XII-Physics

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Semiconductors
Formation of Energy Band in Solid

 In single atom each orbit has fixed amount of energy due to force of nucleus.
 Energy of orbit depends on radius of orbit from the center of nucleus.
 Larger the radius of orbit, then larger the energy of that orbit.
 When we consider atom in solid each orbit has different kinds of energy due to force of neighboring
nucleus, these energy group together then energy band are formed.
 Energy Band- The range of energies possessed by electron in solid is called energy band.

Definitions
1. Valence Band :
The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is called Valence band.
2. Conduction Band:
The range of energies possessed by conducting electrons is called as conduction band.
3. Forbidden energy gap:
The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is called forbidden energy gap.
It is denoted by Eg.
For Insulator, Forbidden energy gap is very large.
For Semiconductor, Forbidden energy gap is extremely small.
For Conductor, Forbidden energy gap is not identified. Or there is no energy gap between Valence
and Conduction band
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Classification of solid on the basis of Band Theory
 Insulators
 Semiconductor
 Conductor
Insulator Semiconductor Conductor
The material whose
The material which does not
conductivity lies between The material which conduct
Definition conduct electricity is called
insulator and conductor is electricity is called conductor
insulator.
called semiconductor
Example Wood, Rubber, Plastic Silicon, Germanium Copper, Gold

Energy band
diagram

Forbidden energy is very

Forbidden energy gap is very small.
Forbidden
wide. Eg = 0.7eV- 2eV No forbidden energy gap
Energy gap
Eg = 5eV – 15eV For Ge = 0.72eV
(Si) = 1.12eV
As the temperature increases As the temperature increase
The resistance increase when
resistance of insulator the resistance of
temperature is increased i.e. it
decreases semiconductor decreases i.e.
Effect of has positive temperature
i.e. it has negative temperature it has negative temperature
temperature coefficient of temperature
coefficient of resistance coefficient of resistance
(PTC).
(NTC). (NTC).

Conductivity of Conductor has high

Conductivity is very low but semiconductor increases with conductivity but low
resistivity is extremely high temperature i.e. resistivity resistivity
decreases
Classification of semiconductor:

Semiconductor

Intrinsic Extrinsic
(Pure) (Impure)

e.g. Silicon P- type N- type

Germenium

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Intrinsic semiconductor:

Definition - A semiconductor in an pure form is called as intrinsic semiconductor.

For example – Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
 Silicon consists of four electrons in its valence shell. To fill valence shell they required four
electrons, hence each silicon atom make covalent bond with neighboring silicon atom.
 There is no free electron available for electrical conduction. All electrons are tightly held by
nucleus so semiconductor behaves like insulator at absolute zero temperature.
 Intrinsic semiconductor requires very high energy to break their covalent bond, when this happen
electron jumps from valence band to conduction band and vacancy produced in valance bond is
called hole.
 As the temperature increases, conductivity increases and resistivity decreases.
 In intrinsic semiconductor current produced due to electron-hole pair
 Intrinsic semiconductor is electrically neutral, because charge on electron (negative) is exactly
balance by charge on hole.

Energy band diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

(At absolute Zero Temperature) (At room Temerature)

When battery connected across intrinsic

semiconductor, electron moves towards positive
terminal of battery and holes moves towards
negative terminal of battery, this flow of charge
produce electric current in intrinsic semiconductor.

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Extrinsic Semiconductor
Definition: The addition of impurity increases the conductivity of semiconductor. It is then called as
Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Impure form of semiconductor is called Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Doping: The process of addition of impurity in pure semiconductor is called doping.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of electrons or holes.
Types of impurity
Trivalent Impurity Pentavalent Impurity
The atom which consist of three electron in its The atom which consist of five electron in its
valence shell is called trivalent impurity valence shell is called trivalent impurity
Acceptor impurity Donor impurity
Ex. Boron, Indium, Gallium, Aluminum Ex. Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorous

Depending on types of impurity there are two types of extrinsic semiconductor.

 N-type extrinsic semiconductor
 P-type extrinsic semiconductor
N-type Semiconductor:
When pentavalent impurity is added in pure semiconductor then we get N-type Semiconductor.
 Pentavalent impurity produce large number of free electron in semiconductor crystal.

For Example
 When pentavalent impurity like Arsenic (As) added in pure semiconductor then we get N-type
semiconductor.
 Arsenic share its four electrons with four silicon atom but fifth electron of arsenic is free because
they do not have electron to make covalent bond. Hence these fifth electrons are used for electrical
conduction in N-type semiconductor.
 Arsenic produces large number of free electron in silicon semiconductor crystal.
 In N-type semiconductor electrons are majority charge carrier and holes are minority charge
carrier ( holes produced due to thermally energy)
 In N-type Semiconductor added impurity (Pentavalent impurity – Arsenic) is called donor impurity,
because pentavalent impurity donates its fifth electron to the semiconductor crystal. Hence
pentavalent impurity becomes positive.
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 N–type semiconductor are electrically neutral, because charge on electron is exactly balance by
positive ions of impurity atom.
 Representation of N-type Semiconductor

 Electron (Mobile ion)

o Hole
o Positive ions of impurity (Immobile
ions)

P-type semiconductor:
When trivalent impurity is added in pure semiconductor then we get P-type Semiconductor.
 Trivalent impurity produce large number of holes in semiconductor crystal.

For Example
 When trivalent impurity like Boron (B) added in pure semiconductor then we get P-type
semiconductor.
 Boron form three covalent bond with three germanium/silicon atom, but fourth germanium/silicon
atom is unable to make a covalent bond because boron has only three electrons.
 Hence boron produces large number of free holes in germanium/silicon semiconductor crystal.
 In P-type Semiconductor holes are majority charge carrier and electron are minority charge
carrier (electron produced due to thermally energy).
 In P-type Semiconductor added impurity (Trivalent impurity – Boron) is called acceptor impurity,
because trivalent impurity accept electron from semiconductor crystal. Hence trivalent impurity
becomes negative.
 P–type semiconductors are electrically neutral, because charge on holes is exactly balance by
negative ions of impurity atom.
 Representation of P-type Semiconductor

 Electron
o Hole (Mobile ion)
o Negative ions of impurity (Immobile
ions)

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Distinguish between Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

It is pure form of semiconductor. It is formed by adding impurity in pure

semiconductor. OR impure form of semiconductor

Conductivity poor Conductivity large

Current due to flow of electron-hole pair Current due to flow of electron and hole depends on
type of extrinsic semiconductor.
 N-type – current due to electron
 P-type – current due to hole

Less useful More useful

Example- Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) Example – Boron or Arsenic added in pure
Semiconductor.

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Distinguish between N-type and P-type Semiconductor.
N-type P-type

When pentavalent impurity is added in pure When trivalent impurity is added in pure
semiconductor then we get N-type Semiconductor. semiconductor then we get P-type Semiconductor.

In N-type Semiconductor electrons are majority In P-type Semiconductor holes are majority
charge carrier and holes are minority charge charge carrier and electron are minority charge
carrier. carrier.

In N-type Semiconductor added impurity In P-type Semiconductor added impurity (Trivalent

(Pentavalent impurity – Arsenic) is called donor impurity – Boron) is called acceptor impurity
impurity
Current due to flow of electron Current due to flow of hole
Pentavalent impurities are Arsenic, Antimony, Trivalent impurities are Boron, Indium, Gallium,
Phosphorous Aluminum

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P-N Junction diode:-

When P-type and N type semiconducting material joined together with help of special fabrication technique
to form P-N-junction diode.
Arrow head in a symbol indicates direction of conventional current.
A device which conducts current in only one direction is called diode.
Formation of Depletion Region in P-N junction Diode:

 In P-region holes are majority charge carriers and in N-region electrons are majority charge
carrier.
 When P-N junction diode is formed, holes in P-region diffused into N-side and electron in N-
region diffused into P-region due to difference of concentration. Due to diffusion of holes and
electron layers of ion is formed is called depletion layer.
 When holes and electron accumulate in depletion layer, then electric field produce across
depletion layer is called barrier potential and it opposes further diffusion of electron and
holes. OR The potential across depletion layer is called barrier potential.
For silicon, Barrier potential is 0.7 V.
For Germanium, Barrier potential is 0.3V.
MCQ
 Barrier potential VB for silicon is……. And for germanium is………

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Forward biasing of p-n junction diode:

 When positive terminal of battery is connected to P-type and Negative terminal of battery
is connected to N-type then the diode is said to be forward bias.
 In forward bias, holes are repelled by positive terminal of battery and electrons are repelled
by negative terminal of battery and forced towards junction.
That means electrons and holes [Majority charge carriers] acquire energy from source and
crosses the junction.
As a result of this width of depletion layer and barrier potential decreases and diode
conduct current through them.
 In forward bias condition, majority charge carries crosses the junction and produces
current in circuit
 In forward bias condition, current due to flow of majority charge carriers.

I-V or V-I Characteristic of P-N- junction diode in forward bias:

 Forward bias characteristics is the graph of forward bias

voltage against forward bias current.
 From plotted graph, OA portion indicates no current
flowing through diode i.e the diode does not conduct
current because applied voltage is less than barrier
potential
 When applied voltage is equal to barrier potential the
diode conduct current through them
 The voltage at which current rapidly increases in
forward bias is called knee voltage or cut in voltage
Knee voltage for Ge = 0.3V
VF- Forward bias voltage Knee voltage for Si = 0.7V or 0.67V
IF - Forward bias Current

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Reverse Bias of P-n junction diode

 When positive terminal of battery connected to N-type and negative terminal of battery
connected to P-type then the diode is said to be in reverse bias.
 In reverse bias, majority charge carrier attracted towards terminals of battery. As a result of
this width of depletion layer and barrier potential increases.
 In reverse bias, minority charge carrier crosses the junction and produce electric current
through them.
 The current produce due to minority charge carrier in reverse bias is called leakage current or
reverse saturation current.

I-V or V-I Characteristic of P-N- junction diode in reversed bias:

 Reverse bias characteristics is the graph of reverse

bias voltage (VR) against reverse bias current (IR).
 From plotted graph - OA portion indicate current
due to flow of minority charge carrier is called
leakage current OR reverse saturation current.
 If reverse bias voltage increases to a large value,
breakdown occurs in semiconductor crystal and
current rapidly increases.
 The voltage at which current rapidly increases in
reverse bias is called breakdown voltage OR The
voltage at which breakdown occurs in
semiconductor crystal is called breakdown voltage.

VR - Reverse bias voltage

IR - Reverse bias Current
VBR - Breakdown Voltage.

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Distinguish between forward and reversed bias P-N junction diode.

Forward Biasing of P-N junction Diode Reversed Biasing of P-N junction Diode

When positive terminal of battery is connected to P- When positive terminal of battery connected to N-
type and Negative terminal of battery is connected to type and negative terminal of battery connected to P-
N-type then the diode is said to be forward bias. type then the diode is said to be in reverse bias.

Majority charge carrier crosses the junction Minority charge carrier crosses the junction
Current due to flow of majority charge carrier. Current due to flow of minority charge carrier
Width of depletion layer and barrier potential Width of depletion layer and barrier potential
decreases increases.

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