed as a sum of even and odd
signals
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)
where the even and odd components are
1
𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡
2
1
𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
2

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
 Even and odd signals

𝑡 0≤𝑡<1
• Example 1.9 Express the CT signal 𝑥 𝑡 = ቊ
0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
as a combination of an even signal and an odd signal

(a) x(t )
1
0.5
t
−2 −1 0 1 2

(b) (c)
xe (t ) xo (t )
1 1
0.5 0.5

t t
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
−0.5 −0.5

Fig. 1.11. (a) The CT signal 𝑥(𝑡), (b) Even component, (c) Odd component.

“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press
“Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems” by Mandal and Asif
© Cambridge University Press