Self

Module 2 ┃Unpacking the Self

Overview
Sex and topic’s relating to one’s sexuality
is relatively a sensitive part of our
culture. Human sexuality is a very
complex matter and when we are not
informed and educated about it, our
views toward it will never change.

In addition, by not understanding it, may

also lead to confusion to some parts of
ourselves.
The concept of sexual self refers to an individual’s
understanding and perception of their own
sexuality.

It compasses various dimensions that contribute to

one’s sexual identity, preferences, and experiences.
Composed of self-schemas, mental structures that
organizes knowledge about oneself. It influences how
we process info. related to identity, guiding our
perceptions and behaviors.

It help us understand and express ourselves sexually.

Includes schemas about sex, gender, sexual
orientation, and sexual expression/responses.
Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define
men and women and that constitutes the sex categories of male and
female (World Health Organization, 2014).

It is sometimes referred to as biological or assigned sex as it is based on

what a person is endowed by nature or at birth.
 Gender, on the other hand, refers to the attitudes,
feelings and behaviors that a given culture associates
with a person's biological sex (American
Psychological Association, 2012).
Gender Identity is an internal awareness of where the individual belongs in the
feminine and masculine categories. One may identify with either of these
categories, or neither, such as in the case of people who label themselves as
"gender queer," "gender variant," or "gender fluid."
 ?
Sexual orientation refers to the direction of one's sexual and romantic interests
(Rathus, 2014). Categories used to describe sexual orientation are heterosexual,
homosexual or bisexual.
• MAMAWA = "Men-Are-Men-And-Women-Are-Women"
• A simplistic view of gender based on traditional stereotypes.
• Modern gender roles and identities question this assumption
because of the modern roles that males and females play
which may no longer fit the gender stereotypes.
• Therew’s a need to acknowledge the complexity of human
experience beyond simple binaries.
• The idea that hormones solely dictate sex
differences is overly simplistic.

• Hormones play a role, but so do social, cultural,

and environmental factors.
• Oversimplified views of gender differences hinder true
understanding.
• This assumption over emphasizes the role of nature and
explains differences between males and females mainly
from this perspective.
• It is important, however, to understand the interplay
between nature and nurture in our conception of the sexual
self.
• Understanding the sexual self involves looking at its
multiple dimensions that consist of both biological and
environmental influences.
• Our biological sex begins with the sex chromosomes that we inherit
from our parents during the time of fertilization, that is the fusion of
the sex cells of our parents.

• These sex chromosomes are so called, because they genetically

program the organism to develop either along a female or male line.
 What determines our sex?
• The mother's egg cells typically carry an X
chromosome while the father's sperm cells
are split into two- half have has X
chromosomes while the other half have has Y
chromosomes.

• If the sperm with an X chromosome fertilizes

the egg cell first, then the resulting XX pair of
sex chromosomes produces a girl. However, if
the one with a Y chromosome successfully
unites with the egg cell, then the XY pair
produces a boy.
• Gonads are organs that produces gametes (sperm or egg
cell); a testis or ovary.

• At 6 weeks after fertilization, regardless of gender, all

embryos have identical primordial gonads (primordial
meaning "existing at the beginning) (Pinel, 2014).

• The identical pair of gonadal structures consists of an outer

covering, or cortex that has the potential to become an ovary
and an inner core, or medulla, that can potentially become a
testis.
• Those earliest event that happened in our lives when we
were yet a zygote, or a single-cell organism, assigned us to a
particular sex, it did not lead to an automatic divergence of
sexual development in boys and in girls.

• In fact, sex is initially undifferentiated in the embryo up until

a certain time.
• At about 6 weeks after conception, the SRY gene (so named
because it is found in the sex-determining region of the Y
chromosome of the male embryos) triggers the synthesis of
SRY protein (Arnold, 2004).
• This protein causes the internal part, or the medulla, of each
gonad to grow and develop into testes. In female embryos
that lack the SRY gene that encodes the SRY protein, the
primordial gonads automatically develop into ovaries.
Prenatal Stage: Internal Organs
• Until about the third month in the prenatal development,
both embryos possess the same reproductive ducts
including a male Wolffian system and a female Müllerian
system (Freberg, 2010).
• The Wolffian system has the potential to develop into the
male reproductive ducts comprising the epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory duct and seminal vesicles (Witchel &
Lee, 2014).
• The Müllerian system, on the other hand, has the capacity to
form into the fallopian tubes, the uterus and the upper
portion of the vagina (Goodman, 2009).
Prenatal Stage: Internal Organs
• the male's newly developed testes begin to secrete
two hormones: the testosterone and anti-Müllerian
hormones (Freberg, 2010).

• The testosterone, the most common type of androgen

hormones, stimulates the development of the
Wolffian system while the anti-Müllerian hormone
inhibits the development of the Müllerian system.
Prenatal Stage: Internal Organs
• Unlike the male testes that become activated and
began releasing hormones, the female ovaries are
almost completely inactive during the fetal
development.

• The differentiation of the female internal ducts

does not require any hormone at all. Normal
female fetuses and even those ovariectomized
female fetuses (those whose ovaries have been
removed) all develop in the typical female direction.
Prenatal Stage: External Organs
• At 6 weeks after fertilization, the external reproductive
organs for both males and females begin to differentiate
from initially the same 4 parts: the glans, the urethral folds,
the lateral bodies and the labioscrotal swellings (Pinel, 2014).

• The glans develops into the head of the penis in the male or
clitoris in the female; the urethral folds fuse in the male
while become enlarged as the labia minora in the female; the
lateral bodies form the shaft of the penis in the male or the
hood of clitoris in the female; and the labioscrotal swellings
form the scrotum in the male or the labia majora in the
female.
 • At the beginning, all embryos, regardless of whether
they’ll become male or female, look the same.

• Gonads: These are the organs that produce sex cells.

Recap
Early on, embryos have the potential to develop either
ovaries (for females) or testes (for males).

• If an embryo has a Y chromosome, a specific gene on

it triggers the development of testes.

• Once testes develop, they start producing hormones

like testosterone. These hormones guide the
development of male reproductive organs and other
male characteristics.
 • If an embryo doesn't have a Y
chromosome, it will develop ovaries and
female reproductive organs.

Recap • Both male and female embryos start with

similar structures. Hormones, especially
testosterone, influence how these
structures develop, leading to the
formation of either male or female
external genitalia.
• Characterized by adolescent growth spurt, maturity of the
external genitalia and the development of secondary sex
characteristics.
• Secondary sex characteristics are those physical changes
that distinguish sexual maturity in women and in men. The
changes that occur during puberty are mainly caused by
increased production of hormones.
• The anterior pituitary releases high levels of growth hormone that
acts directly on the bones and muscle tissues resulting in growth
spurt
• The hypothalamus releases the gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release two
gonadotropic hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Both hormones are present in males and females but produce
different effects.
• In males, FSH and LH cause the testes to release testosterone
while in females, they stimulate the ovaries to produce
estradiol (most common type of estrogen).
• The testes also produce estradiol in low amount; similarly,
the ovaries release androgens, including testosterone, in
small amount.
• The higher the levels of androgen than estrogen,
masculinization occurs. Thus, in the case of males,
transformations include
ü development of muscle mass and strength,
ü broadening of shoulders and chest,
ü growth of facial and body hair including in the
underarm, abdomen, chest and pubic area,
ü enlargement of the larynx and the deepening of voice.
ü enlargement of penis and testis
• the more abundant amount of estrogen than androgen
results in feminization. In females, typical changes include
ü enlargement of breasts,
ü changes in fat distribution and quantity,
ü widening of the hips,
ü growth of body hair in the underarm and pubic area and
ü maturity of the uterus.
 • During puberty, increased hormone
production, particularly testosterone in males

Recap
and estrogen in females, leads to physical
changes.

• These changes include growth spurts,

development of secondary sex characteristics
(like facial hair in males and breast
development in females), and maturation of
reproductive organs.
Gender
• Gender is a term used to describe the characteristics, both
biological and socially influenced, that people use to define males
and females (Myers & Twenge, 2017).
• It is shaped by cultural expectations and social roles that affect
people's self-concept, behaviors and aspirations (Rathus, 2014).
• Gender is a social construct influenced by cultural expectations.
• It's distinct from biological sex.
• We learn about our gender and to act accordingly through a
lifelong socialization process. Even before we were born, a
name was chosen for us usually based on our gender. Then
we grew up exposed to gender-specific activities and were
encouraged and rewarded for what are considered as
gender-appropriate roles and behaviors.

• Certainly, there have been changes in gender roles over time,

but cultural expectations and gender stereotypes remain
deeply ingrained in society.
• The awareness of one's gender identity usually starts with
self-categorization that influences individuals to engage in
gender-typed behaviors (Keener, 2015).

• In Bem's (1981) gender schema theory, our identification as

man or woman affects our development, because it directs
what we pay attention to and process.
• Gender is traditionally understood based on binary
categories: male/masculine and female/feminine. Typically,
girls and boys grow up to be more inclined to notice and to
engage in behaviors that are expected of their gender.

• However, there are people who cannot identify with either of

these binary categorizations and who find their interests
and inclinations to be also non-typical.
• is a male or female that identifies with the sex
that was assigned at birth. Cisgender people
also identify, to some degree, with the gender
norms (excluding sexual orientation) that are
associated with their sex.

• is used to describe a gender identity when

the binary conceptualization of gender,
male or female, does not accurately
describe an individual's gendered outlook
or self-concept.
• describes a variety of medical
conditions wherein an individual's
reproductive anatomy or genitals do
not fit the binary definition of male or
female.

• is a man whose sex is female but he

lives and identifies as male..
• is a woman whose sex is male but she lives and
identifies as female
• Gender expression, or the manner by which people express
themselves and behave, may be true to their gender identity,
such as when they convey their sense of femininity or
masculinity outwardly.

• This may occur naturally for the majority, that their gender
expression does not match their gender identity and who are
more comfortable dressing up and presenting themselves as
an opposite sex.
• One’s gender expression can be any of the following:

• Feminine - expression of behavior, clothing, haircut, etc.

inclined with societal standards of female.
• Masculine - expression of behavior, clothing, haircut, etc.
inclined with societal standards of male.
• Androgynous - expression of behavior, clothing, haircut, etc.
inclined with societal standards of either female or male or a
mix of both.
• We are familiar with cases where a woman is comfortable
presenting herself in masculine ways such as wearing a
man's clothing, or a man is acting in feminine ways such as
being fussy with house decors.

• However, there are those who undergo transexual surgery

but who still keep their original gender identity and even
their sexual orientation.
• Sexual orientation refers to the stable pattern of attraction
or sexual interest that one has to a member of a particular
sex.
• It can also mean the complete absence of any sexual interest.
• Sexual orientation should not be mistaken as sexual
behavior because they are not necessarily the same.
• Majority of the people have heterosexual orientation, that is,
their sexual interest is towards people of the opposite sex.
Others have homosexual orientation in which their sexual
and romantic interests are with same sex individuals and
they are either gay or lesbian.

• There are others whose orientations do not fall from the

aforementioned categories.
• refers to the absence of physical or sexual
attraction to another human being. An
asexual man or woman can have romantic,
intellectual, or emotional attractions to
other people but they do not engage in
physical sexual acts.

• the sexual orientation that describes

either a male or a female who is attracted
to both males and females.
• depending on the context, gay can
refer to either gay males and/or
lesbians. Gay males are self-
identified men who are emotionally,
physically, romantically and/or
sexually attracted to people who
identify as male.

• a self-identified female who is

emotionally. physically, romantically
and/or sexually attracted to other
people who identify as female.
• an individual who identifies as
either a male or female (can be
cisgender, FtM, or MtF) and is
attracted to individuals of the
opposite sex.

• is an umbrella term that is used

to describe an individual's self-
concept of their sexual
orientation identity.

• Sexual orientation has been examined from the nature and nurture
perspectives, or based on the biological make-up of the individual
and environmental influences.
• There is an evidence of genetic link in sexual
orientation.
• It was found that 52% monozygotic twins,
whose genetic codes are nearly identical, share
a gay male sexual orientation, as compared
with 22% fraternal twins (Rathus, 2014; Pinel,
2014).
• There is also the assumption that sexual
orientation is associated with sex hormones.
There is little evidence on this.
• It is seen that the probability of becoming a homosexual man
increases with the number of older brothers, as compared to
men who have no siblings, have younger siblings only, or
older sisters.

• The effect was quite large, in which the probability of being

gay increases by 33.3% for every older biological brother that
he has.

• The explanation for this is the maternal immune hypothesis

in which there are some mothers who become progressively
immune to masculinizing hormones as they bear male fetuses
and such hormones may be deactivated in the later
pregnancies of their sons (Blanchard, 2004).
• Social-cognitive theorists provide explanation
for how sexual orientation could possibly
develop. They particularly look into the
antecedents and consequences of the behavior.
They look into the process of observational
and experiential learning.
• Some of the theories for homosexual
orientation include early exposure to an
enjoyable male-male or female-female sexual
encounters, the inavailability of a sexual
partner of the opposite sex in one's cultural
group, or as reported by some, an experience
of childhood sexual abuse by someone of the
same gender that influences their own sexual
orientation (Rathus, 2014).
• Many critics point out though that sexual orientation
is not simply a matter of sexual preference, such as
choosing what particular sex one would partner with.
Instead, it is argued to be stemming from discovery,
of finding the particular sex that one is attracted to.

• Further, for the majority, they already know their

sexual orientation even before they are exposed to
sexual encounters or relationships, such as in the
case of children who at an early age already identified
themselves as gay or lesbian.
• Biological sex, sexual orientation, gender identity and
gender expression are related with each other as they
exist in one person, however, as noted earlier, they
are not necessarily congruent with each other.

• People can have different combinations of biological

sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation.
• The general expectation is that individuals will identify with
their biological sex (based on their inherited XY and XX
chromosomes and the sexual organs they possess), establish
their gender identity (based on gendered-roles), be attracted
towards the opposite sex (be heterosexual in romantic
relationships) and express themselves based on cultural
norms.
Example: a genetic female is expected to embrace herself as a
woman, be attracted to a male and to behave in feminine ways
e.g. to dress up in typical women's clothing.

• However, in our present society, there are more and more

cases of individuals that do not conform to the traditional
expectations of a man or woman.

• The idea of the sexual self as based on a binary

categorization is not universal and could not accurately
describe those individuals whose gender identity, expression,
or sexual preference may be somewhere between those two
categories.

• The multidimensional aspect of the sexual self is well

depicted in the Genderbread Person
• The Genderbread Person illustrates the
multidimensional aspect of the sexual self by
visually representing the interconnectedness
and independence of various components.

• The Genderbread Person emphasizes that these

components are distinct spectrums and that
individuals can fall anywhere along them. This
challenges the traditional binary understanding
of sex and gender and highlights the diversity of
human experiences.
REMEMBER:

ALWAYS TAKE NOTE THAT RESPECTING

OUR SEXUALITY MEANS RESPECTING THE
SEXUALITY OF OTHERS. THERE SHOULD BE
ZERO TOLERANCE FOR SEXUAL
DISCRIMINATION AND SEXUAL ABUSE...
• Sex hormones influence our sexual development from
conception to sexual maturity. They promote the development
of the sex organs and secondary sex characteristics of males
and females.

• Further, sex hormones are also responsible for activating the

reproduction-related behaviors of sexually mature adults that
includes the sexual drives and responses.
• Sexual behavior in both sexes is strongly regulated
by circulating concentrations of gonadal steroid
hormones, including androgens (testosterone),
estrogens (estradiol), and progesterone.
• In women, both estradiol and testosterone are implicated
as the hormones critical in modulating women's sexual
desires.

• Estradiol is produced by the ovaries while the testosterone

is produced by both the ovaries and adrenal glands.
However, literature is mixed when it comes to which one
has the strongest influence in increasing women's sexual
desire.
• Female sexual behavior is also associated with cultural
and social norms.

• For instance, sexual intercourse is often avoided during

menstruation, or increases during celebrations or
holidays in some cultural context.
• Men's sexual behaviors are influenced by external factors
such as culture and social relationships. There are some
cultures and religions that give more freedom for men to
have multiple sexual partners.

• Also, relationship problems including poor

communication, trust issues, unresolved conflicts and
loss of attraction affect one's sexual desire.
• Further, physical and mental health are known to affect
sexual well-being. Therefore, male sexual motivation and
behavior are not entirely driven by sex hormones.

• Unarguably though, testosterone plays an important role

in controlling and synchronizing male sexual desire and
arousal.
• Stimulation of the erogenous zones or those areas in the human
body that have heightened sensitivity, can produce sexual
responses including arousal, sexual thoughts, and/or fantasies
and orgasm. They are found all over the body and are quite
complex and intricately connected.

• Males and females appear to have effectively the same

distribution of erogenous zones. It is reported that women
experience higher erotic intensity for some of body parts.
Bodyparts arousal Score (highest first)
Females Males
Clitoris Penis
Vagina Mouth/lips
Mouth/lips Scrotum
Nape of neck Inner thigh
Breasts Nape of neck
Nipples Nipples
Inner thigh Perineum
Back of neck Pubic hairline
Ears Back of neck
Lower back Ears
• Sexual desire is typically higher in men than in women (van
Anders, 2012). Men reported to be more open to casual sex and
multiple sex partners while women are more likely to combine
sex with romantic relations (Rathus, 2014).

• William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1966) found that males

and females tend to produce the same biological responses to
sexual stimulation including vasocongestion and myotonia.
• Vasocongestion refers to the swelling of the bodily tissues due to
increased blood flow that causes erection of the penis and the
swelling of the nipples and the surrounding area of the vagina.

• Myotonia is muscle contraction and tension that causes spasms

of orgasm and spasms of the hands and feet. With adequate
sexual stimulation, natural responses including erection, vaginal
lubrication and orgasm are achieved.
• Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the sexual
response cycle as consisting of four phases:

1. excitement
2. plateau
3. orgasmic
4. resolution
• For males, the penis becomes erect, the scrotal skin
thickens and becomes less baggy and the testes increase
in size and become elevated.

• In females, excitement is seen in the engorgement of the

clitoris and the labia and expansion of the inner parts of
the vagina. Vaginal lubrication also starts. There is
increased heart rate and blood pressure.
• This phase is an advanced state of arousal before the orgasm. This is
characterized by a somewhat stable state in the cycle.

• In males, there is a slight increase in the size of the circumference of the

head of the penis. The testes are elevated in preparation for ejaculation.

• In females, further vasocongestion is seen in the swelling of the outer part

of the vagina and the full expansion of the inner vagina. The clitoris
shortens as it withdraws beneath the clitoral hood. Breathing becomes
more rapid, heart rate increases and blood pressure continues to rise.
• Male orgasm involves muscle contractions that propel semen from the
body. Sensations of pleasure tend to be related to the strength of the
contractions and the volume of the seminal fluid. The most intense are
usually the first three to four contractions and take place at 0.8 second-
intervals (five contractions happening every four seconds). The
succeeding contractions appear more slowly.

• Orgasm in female involves rhythmic contractions of the vaginal walls,

anal sphincter and uterus. As with males, contractions occur at 0.8 second
intervals. Pleasurable sensations are subjectively located in the different
areas of the genital region. Weaker and slower contractio
• Male orgasm involves muscle contractions that propel semen
from the body. Sensations of pleasure tend to be related to the
strength of the contractions and the volume of the seminal
fluid.

• The most intense are usually the first three to four

contractions and take place at 0.8 second-intervals (five
contractions happening every four seconds). The succeeding
contractions appear more slowly.
• Orgasm in female involves rhythmic contractions of the
vaginal walls, anal sphincter and uterus. As with males,
contractions occur at 0.8 second intervals.

• Pleasurable sensations are subjectively located in the

different areas of the genital region. Weaker and slower
contractions follow. Blood pressure and heart rate reach a
peak and respiration also increases.
• In the post-orgasm phase, the body returns to its pre-aroused
state.
• Men lose their erection and enter a refractory period during
which they cannot experience another orgasm or ejaculate.
The testes and scrotum also return to their normal size.

• Females do not experience a refractory period and therefore

can become quickly rearoused to the point of multiple orgasm
if they want to and if there is continued sexual stimulation.
• Sexual relationships can be described based on the kind
or level of relationship that is shared between partners.

• At the basic level is sex which is a physical or biological

need aimed at releasing sexual tension and experiencing
pleasure and satisfaction.
• Without any deep connection, partners engaging in
sexual intercourse merely satisfy their lust.

• Lust is enjoyment in the "here and now" with little to

no consideration of long-term commitment (Förster,
Özelsel, & Epstude, 2010).

• In modern times, this takes the form of hook-ups, one-

night stands, or “friends with benefits”.
• When partners not only physically desire, but most importantly seek
for an enduring union with each other, the sexual relationship already
elevates to a higher plane.

• Romantic love is usually associated with attachment goals and

sharing of life together (Förster, Özelsel, & Epstude, 2010).

• There are many perspectives about romantic love and one presented
here that is Robert Sternberg's (1988) triangle model of love. The
triangle comprises three essential components - intimacy, passion
and commitment.
• Intimacy refers to the couple's sense of closeness and
the presence of mutual concern and sharing of feelings
and resources.

• Passion means romantic and sexual feelings.

• Commitment means deciding to enhance and maintain

the relationships.

• Passion is most crucial in short-term relationships while

intimacy and commitment are more important in
enduring relationships.
• The first type of love that Sternberg introduces is nonlove, which
is when none of the three components of love are present in a
relationship (Sternberg, 1986).

• According to Sternberg, nonlove can be seen in the “casual

interactions” in our everyday lives and actually “characterizes the
large majority of our personal relationships” (Sternberg, 1986, p.
123).

• These relationships and interactions contain a complete lack of

love, as none of the components of love are involved. This makes
sense, as people would not typically express any sort of feelings of
love for any brief encounter in their lives.
• The second type of love that Sternberg introduces is liking, which is
when the intimacy component of love is present in a relationship, but
the passion and decision/commitment components are not
(Sternberg, 1986).

• According to Sternberg, liking involves feelings of “closeness,

bondedness, and warmth toward the other, without feelings of
intense passion or long-term commitment” (Sternberg, 1986, p. 123).

• As we all know, friendships can exist at different levels, and

according to Sternberg, if any other components of love are present
in a friendship, then it is not considered liking but is considered a
different kind of love (Sternberg, 1986).
• The third type of love that Sternberg introduces is infatuated
love, which is when the passion component of love is present in
a relationship, but the intimacy and decision/commitment
components are not (Sternberg, 1986).

• This is the type that would most closely align with the idea of
love at first sight, as it is characterized by an immediate and
intense attraction to another person.

• This kind of love develops very quickly, without time for any
intimate feelings to grow or for a commitment to be made
(Sternberg, 1986).
• The fourth type of love that Sternberg introduces is empty
love, which is when the decision/commitment component
of love is present in a relationship, but the intimacy and
passion components are not (Sternberg, 1986).

• This type of love can commonly be found in some long-

term relationships where the couple has lost feelings for
one another.
• However, Sternberg points out an interesting phenomenon
regarding this kind of love: “In our society, we are most
accustomed to empty love as it occurs as a final or near-final
stage of a long-term relationship,” but “in other societies,
empty love may be the first stage of a long-term relationship”
(such as in an arranged marriage) (Sternberg, 1986, p. 124).
• The fifth type of love that Sternberg introduces is romantic love, which is
when the intimacy and passion components of love are present in a
relationship, but the decision/commitment component is not (Sternberg,
1986).

• Romantic love bonds people emotionally through intimacy and physical

passion. Partners in this type of relationship have deep conversations that
help them know intimate details about each other. They enjoy sexual
passion and affection. These couples may be at the point where long-term
commitment or future plans are still undecided.
• The sixth type of love that Sternberg introduces is companionate
love when the intimacy and decision/commitment components
of love are present in a relationship, but the passion component is
not (Sternberg, 1986).

• Companionate love is an intimate, but non-passionate sort of love.

It includes the intimacy or liking component and the
commitment component of the triangle. It is stronger than
friendship because there is a long-term commitment, but there is
minimal or no sexual desire.
• This type of love is often found in marriages where the
passion has died, but the couple continues to have deep
affection or a strong bond.

• This may also be viewed as the love between very close

friends and family members
• The seventh type of love that Sternberg introduces is fatuous
love, which is when the passion and decision/commitment
components of love are present in a relationship, but the
intimacy component is not (Sternberg, 1986).

• This love type is often characterized by whirlwind romances

driven by passion but lacking true depth.

• Because the intimate component of love takes time to develop,

these relationships lack that aspect of love and their
relationship may therefore be more likely to fail (Sternberg,
1986).
• The eighth type of love that Sternberg introduces is
consummate love, which is when all three components
of love are present in a relationship (Sternberg, 1986).

• It’s considered the ideal and most complete and

balanced form of love.
• Couples who experience this kind of love have great sex several
years into their relationship. They cannot imagine themselves
with anyone else. These couples also cannot see themselves truly
happy without their partners. They manage to overcome
differences and face stressors together.

• Outside of romantic interests, an example of consummate love

can be found in many parents” love for their children, often
dubbed “unconditional love” (Sternberg, 1986).
• How is attachment formed?

• From the biological point of view, certain hormones such as

oxytocin influence bonding in romantic relationships. Although
oxytocin is released in both men and women during orgasm, it is
released in higher levels in women during childbirth and
breastfeeding.

• It also appears to be highly associated to women's feelings of

romantic love than in men whose higher levels of testosterone
raise their sexual desires
• A psychological explanation of romantic attachment is
anchored on Mary Ainsworth's theory on types of
attachment style. Attachment theorists believe that the
earliest mother-child bond influences adult relationships
including romantic partnerships.

• Ainsworth and her colleagues experimented with mothers

and infants and examined how infants reacted when their
mothers left the room for a few minutes and then returned.

• Three attachment styles were observed - secure, insecure-

resistant and insecure-avoidant (Feist, & Roberts, 2018).
• Securely attached infants are happy and enthusiastic upon the return
of their mothers. They demonstrated confidence in the accessibility
and responsiveness of their caregiver.

• Insecure-ambivalent/resistant was displayed by infants through

ambivalence. They were unusually upset when their mothers left the
room. When their mothers returned, they seek contact but at the
same time reject their mothers' soothing attempt. These infants give
contradictory messages to their mothers.
• Insecure-avoidant style was seen in infants who were
calm when their mothers leave them but also were
indifferent on their mothers' return.

• Both the insecurely attached infants were unable to fully

explore and engage in effective play in these experimental
situations.
• These early styles are said to influence the kind of
attachment an adult forms with a partner.

• Securely attached adults are relaxed, open to

interdependence and has adequate trust on their partner.

• Insecure-resistant adults are worried about abandonment,

feel unsure about their lovability and afraid to fully trust the
partner.

• Insecure-avoidant adults are dismissive and uncomfortable

of intimacy, valuing more their independence.
• Sexual health is described as a state of physical, emotional and
social well-being in relation to sexuality not merely the absence of
disease, dysfunction or infirmity.

• Further, it requires a positive and respectful approach to

sexuality and sexual relationships for the possibility of
pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion,
discrimination and violence (World Health Organization, 2002).
• Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or sexually transmitted
infections (STIs) are spread generally through sexual contact
including anal, vaginal, or oral sex.

• STDs can be caused by bacteria such as in the cases of gonorrhea,

syphilis, and chlamydia, by parasites such as in trichomoniasis,
or by viruses such as in human papillomavirus (HPV), herpes
simplex virus (HSV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
• Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted
infection (STI) caused by the
bacterium Neisseria gonorrhea. An
individual can contract or transmit
gonorrhea by having oral, anal, or
vaginal sex.
• Syphilis is caused by the bacteria
Treponema pallidum and is
transmitted through sexual contact.

• The disease starts as a sore that's

often painless and typically appears
on the genitals, rectum or mouth.
• Sexually transmitted infection
caused by the bacterium
Chlamydia trachomatis.

• Most people who are infected have

no symptoms. When symptoms do
appear they may occur only
several weeks after infection
• Trichomoniasis
(trich) is an infectious
disease caused by the
protozoan parasite
Trichomonas
vaginalis
• HPV that affects your genitals
is a sexually transmitted
infection (STI) that gets passed
through skin-to-skin contact,
most often during sexual
activities.
• Herpes simplex virus (HSV),
known as herpes, is a common
infection that can cause painful
blisters or ulcers.

• It primarily spreads by skin-to-

skin contact. It is treatable but
not curable.
• The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two
species of Lentivirus that infect humans.
• Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which progressive failure
of the immune system allows life-threatening
opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive
• Without treatment, the average survival time after
infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years
• those who engage in unprotected sex,
• have multiple sexual partners,
• have history of STDs and those who misuse alcohol
and drugs and
• share needles with other people. .
• To eliminate the risk of acquiring STD, it is advised to avoid risky
behaviors. Sexual abstinence is the best kind of protection for
those who are not in a committed relationship as hook-ups with
random people only increase the chance of STDs.

• For those sexually active, some safe sex practices include staying
in a long-term monogamous relationship in which sexual
intercourse is exclusive only between two uninfected partners,
using condoms consistently and correctly not abusing alcohol or
drugs as this can led to risky sexual behaviors.
• Symptoms of STD may vary depending on the type, and
may manifest differently between men and women that
have the same STD. Symptoms may include painful or
frequent urination, unusual discharge from the penis or
vagina and fever although STDs may occur without any
symptom (US Department of Health and Human Services,
2019)
• Contraception is the deliberate use of certain methods to prevent
pregnancy. It has a range of health benefits including delaying
pregnancies in young girls, reducing unwanted pregnancies,
spacing pregnancies, limiting number of children and securing
maternal and child health (World Health Organization, 2019).

• Contraception may use either natural or artificial methods. The

most appropriate method for contraception depends on the
woman's overall health, age, frequency of sexual activity, number
of sexual partners, future plans of having a child or children and
history of particular diseases in the family
• Calendar-based methods require monitoring the
menstrual cycle for fertile days, when the couple must
abstain from sexual activity or use other contraceptive
methods and for safe days when the couple can have
unprotected sex.

• All women can use calendar-based methods, however, it is

important that the method is used or followed correctly.
• Symptoms-based methods require monitoring the woman's
fertility signs. Among the signs are the cervical secretions, the
basal body temperature and other fertility signs. A woman has to
observe her bodily reactions for 3-6 menstrual (monthly) cycles
to get a good picture of her fertility signals.

• Withdrawal is also a natural contraception method. It is known

as coitus interruptus and "pulling out." The man withdraws his
penis from the partner's vagina before ejaculation to keep the
semen away from the partner's genitalia.
• The common long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) are
intrauterine device (IUD) that is a small, T-shape device inserted
into the uterus and implantable rod that is match-sized, flexible
and plastic rod inserted under the skin of the woman's upper arm.

• Health care providers or physicians are needed to use these

devices. Both the IUD and implantable rods remain in place for
years until their recommended length of usage and they can be
removed or replaced when they are no longer needed.
• The hormonal methods use hormones and/or synthetic
hormones to prevent pregnancy. They are introduced to the body
as injectable birth control, i.e. Depo-Provera, progestin-only pills
(POPs), combined oral contraceptives (COCs, "the pill"),
contraceptive patch and vaginal ring.

• Barrier methods prevent sperm from entering the uterus. Male

condoms, female condoms, contraceptive sponges and
spermicides are barrier methods that do not require health care
provider visit, while diaphragms and cervical caps require so.
• Emergency contraception can be used in situations when a condom breaks
or after an unprotected sex. It can be in the form of copper IUD or as an
emergency contraceptive pill (ECPs).

• Sterilization procedures are often permanent and irreversible. It is usually

done through surgery. Tubal ligation involves cutting, tying or sealing the
fallopian tubes. The male counterpart is vasectomy, in which the vas
deferens are cut, closed or blocked. However, a nonsurgical procedure is
sterilization implant which permanently blocks the fallopian tube but
without performing incision.