ESM 410: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

1. PLANET EARTH AND THE DELICATE BALANCE OF NATURE.

Definition of environment.

The word environment comes from the French word environment, which means surroundings.
Environment means the surrounding conditions, which influence behavior and development of living
things. It is the total sum of the physical, chemical, biological, social, economic, political, aesthetic
and structural surroundings of man

The human environment is that part of the earth he/she occupies and it’s made up of all he/she can see
and much that he/she cannot see when he/she looks around him or her.
Examples include; air, soil, water, climate, buildings, other living institutions, beliefs and customs,
political systems and institutions.

The above attributes can be further categorized into three, which are sometimes referred to as
components of the environment. These are:

1) Natural environment
2) Built environment
3) Social environment

COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT.

1) Natural environment.

Consist of the following:

i) Air or atmosphere
ii) Climate
iii) Water/hydrosphere
iv) Soil/lithosphere
v) Physical features eg mountains, hills, valleys, plateaus etc
vi) Plants (flora)
vii) Animals (fauna)

The above features (I –V) are called Abiotic factors while (vi-vii) are called Biotic factors /environment.

2) Social environment.

Social environment consists of the following:

i) Culture and cultural practices

ii) Beliefs and customs
iii) Attitudes-influenced by culture
An integral part of beliefs and customs

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 iv) Race
v) Gender
vi) Language
vii) Social institutions and systems
viii) Political systems and institutions
ix) Economic systems and institutions

3) Built environment

All manmade features- include buildings and manmade constructions such as telephone wires, electricity
wires, roads, railways, bridges, movable machines, immovable machines(factories).
It is the human-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging in scale from
buildings and parks/green space to neighborhoods/social communities and cities that can often include
their supporting infrastructure, such as water supply, or energy networks, telephone wires, electricity
wires, roads, railways, bridges, movable machines, immovable machines(factories).

Definition of environment.

The term environment is therefore defined as the total sum of the physical, chemical, biological, social,
economic, political, aesthetic and structural surroundings of man.

Locational terms with reference to environment

In terms of mans location in the environment the following terms are usually used:

i) Local environment
ii) National environment
iii) Global environment

1) Local environment

This refers to the area one usually stays and he is usually familiar with. Such an area consists of the
following;

 Land and all physical features

 Water
 Air
 Buildings and other manmade features
 People and other living things (flora and fauna )
 Neighborhood

2) National environment

This refers to all components of the environment within the borders of ones country, which comprises of
many local environs.

3) Global environment

This refers to the world environment i.e the entire planet earth.
The earth is our environment in the universe.

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Do all the elements of the environment stay the same?

The basic features of the earth stay the same; but the details of each are constantly changing.

WHY?
Because of our daily activities which change various elements of the environment, the details of each of
these elements have over the years changed leading to a situation commonly referred to as environmental
crisis.

THE SPACESHIP EARTH: ITS ENVIRONMENT.

The earth is about 6 billion years old. It is a small spherical body among the thousands of planets, stars
and galaxies, which stretch greater distances than we can ever imagine. But this small sphere is the only
planet where life exits. It is our environment in which we live.

What makes the earth habitable?

The earth environment has 2 interacting components that make life possible, theses are:

1) Atmosphere
2) Biosphere

THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases held close to the earth’s surface by the force of gravity. This
mixture forms a blanket/ envelope around the earth’s surface.

The atmosphere spreads high above the earth for several hundreds of kilometers (up to about 900
kilometers). It is thicker near the earths surface and gets thinner as it gets higher: e.g. one finds it difficult
to breath at the top of Mt. Kenya because there is not just enough air in the atmosphere at the top of the
mountain, for above the mountain the atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner until it melts into space.
There is no air in space.

Composition of the atmosphere.

The gases that form the atmosphere are invisible and are delicately balanced in different proportions by
volume.

GAS AVARAGE % BY VOLUME

Nitrogen 78.8
Oxygen 20.9
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Inert gases
a) Argon 0.93
b) Neon 0.0018
c) Helium 0.00052
Trace Gases < 0.0001
e.g. hydrogen, methane, Carbon monoxide
e.t.c

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 Water vapor Variable (1-4%)
Because the earth has pre-determined requirements in definite proportions it acts as a spaceship, therefore
it is referred to as spaceship earth.

The atmospheric composition must remain the same. If it is changed, there will be far- reaching
consequences to the earth and its inhabitants.

COMPONENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

160 Up to 900 km above

earth’s surface

140

IONOSPHERE
120
Rise in temperature

100
THERMOSPHERE

80
MESOSPHERE
ALTITUDE
(km) 60 Fall in temperature

Ozone layer
40 STRATOSPHERE
Rise in temperature

20 Thickest zone of 03
TROPOSPHERE

-80OC -60OC -40OC -20OC 0OC 20OC 40OC 60OC 80OC

TEMPERATURE (OC)

TROPOSPHERE.

This is the lowest region of the atmosphere. It is in contact with the surface of the earth. It is found within
a height of between 8-15 km. It consists of 80% of the components of the atmosphere –is thickest in this
region. It contains varying quantities of dust and water vapor. such features of the weather as clouds and
storms, wind, fog precipitation etc are found in this zone. The temperature decreases with height at an
average of 1c for every 165m.

STRATOSPHERE.

This zone extends between 20- 50 km. It contains ozone layer that shields the surface of the earth from
dangerous radiation of the sun particularly ultra violence and x-rays. The ozone layer is formed when the
oxygen in this region absorbs ultra violent light. The oxygen molecules are broken down into its atoms,
some oxygen atoms then join oxygen molecules to give 03 molecules

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 U.V
O2 O+O
Light +
O2

O3+O 2O2

As O3 molecules are being formed others are combining with O2 atoms to give oxygen molecules, hence
the situation is one of the equilibrium with O3 being formed and destroyed at the same time.

About 99% of the U.V. radiation doesn’t reach the earth’s surface because of this absorption.

MESOSPHERE.

This region extends between 50-80 km above the earths surface. It consists of less gaseous mass; and has
no water vapor. The temperature falls up to -75c. The upper mesosphere has electrically charged particles
and it is part of the ionosphere

THERMOSPHERE.

This zone extends from 80- 900km above earth’s surface. Temperature increases up to 2000c. It lacks
water vapor, oxygen and ozone. However it has abundant electrically charged particles.
Together with the upper level of the mesosphere, the region forms the ionosphere. This region reflects
radio waves back to the earth’s surface and enables wireless communication to work effectively.
Upper part of mesosphere + thermosphere = IONOSPHERE- different parts of the ionosphere
make long distance radio communication possible by reflecting the radio waves back to the Earth.

MAGNETOSPHERE.

This is beyond the limits of the atmosphere i.e found around and beyond 950km above the earth’ surface.
A magnetic field exists which traps magnetic particles contained in the solar radiation.

Zone where the earth’s magnetic field controls the motion of charged particles and traps magnetic
particles contained in the solar radiation

Functions of the atmosphere.

1) It provides oxygen, which is used by living things during respiration thus sustaining their lives.
2) It provides carbon dioxide, used by plants to synthesize their own food during photosynthesis. It
traps some of the sunlight energy, which is absorbed by the plant during this process.
3) Some of the light rays reflected back to the atmosphere by the earths surface helps in regulating the
global temperature- the moon and other planets are very cold because they don’t have the
atmosphere to help regulate the temperature. The regulation of the temperature is achieved through

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 the “GREEN HOUSE EFFECT”- A process by which thermal radiation from the earth’s surface
is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs), and is re-radiated in all directions.

GHGs are gases in the atmosphere that absorb and emit radiation within thermal infrared
range. Examples are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone

4) it is responsible for the blue of the sky. Form the colors of the sunrise and sunset and for the
rainbow.
5) The atmosphere shields us against harmful rays of the sun such as gamma rays, x-rays, x-particles
and U.V rays. These are usually blocked, absorbed or reflected back by the upper layers of the
atmosphere particularly the ozone layer.

THE BIOSPHERE (sphere of life).

It is a very thin layer of the earth consisting of

 Soil
 Water
 Lower levels of the atmosphere (troposphere)

Life on earth only occurs within the biosphere. Only a few specialized animals have ever traveled /moved
outside the biosphere i.e. man, birds and insects.

Components of the biosphere.

1) Lithosphere
2) Hydrosphere
3) Troposphere

LITHOSPHERE

The lithosphere is the abiotic component of the earth’s environment (non living part). It is found a few
meters below the ground and as far as the deepest roots can go (1km)
While our heads spend most of their time in the atmosphere our feet are usually planted on the earths
rocky outer crust i.e. lithosphere
The lithosphere consists of:

 Soil
 Minerals and
 Surface layer of the rocks that are directly involved in the life processes.
Some of the minerals found in the lithosphere are:

 Silicon
 Aluminium
 Iron
 Calcium
 Sodium
 Potassium
 Magnesium

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Oxygen is also found in the lithosphere.
Other features of the lithosphere include:

 Continents
 Plains and plateaus
 Hills and valleys.

The lithosphere is of great significance because of its soil cover, which is indispensable for the growth of
plants, which in turn provide food for man and other animal life.

HYDROSPHERE.

Made up of water bodies – oceans, lakes, rivers and others on earth including underground water.
The most important part is the top 150m of the water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, seas, and underground
water.

TROPOSPHERE.

Only a part of it is important for life particularly that a few meters above the tree tops where gaseous
exchange takes place. This exchanges brings about the weather changes we always observe such as-
> condensation
> Precipitation
> Wind movement
> Cloud formation

SUMMARY.

1) Plant and animal life (biotic component) is found mainly in the lithosphere and hydrosphere.
Several specialized animals are also found in the atmosphere e.g. birds, bats and insects.
2) The location of a plant or an animal in this zones (litho or hydrosphere) is called habitant (home)
3) A group of animals and plants living in a particular habitat forms a community.
4) Plants or animals of the same kind are called species.
5) Today the biosphere consists of about 1 million plant species and 2 million animal species, thus
animals are more than plants. However plants are the more dominant.

THE HUMAN FACTOR IN THE NATURAL BALANCE.

Nature cycles and the biotic balance are relatively stable. Any changes that occur usually take
place within certain limits, so that despite minor variations, the cycles continue and life goes on.
However, man’s activities are fundamentally upsetting the fine balance of nature.

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EFFECTS OF MAN ON THE BALANCE OF NATURE.

1) Change of the carrying capacity

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals an ecosystem can support without
strain

With varying levels of technology, man has tried to increase the carrying capacity of the land so
that the ever-increasing population can receive the necessities of life, but in doing so, he has been
changing the carrying capacities of ecosystems unfavorably. For instance, through technology,
man has been transferring water, soil, air etc from one part of the earth to the other, thus reducing
the amounts that existed somewhere else. In this way he has been changing biosphere and thus
upsetting the fine balance of nature.
Many animals and plant populations are threatened with extinction because human beings kill
them for food, profit or sport. For example leopard, cheetah, crocodile, elephant, turtles, tiger,
etc. have been reduced to dangerously low levels by hunting in order to sell their skins and other
parts.
The blue whales have been reduced to about 6,000 down from a population of 2 million.
During farming, trees are felled, marshy areas are drained and the soil is ploughed up. These
activities change the natural habitats and reduce the variety of plants and animals found there,
thus changing, the carrying capacity of the ecosystems permanently.

2) Changing Life Support Systems.

Forests form a very important part of life support systems of our environment. They transform
carbon dioxide to provide 25% of the earth’s oxygen through photosynthesis. They also maintain
the water cycle, thus providing, rainfall to vast regions of the earth. Forests help stabilize the
global temperatures and wind patterns by regulating the amount of solar radiation reaching the
earth’s surface. This leads to many problems experienced in the world today, such as:

 Severe drought,
 Soil erosion,
 Floods,
 Greenhouse effect and global warming.
Global warming threatens to melt the polar icecaps and raise the sea levels, thus sub-merging
coastal regions and islands. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from
a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all
directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it
results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence
of the gases. Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through human activities is known as the
enhanced (or anthropogenic) greenhouse effect. This increase in radiative forcing from human
activity is attributable mainly to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

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 3) Locking up important elements.

Production of non-biodegradable materials and wastes which lock important elements from
returning to the natural cycles upset the natural balance. For example, materials such as furniture
( steel and metal ), polythene bags, plastic containers, synthetic fibres, iron and steel products do
not easily decompose, neither are they dispensed with, hence, important elements contained in
them are never released for recycling in natural environments.

4) Changing Composition of the Atmosphere.

Some industrial wastes such as sulfur products are released into the atmosphere where they
interfere with the water cycle by dissolving in rainwater to form acid rain which kills life and
spoils roofs.
Similarly, gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants and propellants in
aerosol cans and in plastic foams are very stable and are first broken down by ultraviolet light
into reactive chlorine molecules. Each of these molecules reacts with ozone molecules breaking
them down. As a result, the ozone layer depletion occurs which could allow dangerous solar
radiation to reach the earth’s surface. It is estimated that by the year 2050, over 60% of the ozone
layer will be gone.

5) Interference with Food Chains and Food Webs.

The use of chemical compounds, herbicides, fungicides, insecticides etc. kill pests and weeds but
interfere with food chains and food webs. The chemicals become more concentrated as they pass

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along the food chains and food webs, thus persisting for a long time in the soil, rivers, lakes and
bodies of animals, causing harm.
Similarly the use chemical fertilizers to increase crop yield also interferes with the nitrogen
cycle, as very little organic wastes remain in the soil. The organic wastes are also washed out of
the soil by rain and find their way into streams and rivers, where they promote excessive growth
of microscopic algae, thus, destabilizing the aquatic ecosystems. This proliferation of the algae is
referred to as algal bloom and it leads to Eutrophication, i.e. enrichment of water bodies with
nutrients.
In some cases the level of nitrates getting into drinking water reaches dangerous levels
particularly for young children.
Industrial effluents into rivers may also affect aquatic ecosystems and even people, particularly if
the effluents contain poisonous waste products such as cyanide.

In summary, the greatest challenge we face today is to bring about changes in the living
conditions of our people while safe guarding the environment for future generations. This can be
achieved through proper environmental management, whereby the economic and social
conditions of the people are improved without damaging the natural resources on which they
depend, i.e. sustainable development.

THE STATE OF THE EARTH: ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS.

Definition of Environmental Crisis.

The term crisis is a problem in which corrective measures can be undertaken to avert any danger.
Environmental crisis is a situation in the environment demanding immediate corrective action to
avert further deterioration, damage or destruction of the affected environment.

Is There an Environmental Crisis?

Whether there is environmental crisis or not depends on our ability to identify it.
The ability to identify an environmental crisis depends on our perceptions about the
environment, on our training background or our level of education.

People’s perceptions of environmental crisis differ. Not all may agree that a given circumstance
constitutes a crisis.
Nevertheless, since 1962, when Rachel Carson wrote her book ‘Silent Spring’ many voices have
been raised in alarm over the degraded state of the environment. Responses to the alarm varying
substantially, some people say the cries are exaggerated, others say they are genuine.
An environmental crisis may be considered in terms of local, national and global levels, e.g.:
The water hyacinth menace in Lake Victoria upsets the ecological balance of the affected parts
of the lake. It also greatly affects the day-to-day social and economic activities of the people who
depend on the lake for their livelihood. These observations are severe enough to merit being
referred to as a crisis. But because the observations do not immediately and directly affect or
threaten other people in the country or the world, the crisis is thus LOCAL and may go unnoticed
by the larger community.

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On the other hand the diminishing supply of energy in Kenya, both wood fuel and electricity, due
to increased demand, affects the whole country, hence referred to as a national crisis. The
problem is manifested in increased deforestation and frequent power failures in the country.
The energy crisis due to the diminishing supply of fossil energy since the 1970s constitutes a
global environmental crisis and merits attention by the whole world community.
Environmental crisis is thus an event of many dimensions. A crisis presents itself on a real scale
ranging from local to global and on the time scale ranging from the present to the future. The
threat of the crisis ranges in magnitude from deterioration of small ecosystems to total
destruction of the biosphere.
However, there is no general agreement on whether and when the world as a whole will face a
crisis or crises. Thus we cannot accurately predict the future. However, any disruption of the
photosynthetic process through accelerated deforestation, pollution, and climate change or ozone
layer depletion could lead to a certain global environmental crisis. This is because all life
depends on this process in terms of the availability of oxygen and food and other resources
through primary production. Given that at present we are using about 40% of the total primary
production of photosynthesis in one generation, when population doubles, humankind will use
80% of the primary production. Even if climate change and pollution do not depress
photosynthesis, the limits to sustainable production are close.
Within two generations a crisis seems likely unless population slows or primary production can
be highly improved.

EXTENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS.

Since 1960 the following categories of perceived or potential crises have been identified at local,
national, regional and global levels:

Category 1: Greatest Risk and Increasing Threat.

Category 2: Medium Risk.

Category 3: Least Risk.

Category 4: Threats.

For each category, it depends at which level they occur.

Category 1: Greatest Risk and Increased Threat.

These include national and global levels. Examples are:

a) Climate change due to accelerated global warming. It affects photosynthetic

process directly.
b) Soil degradation through loss of productive land through erosion. Primary
productivity will decline.
c) Deforestation due to loss of tropical rainforest.
d) Greenhouse effect that leads to global warming, hence climate change.

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 e) Genetic erosion as a result of extinction of flora and fauna and loss of
biodiversity.
f) Population increase that leads to over-exploitation of resources.
g) Toxic releases via effluents, accidents, warfare and agrochemicals.

Category 2: Medium Risk from global and national levels.

Examples include:

a) Economic stagnation or depression. If an economy fails to grow over a long

period of time, it experiences stagnation and leads to Depression/inflation.
b) Ozone layer depletion. It can be controlled hence a medium risk.
c) Agrochemical Pollution particularly from use of pesticides and fertilizers.
d) Dumping of industrial wastes. This is a very dangerous practice that is accelerated
due to lack of stringent laws/regulations on dumping of wastes
e) Consumerism: People wanting always to eat and buy things. Industries need to
expand on their productivity hence more resources are used and a lot of wastes are
to e disposed of.

Category 3: least risk at global level

Examples: CFC’S (chlorofluorocarbons)

- lead to destruction of ozone layer.

Category 4: threats.

Examples:
1. AT GLOBAL LEVEL e.g.

a) Biological war fare:

- Use of biological resources for the purpose of killing people in a war e.g. Anthrax viruses
b) Depletion of fresh water resources. Amount of flesh water globally is 1% of all the water
masses
c) Genetic engineering accidents e.g. escape or uncontrolled release of harmful biological
agents.
d) Eco refugees-these are refugees who come as a result of ecological problems e.g.
droughts, floods, tsunami, Katrina etc.
e) Nuclear generation/waste disposal accident.
- Very catastrophic
e.g. Chernobyl disaster explosion of a nuclear plant- led to radiation emissions- very
dangerous.
f) Nuclear warfare e.g. Hiroshima Nagasaki bombing in 1945. This led to loss of life,
maiming of bodies, babies born with genetic and even physical defects.

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 2. OTHER THREATS AT NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS

Examples;

1. Agro-chemical pollution- pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, insecticides e.t.c. This is

common in large-scale agricultural producing countries like China, Argentina and Brazil.
2. Acid rain- common in temperate regions (northern hemisphere) due to high levels of
industrialization- chemical wastes dissolve in the rain making chemical rain.
3. Chemical warfare- war between Iran and Iraq. Iraq used chemicals to fight Iran.
4. Loss of bio-diversity- through –deforestation, over fishing, exposure of the coast to storms
and erosion and pollution.
5. Biotechnology used to produce food in large amounts, of different variations but if it is
misused e.g. cloning which becomes a threat.
6. HIV-AIDS
7. Technology- particularly inappropriate technology is devastating to a country

In summary:
From the above categories of crisis its clear that there is a progressive loss of ecological stability
where indicators include

 Shrinking of forests
 Expansion of deserts
 Loss of crop land
 Increase in pollution
 Increase in poverty levels.

HISTORICAL ROOTS AND CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS

a) Historical roots of environmental crises

The planet earth has gone through various periods of dramatic change as a result of the
interaction of human culture and the natural environment. Such a change is referred to as
revolution.
Revolutions have often changed the earths environment, culminating in the present
environmental crises the revolutions that have had dramatic effects on the global
environment are as follows:

1. Agricultural revolution
2. Civilization
3. Industrial revolution
4. Modernization, technology, revolution

Prior to these revolutions, societies had not begun; our ancestors lived by gathering fruits and
seeds of wild plants and by hunting wild animals. There were nonpermanent settlement because
small groups of people were constantly in search; our ancestors had little control over their

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environment. Therefore they did not clear the forests to grow crops and build houses i.e. they did
not interfere with the harmony of the ecosystems.

1. Agricultural revolution (introduction of farming)

It begun about 11000 years ago in Mesopotamia and later in China and Egypt. When people
there first learnt to grow crops, tame animals and settle in one place.

The revolution started when man in Mesopotamia learnt to plant the seeds of wild wheat. This
was necessary because the domesticated variety could no longer produce it self naturally.
Without civilization it could soon die out and become extinct thus people developed a new
culture namely farming which was carried out in large locations. They used fairly simple tools
made of stones and from ore to till the land and to clear the forests. As this culture continued to
spread over the countries the number of people dependant on hunting and gathering declined.
Today more of the world’s people are engaged in agriculture than in any other occupation. At the
same time or a little later domestication of animals such as dogs, sheep, goats and cattle begun.
Since that time a few more animals have been domesticated. The culture of farming brought
about several changes in the environment then.

CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION:

i) Soil erosion

The clearance of vegetation for agricultural purposes and for settlement left the soil bare and it
was easily washed away whenever it rained. This progressively rendered the soil less fertile.

ii) Desertification
Many areas where the agricultural revolution began such Iraq, Iran, Egypt, Libya, Saudi Arabia
and parts of China are now deserts. These areas are believed to have been marginally grasslands
and forests.
Domestication of animals and arable farming most probably led to the process of desertification
through gradual loss of vegetation.

iii) Destabilization of ecosystems

They continued clearance of vegetation for farming and settlement interfered with the return of
minerals to the ecosystems.
Similarly minerals that were absorbed by crops were not allowed to return to the soil after
harvesting.
This begun the process of upsetting minerals.

iv) Biodiversity Destruction

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The farming activities brought about loss of original gene pools; of wild grains which became
extinct. This happened because of a gene selection through monoculture, hybridization and
selection of plant varieties for propagation while clearing others.
Many other species of plants and animals became extinct since they never adapted to the new
natural habitats created through clearance of vegetation. This was the beginning of biodiversity
destruction.

2) CIVILIZATION

Civilization begun about 6000 years ago in the fertile river valleys of Tigris and Euphrates
(Mesopotamia), the Nile (Egypt), Hwang Ho and Si Kiang (China), Hindus and Ganjes (India).
Civilization grew from the agricultural revolution. First the expansion of agriculture by using
ploughs and through irrigation led to greater harvests of crops. With increased food the human
population also increased, as was the number of families and villages. This necessitated the
establishment of central governments and people began to live under societies under common
laws. Such laws were necessary to preserve peoples way of life and to prevent chaos thus
civilization had begun.
Eventually the powerful culture or civilization extended their influence to their neighbors. The
civilization developed unique culture as expressed in their architecture, writing, arts and other
artifacts, such as weapons and tools. They used environmental resources in developing these
materials. Heat energy required for domestic use and for making tools and weapons was derived
from burning wood, cow dung and charcoal. Later they learnt to use running water to drive
wheels, to raise water for irrigation and to grind grain. Wind was also used to power boats and
drive windmills, which raised water from the wells and pumped it into the fields. Civilization
lasted for several thousand of years: reaching its peak in 15th and 17th centuries during which the
greatest geographical discoveries and the opening of nearly all territories of the terrestrial surface
were experienced. This also coincided with the development of tools and means of production
and the formation of large cultural economic centers. This success encouraged extraction and
exploitation of many natural resources. Radical changes in ecological systems started taking
place on a large scale. Some of the consequences of civilization include the following:

i) Depletion of resources

Increased population in civilization areas, led to an increase use of natural resources particular
metal ores and wood leading to an early depletion of this resources.

ii) Pollution

Heat energy for looking and making tools and weapons was derived from burning wood,
charcoal and cow dung. This begun the process of air pollution

iii) Soil degradation

The hydraulic technology used to raise water from wells and rivers for irrigation or for grinding
grain facilitated salinization of the soils and silting of rivers and irrigation channels. The
invention of plough also led to an increase in the area of tilled land and turned to the diminishing
fertility of the soil. The initial stage of soil degradation had begun.

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iv) Deforestation

Increased use of wood to provide the source of heat energy and for building led to deforestation
this probably contributed to desertification in the areas surrounding the Nile, Tigris, Hwang Ho
and Si Kiang valleys.

3) INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industrial revolution started in the 17th century, in Great Britain and the countries
around the North Sea in Europe. The Industrial revolution was a series of events and
inventions that utilized scientific ideas. Specifically it started when James Walt
invented the steam engine on January 5th 1769.

Machines were gradually invented which used a new source of energy: steam
eventually replaced muscle power, wind and falling water in providing power to do
work.

Wood fuel was burnt to boil water thus proving steam. Later on other new forms of
energy were discovered and used: particularly fossils fuel such as coal, gas and oil.

The revolution was therefore characterized by changes in the means of production and by
transition from manufactory to large-scale machine industry, which in turn led to the
development of numerous environmental hazards. The effects on the environment would only be
seen clearly years later.

With the diversification of energy resources and with discovery of minerals such as
Iron, Coal, Oil, Copper, Aluminum and several others many products such as tools,
weapons, cutlery, ships and bridges, were manufactured which found readily
available markets. The resources that were scarce were imported from colonies in
Africa, Asia and Latin America. Hence resources from these continents contributed
immensely to the industrial revolution. The prevailing economic system at the time
was capitalism. The major aims of the ecomonic ventures were to create and
accumulate wealth and profits. The safety of the environment did not matter. The
period was characterized by profound consumption of environmental resources to
satisfy human needs and wants.

The use of factories and mass production has led to a depletion of certain natural resources,
leaving the environment permanently damaged. One example of this depletion is deforestation,
which is the clearing of forest trees for use in production. When the trees are cleared, the wildlife
in the forest also becomes uprooted.

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Changes in means of production

manufacturing large scale machine industry

consequences of the industrial revolution

 Deforestation
 Biodiversity destruction
 Depletion of resources
 Pollution
 Cultural pollution

Deforestation

Enormous amounts of forests were cut down in Western Europe and in the colonies for the
purpose providing wood fuel.
England for instance began the process of Green house effect and Global warming being
experienced today.

Biodiversity destruction

The destruction of habitats due to the mining of coal, iron and other minerals and due to
deforestation, led to extinction of many important species, of plants and animals in Europe and
even in Africa, Latin America and Asia.

Depletion of Resources

The Industrial revolution sharply increased the exploitation of natural resources and finite energy
resources begun to be exploited particularly wood, coal and oil.
Colonies were formed from where some of the raw materials could be obtained cheaply and this
process continues up to now in different forms. e.g. DRC (Zaire) has very unique trees in the
Congo forest being depleted.

Pollution

The increased exploitation of natural resources for industrial production changed man’s
influence upon ecosystems. The factories begun emitting chemical fumes and effluents into the
environment and intensified the initial stage of air, soil and river contamination e.g. London
became one of the most polluted cities in Europe darkened with coal smoke.
Many people died of lung diseases from this pollution. The level of CO2 in the atmosphere
started to increase sharply since 1850.

Cultural pollution

17
The rapid switch from agricultural to manufacturing was painful. People were evicted from rural
areas to towns where life was miserable .Overcrowding, crime and pollution brought misery and
cultural confusion among people.
Child labor became rampant. Community values started to vanish .new values were created
throughout Western Europe which were referred to as Western civilization /culture .We are all
grappling with the culture today.

4. MORDENIZATION/TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION

As a result of Industrial Revolution modernization began in Europe in the twentieth century. It is

primarily the application of advanced technology to production thus making it more efficient .It
is also referred to as Technological Revolution.
Modernization was characterized by the introduction of an entirely new process of new materials
and energy production by a qualitative leap in the means of production and the industrial output
of new items with diverse technological, economical, physical and chemical properties.
It spread from Europe to other parts of the world at varying rates depending on how accessible
that part was from Europe.
In some places in the world the ideas were eagerly adopted. In others it was resisted. Today
largely as a result of the modernization the world can be divided into three basic types of
societies:

i) Modern Industrial societies/Developed world/The North/The First world.

ii) Traditional and chiefly Agricultural societies/Developing world/The South or Third
world countries
iii) Transitional societies/Newly Industrialized societies/Second world societies of South
East Asia, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia.

Technological revolution/modernization has only helped to prolong the effects of development

on the environment that begun in the Industrial Revolution. This has resulted in the following:

 Destruction of forests leading to accelerated deforestation, soil erosion and climatic

change.
 Destruction of Biodiversity
 Depletion of natural resources such as coal, gas, oil, arable land and several others.
 Pollution of the atmosphere
 Diminishing of freshwater resources.

The root cause of environmental crisis

Europeans pioneered in the industrialization of society and hence set in motion the process
environmental degradation.

18
What was special about them that facilitated their involvement in Industrial Revolution?

The major factor that seems to have encouraged the Europeans to begin the industrial revolution
is the Judaeo-Christian tradition peculiar to Western Europe Christianity.
This tradition finds its strength in the Biblical faith as illustrated in the book of Genesis:

“So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he
created him; male and female he created them. And God blessed
them, and God said to them, ‘Be fruitful and multiply, and fill
the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the
sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that
moves upon the earth’” (Gen. 1:27—28).
It is believed that this view has from the Roman times influenced how people in the West
perceived the environment and it is largely to blame for the present world environment and
development predicament.
The tradition has tended to separate man from the natural environment. He has been given
dominion and may investigate and appropriate the objects of nature without preference to
anybody else. These were the beliefs that guided the I. Revolution as expressed in the writings of
the early scientists like Francis Bacon in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries.
On the other hand traditional societies like the Aborigines, Indians of the Americus, the Maons
of New Zealand and various tribes of Africa are more sympathetic to the nature than their
European counterparts. For them there is no distinction between God and the environment. But
even among these communities things are changing.

Model 1 Phase I Phase II Phase III

Judeo- Science and Environmental
Christian Technology degradation
Tradition

Model 2 Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV

Judeo- Capitalism  Urbanization Environmental
Christian Democratization  Increased wealth degradation
Tradition  Increased
population
 Individual
NOTE: resource
ownership

Culturally:

19
It might be bad in China with 700million poor people but 700 rich Chinese would wreck China
in no time.
……….it is the rich who wreck the environment……..
Occupy much more space, consume more of each natural resource, disturb ecology more, litter
the landscape…and cause more pollution.

ESM 410 Notes: Week 2

ECOSYSTEM: NATURE’S WEB.

Plants and animals (biotic environment) interact with the soil, water and air i.e. the abiotic
environment in the biosphere. The biosphere can therefore be regarded as an ecological system;
however, it is rather too large and complex to be a useful or a manageable unit of study.
Such interaction is best observed or studied at the ecosystem level.

ECOSYSTEM.

An ecosystem is a small unit of the biosphere where living and non -living things of the
environment interact to form a stable and self- regulating system. Ecosystem is thus, a complex,
self –perpetuating community of living things together with the non-living environment in a
given area. Examples of ecosystem include:

 A pond
 A dam
 A tree
 Swamp
 Lake/sea
 River
 Buildings
 Graveyard
Each has three components –plants, animals and non- living part.

NOTE

1) A large ecosystem is called a biome, e.g. tropical rainforest, tundra region, temperate
rainforest, savannah grassland, desert, coniferous forest e.t.c.
Biomes are usually named after the main type of vegetation found there and each one is
home to a large variety of plants and animals
2) The largest ecosystem that ecologists study is the biosphere.
3) The earth’s biosphere contains many ecosystems within each ecosystem are habitats.
Each habitat contains smaller micro environments; each with its non-abiotic conditions.

FUNCTIONING OF THE ECOSYSTEM.

20
Living things in an ecosystem are linked to another by feeding relationship, these relationships
include:

1. Food chains
2. Food web
Primary purpose of the feeding relationships is to transfer the energy and the materials required
by all living organisms in carrying out their daily functions.

FOOD CHAINS.

This is the simplest feeding relationship in any ecosystem. A food chain is a series of organisms
where each one is dependent on the one preceding it for its source of energy and essential
nutrients. In a food chain each food link represents a trophic level. A trophic level refers to the
organisms position in the food chain. Autotrophs are at the base. Organisms that eat autotrophs
are called herbivores or primary consumers. An organism that eats herbivores is a carnivore and
a secondary consumer. A carnivore which eats a carnivore which eats a herbivore is a tertiary
consumer, and so on.

The first link is compost of green plants or primary producers. They manufacture there own food
during the process of photosynthesis.

Plants are in turn eaten by herbivores (primary consumers). In turn the herbivores may be eaten
by a carnivore (i.e. secondary consumer).

In a long food chain there may be carnivores, which feed on other carnivores hence called
tertiary consumers omnivores are also tertiary consumers.

Each food chain also contains decomposers which break down dead plant and animal matter into
minerals are humus. Which are then returned to the soil to be used again. This process is called
decay and decomposition.

The decomposers include:

 Bacteria
 Fungi
 Some Arthropods.

Food chain
Abiotic
environment

Minerals
Primary Primary Secondary
CO2 producer consumer
1 trophic
st consumer 2 trophic
nd

level level
O2 Clover Rabbit Fox

(Plant (Herbivore (Carnivor

Light
Death 21
Death
Water Death

Decomposers
In natural ecosystem there are usually not more than 4 or 5 trophic levels in a food chain. The
limits are imposed by the energy losses between one trophic level and the next combined with
the fact that energy requirements may increase as one goes up the trophic levels.

Food web

In natural ecosystems simple food chains rarely exits, instead chains join together into more
complex relationships known as food webs. This is because animals often eat a varied diet and so
play different roles in a number of food chains. A food web consists of interlocking food chains,
and that the only way to untangle the chains is to trace back along a given food chain to its
source.

Examples of Food Webs

Example 1 Chicke Hawk
n
Minerals
grain
CO2

grain
O2 Clover Mouse Fox

Light
leave
Water
If any one element is missing in the food chain the food chain is broken and the whole
community is affected e.g. foxes will die due to starvation if there are no mice and chicks; also if
Rabbit in some way as the
one group increases in number the whole community is affected Lioncarrying
capacity is affected. But left undisturbed, nature keeps the balance within a given ecosystem.

Example 2

22
ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS.

Energy is the ability to work, and all organisms need a source of energy to live/ the capacity of a
physical system to perform work. In an ecosystem living things obtain this energy from food, i.e.
chemical energy.

The food is also used by living organisms for growth and repair of worn out tissues overall living
things in ecosystem are linked to one another by food energy or chemical energy.

The initial source of energy for any ecosystem is the sun; solar energy.

Green plants have chlorophyll in the leaves which traps solar energy from the sun and use it to
convert water from the soil; carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and small amount/ traces of
minerals dissolved in soil water; into high energy compounds mainly carbohydrates or primary
productivity.

Autotrophs (=self-nourishing) are called primary producers.

Photoautotrophs fix energy from the sun and store it in complex organic compounds
(these are green plants, algae, some bacteria)

23
 light

simple
inorganic photoautotrophs
compounds
A simplified equation for photosynthesis is as below:

Light energy
6CO2 +6H2O C6H12O6 +6O2
Chlorophyll
Low chemical High chemical
Energy energy

Much of the energy contained in carbohydrates is released during respiration and used in the
plant to build larger molecules such as cellulose, starch, oil and proteins.

As the plant synthesizes these materials it increases in size (plant biomass) and an increased
amount of energy is stored within it. This energy stored in the plant structure is available to
animals, which eat them.

Also when the plants die, the energy is made available as dead organic matter. The process of
respiration also releases the energy in plant materials, eaten by animals. During this process the
organic substance in the food are broken down with the help of oxygen to release energy. The
process is chemically a reverse of photosynthesis.

C6H12O6 +6O2 6CO2 +6H2O +Heat energy (2.8ml)

The animals in turn use the energy released to;

a) Synthesize materials necessary to keep them healthy or for the purpose of growth. Energy
is in turn stored in the animal material or tissues i.e. animal biomass
b) Perform various life processes such as movement, transport of materials in the body
e.t.c.

24
Energy Flow Through the Ecosystem

The diagram above shows how both energy and inorganic nutrients flow through the ecosystem.
We need to define some terminology first. Energy "flows" through the ecosystem in the form of
carbon-carbon bonds. When respiration occurs, the carbon-carbon bonds are broken and the
carbon is combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This process releases the energy, which
is either used by the organism (to move its muscles, digest food, excrete wastes, think, etc.) or
the energy may be lost as heat. The dark arrows represent the movement of this energy. Note that
all energy comes from the sun, and that the ultimate fate of all energy in ecosystems is to be lost
as heat. Energy does not recycle!!

The other component shown in the diagram are the inorganic nutrients. They are inorganic
because they do not contain carbon-carbon bonds. These inorganic nutrients include the
phosphorous in your teeth, bones, and cellular membranes; the nitrogen in your amino acids (the
building blocks of protein); and the iron in your blood (to name just a few of the inorganic
nutrients). The movement of the inorganic nutrients is represented by the open arrows. Note that
the autotrophs obtain these inorganic nutrients from the inorganic nutrient pool, which is usually
the soil or water surrounding the plants or algae. These inorganic nutrients are passed from
organism to organism as one organism is consumed by another. Ultimately, all organisms die and
become detritus, food for the decomposers. At this stage, the last of the energy is extracted (and
lost as heat) and the inorganic nutrients are returned to the soil or water to be taken up again. The
inorganic nutrients are recycled, the energy is not.

To summarize: In the flow of energy and inorganic nutrients through the ecosystem, a few
generalizations can be made:

1. The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystems) is the sun

2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat.
3. Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food chain as one
organism eats another.
25
 4. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.
5. Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not.

EFFICIENCY IN ENERGY TRANSFER IN ECOSYSTEMS

A generalization exists among ecologists that on average, about 10% of the energy available in
one trophic level will be passed on to the next; this is primarily due to the fact that the further
removed a trophic level is from its source (detritus or producer), the less biomass it will contain
(biomass here would refer to the combined weight of all the organisms in the trophic level). This
reduction in biomass occurs for several reasons:

1. not everything in the lower levels gets eaten

2. not everything that is eaten is digested
3. energy is always being lost as heat

Therefore, it is also reasonable to assume that in terms of biomass, each trophic level will weigh
only about 10% of the level below it, and 10x as much as the level above it.
Most of the light energy that falls onto a plant is reflected again into the atmosphere. Only about
1% is clearly absorbed by plants to provide chemical energy.

90%
SUN Reflected
90% 90% 90%
Respiration Respiration Respiration

Incident
light

Plants Herbivor Carnivore Carnivore 2

1% 10 e 10 1 10
% % %

On the other hand of the chemical energy produced in the plant, in the form of food or plant
materials only 10% is used by the herbivores/ primary consumers and is fixed in their flesh. The
other 90% is lost as heat during respiration.
The same is true when a herbivore is eaten by a carnivore or carnivore eaten by another
carnivore.
Thus only 10% of the energy at the trophic level is subsequently fixed in the tissues of the
succeeding level.

The system is highly inefficient hence you cannot have more than 5 trophic levels in a food
chain/ ecosystem hence the need to conserve the environment.

26
 1%

Net Net Net

Absorbed productivity 10% productivity 10% productivity
Incident light
Light Of plants Of herbivore Of carnivore
(2000kj) (20Kj) (2Kj) (0.2Kj)
Producer Primary Secondary
99% 90% consumer 90% consumer
Reflected Respiration Respiration
back to
atmosphere
%

Because of the energy losses at each trophic level, any producer can only produce enough

chemical energy to support a smaller number of organisms in the chain. Hence the amount of

animal biomass that can be supported at each succeeding trophic level decreases at a geometric

rate in an ecosystem. This explains why a food chain rarely exceeds 4 or 5 trophic levels. The

dissipation of heat (loss) results in an energy deficit.

A constant infusion of additional energy is required for ecosystems to continue functioning; and
for organisms to live and grow. The sun provides this constant supply of energy.

Similarly inorganic materials must also continually be supplied to help in the productivity of
materials in plants and subsequently in animals. These inorganic materials are supplied through
biological cycling e.g. carbon, nitrogen and water cycle.

The Laws of Thermodynamics

Energy flow is a one-directional process.

sun---> heat (longer wavelengths)

FIRST LAW of THERMODYNAMICS:

Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed

SECOND LAW of THERMODYNAMICS

27
Transformations of energy always result in some loss or dissipation of energy/In energy
exchanges in a closed system, the potential energy of the final state will be less than that of the
initial state/Entropy tends to increase (entropy = amount of unavailable energy in a
system)/Systems will tend to go from ordered states to disordered states (to maintain order,
energy must be added to the system, to compensate for the loss of energy)

NATURAL BALANCE IN ECOSYSTEMS.

The biosphere has a countless number of ecosystems consisting of plants, animals and non-

living things. All these components of the ecosystems are in a closely balanced order. There is no

waste and everything is broken down and reduced. The ability of an ecosystem to support certain

number of plants and animals is referred to as its carrying capacity.

The natural balance is at two levels

1. Biotic balance
2. Abiotic balance.

BIOTIC BALANCE.

It is evident from food chains, food webs and energy flow in ecosystems that if any feeding level
is changed, the ecosystem is thrown out of balance. This is because the carrying capacity of the
ecosystems is affected by such changes.
All ecosystems have inbuilt mechanisms for regulating the balance mainly through:

1. Photosynthesis
2. Respiration
3. Decomposition

The biotic balance of an ecosystem is usually expressed in ecological pyramids.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS.

28
An ecological pyramid is an illustration of the reduction in energy as you move through each
feeding (trophic) level in an ecosystem. The base of the pyramid is large since the ecosystem's
energy factories (the producers) are converting solar energy into chemical energy via
photosynthesis.
There are three types of ecological pyramids:

1) Pyramid of numbers
2) Pyramid of biomass
3) Pyramid of energy flow

Pyramid of numbers.

A Pyramid of Numbers can be generated by counting all the organisms at the different feeding

levels. As you might guess, this can be a very difficult task since we are not just identifying each

species in the ecosystem. We are also counting how many of each species is present

Few TERTIARY
individuals 100 CONSUMERS

SECONDARY
300 CONSUMERS

PRIMARY
500 CONSUMERS

Many
1000 PROVIDERS
individuals

29
They show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophic

levels in terms of their number. Here there will be a gradual decrease in the number of

individuals from the lower to the higher trophic levels

SPECIAL PYRAMID

TERTIARY
CONSUMERS

SECONDARY
CONSUMERS

PRIMARY
CONSUMERS

LIMITATIONS OF PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

PRODUCER e.g. a tree

It is difficult to use pyramid of numbers to compare different ecosystems e.g. at producer level it

is pointless to compare organisms which are vastly different in size e.g. an alga and a tree. One

tree (a producer) can represent an ecosystem and harbor numerous populations of herbivores and

carnivores. Thus, the bottom of the pyramid would be very small and not flared out as depicted

in the diagrams on the right.

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS.

30
Pyramid of biomass is based on dry mass of organisms found at each trophic level. Instead of

counting numbers in an ecosystem the mass of an organism is considered and it’s used to

construct pyramid of biomass. Organisms are collected from each feeding level, dried and then

weighed. This dry weight (biomass) represents the amount of organic matter (available energy)

of the organisms.

The majority of pyramids of biomass take the same shape as that pyramid of numbers.

The biomass in autotrophs like algae, green flagellates, green plants etc. is the maximum. The

biomass is considerably less in the next trophic level occupied by secondary consumers like

small fishes. The least amount of biomass is present in the last trophic level.

Low
biomass TERTIARY CONSUMERS

SECONDARY CONSUMERS

PRIMARY CONSUMERS

Higher
biomas Mass in (g) PRODUCERS
s

LIMITATIONS OF PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

31
Pyramid of biomass samples the mass of organisms at one particular time not taking into account

the variations over time, the life span of the organisms involved or the rate of growth and

reproduction of the organisms.

More so they may be need to collect these organisms for the purpose of determining their dry

weight thus interfering with the ecosystem.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY FLOW

The energy utilized by different feeding types in a unit area over a period of time (usually a year)

can be used to construct pyramids which overcome the limitations of pyramids of numbers and

biomass. This approach necessitates measuring the caloric value of the different organisms that

make up the community. It nicely shows how energy is continually decreasing along the food

chain from producers to top level carnivores.

T. 1.8KJm-2yr-1
CONSUM
ERS
SECONDARY 200KJm-2yr-1
CONSUMERS Carnivores

Herbivores 2400KJm-2yr-1
PRIMARY CONSUMER 32

14400KJm-2yr-1
PRODUCERS
Energy pyramids are the best measure of the energy conservation of the ecosystem and therefore

the efficiency of ecosystems.

In summary, there are three models used in ecology - food chains, food webs and ecological

pyramids - that can illustrate how energy moves through an ecosystem.

33
THE ABIOTIC BALANCE.

Apart from the solar energy, all abiotic needs of living things in ecosystems are supplied from

the earths resources contained in the biosphere. The materials include the following

a) 20 chemical elements/ nutrients needed by plants in large quantities i.e. macronutrients

e.g. O2, N, H2, C, P, Ca, Mg, K and S2. Found within the lithosphere.
b) Several other chemical elements needed by plants in smaller quantities i.e. micro
nutrients e.g. Zinc(Zn), Copper (Cu), Nickel, Iron(Fe), Boron (Bo), Manganese (Mn),
Silicon (Si), Chlorine (Cl), Sodium (Na), Molybdenum (Mn), found within the
lithosphere.
Both macro and micronutrients are necessary for proper healthy growth of plants.

c) Water for photosynthesis

d) Carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
Found in the atmosphere.

All these materials are needed to supply energy for life and are also important in the process of

growth and repair and renewal of the living cells.

If these materials are essential for life where only used once, they would soon run out. This is

because many of the processes in nature work in cycles. There is a constant supply of the

material between the atmosphere, lithosphere and the living things through this cycle.

In any ecosystem materials are cycled and recycled via the food chains and the food webs. When

living things eventually die decomposers to inorganic or abiotic forms thus realizing the nutrients

back to the lithosphere to be used reduce them.

34
These recycling processes ensure that all living things are able to live and grow.

The inorganic/ abiotic materials are continually supplied by biological cycling.

Examples of cycle include

i) Carbon cycle
ii) Nitrogen cycle
iii) Phosphorous cycle
iv) Sulfur cycle
v) Water cycle

THE CARBON CYCLE

Carbon dioxide
in the Respiration
Weathering Combustion
atmosphere

Respiration

Carbonate Carbon in Carbon in land Carbon in

rocks oceans plants animals
Feeding

Photosynthesis
Decomposition TERRESTRIAL

AQUATIC
Carbon in water
plants Decay

Heat and
pressure
Feeding
(compression) Fossilization

Carbon in Fossils
animals 35
SUMMARY

The carbon cycle is self-regulating, but human activity is gradually upsetting the balance, mainly
through the accelerated burning of vast quantities of fossil fuels and by increased deforestation.
Deforestation reduces capacity for photosynthesis and thus a decrease in the volume of carbon
dioxide removed from the atmosphere. At present carbon dioxide is being released at a rate well
above that of natural cycling. If the present atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide rise by 25% this
would be catastrophic.

Topic 3: Development and Progress of Environmental Education

3.1 Definition of Environmental Education

Environmental education is a process of learning and teaching of environmental concepts and
practices which increases people’s awareness about the environment. It mainly focuses on
creation of knowledge and understanding of the environment and its challenges. It also focuses
on creation of skills to mitigate environmental problems which are arising day by day and
provides a forum for existing environmental knowledge to be exercised. Its objectives are
creation of awareness and helping people to develop a positive attitude towards environmental
education.

3.2 History Of Environmental Education: Evolution of EE

During the 1960s and early 1970s many voices were raised in alarm against the rapid
deterioration of the global environment. To prevent any further destruction of the global
environment, it was found necessary to sensitise all the people throughout the world against
misuse and abuse of their environment.

The dream was realised when in 1972 the international community converged at a United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden. The conference

36
declared environmental education must be used as a tool to address global environmental
problems. The conference also recommended that the United Nations Environmental Program
(UNEP) be created to coordinate all matters relating to the global environment. UNEP was
established in 1973, with its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya.

UNEP in conjunction with the United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) later founded the International Environmental Education Programme (IEEP) whose
duty was to develop and coordinate all environmental education programmes in the world. The
launching of IEEP was at the International Workshop on Environmental Education held in
Belgrade, Yugoslavia (now Serbia) in 1975. This workshop developed the Belgrade Charter 1
through which the aims, objectives and guiding principles of EE were spelt out. The Belgrade
Charter defines an audience for environmental education, which includes the general public.

On October 14–26, 1977, UNEP and UNESCO organized and International Conference on
Environmental Education held in Tbilisi, Georgia,. - The Tbilisi Declaration "noted the
unanimous accord in the important role of environmental education in the preservation and
improvement of the world's environment, as well as in the sound and balanced development of
the world's communities." The Tbilisi Declaration updated and clarified The Stockholm
Declaration and The Belgrade Charter by including new goals, objectives, characteristics, and
guiding principles of environmental education. All countries of the world were urged to
introduce EE in their curricula at all levels of education, using the guidelines that were developed
at the conference. This was the beginning of modern environmentalism. Later that decade, in
1977, the Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education in Tbilisi, Georgia
emphasized the role of Environmental Education in preserving and improving the global
environment and sought to provide the framework and guidelines for environmental education.
The Conference laid out the role, objectives, and characteristics of environmental education, and
provided several goals and principles for environmental education.
The World Commission on Environment and Development publishes the Brundtland Report.
Also known as Our Common Future 1988, this report introduced the idea of sustainable
development in which environmental protection and economic growth are viewed as
interdependent concepts. It emphasised the relationship between the under-developed nature of
parts of the world, and existing social and environmental problems. The report is a survey of the

37
planet's health, presenting the problems of atmospheric pollution, desertification, over-
population, over-consumption, water shortages, poverty and under-development.

The progress was evaluated at Tbilisi Plus Conference held in Moscow in 1987 and at the United
Nations Conference on Environmental Education and Development: the Earth Summit; held in
Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It was revealed that not mush had been achieved regarding implementing
EE in most countries and so it was recommended in Agenda 21 of the summit that EE be
incorporate as an essential part of learning at all levels of learning in 3 years. Chapter 36 of
Agenda 21 focuses on “reorienting education towards sustainable development; increasing public
awareness; and promoting training.”

A follow-up on Agenda 21 was done at the International Conference on Environment and

Society held in Thessaloniki, Greece in 1997. It focused on the role of EE in fostering
sustainable development. The idea of education for sustainable development (ESD) was born and
a proposal for the establishment of a conceptual framework for ESD within the context of EE
was made. UNESCO Thessaloniki Declaration (1997), Educating for a Viable Future: a
multidisciplinary vision for concerted action sought to further clarify the concept of education
for sustainable development. It presented sustainability as an ethical and moral imperative and
the objective to which education should devote itself as an instrument of choice. Education is
described as an ongoing process aimed at developing the capability of adapting to rapid changes
in the world, but first and foremost as a process of transmitting knowledge and information to
make the public understand the problems and to stimulate awareness.

In 2000, the Earth Charter was launched at the Hague in Netherlands. This was a civil call for
sustainability and a declaration of the fundamental principles for building a "Just, sustainable,
and peaceful" society in the 21st century, based on respect for nature, diversity, universal human
rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace. The charter set forth a concise formulation of the
meaning of sustainable living and development. To implement the charter, stakeholders included
students, governments, leaders, local authorities, communities, and international agencies.

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio De Janeiro in
1992, and the World Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg in 2002 drew the

38
attention of the global community to discuss problems concerning environment and
development. In order to achieve the goals of sustainable development, people need to become
aware of the environmental issues and acquire background knowledge to enable them to make
and influence decisions. Environmental education is thus concerned with attitude towards, and
decisions about environment quality, with informed management of resources, and with the
ethical considerations that relates to these. The world summit was held to enhance the
implementation of resolutions on sustainable development by governments.

“The summit brought together tens of thousands of participants to focus the world’s attention and
direct action toward ...conserving our natural resources in a world that is growing in population,
with ever-increasing demands for food, water, shelter, sanitation, energy, health services and
economic security.” The United Nations General Assembly passes a resolution declaring 2005–
2014 as the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD).

During the same period, individuals and groups, both within and outside formal education
systems and agencies, began to generate new emphases in their educational work, finding and
expressing different focal points and relationships as well as a new urgency in their treatment.

The declaration of the decade for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) beginning in
2005, by the United Nations has provided further impetus. The goal is to create a sustainable
world through active participation of citizens. Thus, ESD is seen as a process that develops
vision, builds capacity, and empowers to make changes in human societies. Education has a
pivotal role to play in achieving a sustainable economy and society. The dilemma that an
educator faces today is that, by and large academic institutions try to teach everyone to accept
the economic system and to succeed within it. Unfortunately, that success pretty much
guarantees the accelerated blighting of the planet and all living organisms, without exception.
The cognitive and cultural separation of “ecology and environment" from the human enterprise,
has led to a large scale degradation and depletion of natural resources. The guiding ideology
needed to learn and teach sustainability is an ideological orientation that emphasises conserving
cultural values, beliefs, and practices that contribute to sustainable relationship with the
environment. All the citizens must be environmentally literate. Perhaps the best way to visualise

39
is by incorporating environmental education in the structure, pedagogy and curriculum of
academic institutions.

3.3 Goals, Objectives, and Guiding Principles of EE.

The goals, objectives, and guiding principles of EE as outlined in Recommendation No. 2 of the
Tbilisi conference are as follows.
Goals
The ultimate goals of EE are:
1. To foster clear awareness of, and concern about economic, social, political and ecological
interdependence in urban and rural areas.
2. To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes,
commitment, and skills needed to protect and improve the environment.
3. To create new patterns of behavoiur of individuals, groups, and societies as a whole towards
the environment.
Objectives
The objectives of EE are to develop the following qualities in individuals and social groups:
1. Awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its problems
2. Social values and feelings of concern for the environment and motivation for active
participation in environment protection and improvement.
3. Experience in and basic understanding of the environment and its problems
4. Skills for identifying and solving environment problems
5. Active participation at all levels in working toward resolution of environment problems.
Guiding Principles
To achieve the objectives EE should:
For EE to achieve this philosophy it should:
1. Consider the environment in its totality- natural, built, technological, and social
2. Be a continuous lifelong process
3. Be interdisciplinary in its approach, drawing on the specific content of each discipline in
making possible a holistic and balanced perspective.
4. Examine major environment issues, from local, national, regional, and international points of
view so that students receive insights into environment conditions in other regions.

40
5. Focus on current and potential environment situations while taking into account the historical
perspective.
6. Promote the value and necessity of national and international cooperation in the prevention
and solution of environment problems.
7. Relate environment sensitivity, knowledge, problem-solving skills and value-clarification to
every age, but with special emphasis on the sensitivity to the learner's own community in early
years.
8. Help learners discover the symptoms and real causes of environment problems.
9. Emphasize the complexity of environment problems and thus the need to develop critical
thinking and problem-solving skills.
10. Utilise diverse learning environments and a broad array of educational approaches to
teaching and learning about and from the environment with due stress on practical activities and
first hand experiences.
11. Explicitly consider environment aspects in plans for growth and development.
12. Enable learners o have a role in planning their learning experiences and provide an
opportunity for decision making and accepting their consequences.

3.4 Environmental Education in School Curriculum

The Government of Kenya recognizes the importance of Environmental Education (EE) in

environmental management and a multidisciplinary (infused) approach of teaching EE has been
introduced in public primary and secondary schools in this country. The Government also allows
non-governmental organizations, community based organisations and private sector to
implement their environmental education related activities, to all sectors of the society. Students
benefit from all those environment related education activities.

According to UNESCO (1978) EE is an educational concept, which considers the environment

as a scientific and aesthetic resource to be used in a lifelong education process in making people
knowledgeable and aware of the environment and its problems as well as their own role in
environmental conservation, preservation and management. The Tbilisi Conference (1977)
developed the objectives, which forms the basis of EE learning behaviour world over.

41
The Conference backed implementation of EE with a lot of theory and literature but left to
individual countries to develop their own educational programmes and activities, reflecting their
local, natural, socio-economic and political situations. The countries were also asked to organise
their own EE implementation resources and strategies. According to the Tbilisi declaration;
EE is not to be added to the educational programmes as separate discipline or as a
subject for study, but as a dimension to be integrated into them. EE is the result of a
reorientation and rearticulating of the various disciplines and of various educational
experiences providing and integral perception of the environment
Tbilisi Declaration, UNESCO- UNEP, 1978
Kenya has for the last more than four decades been implementing EE in an interdisciplinary
approach (infused approach)
EE as a crosscutting issue
The environment is one of the emerging issues in Kenyan education system. EE is therefore
treated as a crosscutting discipline in the national curriculum. It should be taught across the
curriculum. Therefore EE should be infused and integrated in the lessons. The following are
some of the themes that should be integrated and fused.
 Water
 Health
 Biodiversity
 Agriculture
 Waste
 Energy

Teaching Approaches for EE/ESD

The teaching of EE/ESD requires teachers to facilitate learning process both within and in
settings beyond the traditional confines of the formal classroom. Outdoor lessons are the best for
EE. However, when this is not possible, nature should be brought into the classroom. The
greatest and most available teaching resource is the local environment. The teacher should thus
identify the various components of the local environment, decide the ways in which they can be
used in teaching and also develop relevant teaching materials.

42
Structure for Environment Education
EE is education that is ultimately connected with the environment. It is a discipline consisting of
specific concepts and ideas, skills, attitudes, values, and methods of inquiry/learning process;
which are intertwined. It is education about, from, and for the environment.

LEARNING

A Concepts/
B
Ideas/Skills/
Attitudes

PROCESSES

KEY
A = Education ABOUT the Environment
B = Education FOR the Environment
C = Education FROM the Environment

Education in/from the environment:

Using the environment as a resource by providing learning experiences in the environment. It
develops an informal concern and sense of responsibility for the environment. It develops the
motivation and skills to participate in environmental improvement. It is compatible with the wise
use of environmental resources and it develops an informal concern and sense of responsibility
for the environment. It gives reality, relevance and practical experience to learning through direct
contact with the environment. It develops important skills of data gathering and field
investigations and aesthetic appreciation

43
Education about the environment:
Transmission of knowledge and information, facts about environmental issues. It gives reality,
relevance and practical experience to learning through direct contact with the environment. It
develops important skills of data gathering and field investigations and develops aesthetic
appreciation of the environment. Provides understanding of how natural systems work. It
provides understanding of the impact of human activities upon these systems. It fosters
environmental awareness and concerns

Education for the environment:

An orientation to action for the environment through promotion of appropriate knowledge,
awareness, skills, values, and attitudes. Provides understanding of how natural systems work. It
provides understanding of the impact of human activities upon these systems and it fosters
environmental awareness and concerns. It helps learners to:
 Develops an informal concern and sense of responsibility for the environment
 Develops the motivation and skills to participate in environmental improvement
It is compatible with the wise use of environmental resources

To put it another way, EE is holistic in that it encompasses all that is around us, giving us a better
understanding of the way the world functions, how it operates as a total system, how the actions
of the human race are altering the environment, and what are its consequences on the system and
on us. It is education nor merely through books and lectures, but education through direct
exposure to the environment, learning by doing and problem solving

The aim of EE/ESD should be towards solving environmental and sustainability problems.
Teachers are therefore encouraged to teach environment and sustainability issues using
participatory approaches that will equip learners with skills and the need to solve these problems.
This implies that teaching involves providing information about the local environment, allowing
learners to have outdoor experiences in/from the environment and participating in activities for
improvement of the local environment.

44
Methods for Enhancing EE/ESD in the Curriculum.

All subjects have equal opportunities for promoting EE and ESD in schools. This is because EE
and ESD are cross-curricula as per the Tbilisi Declaration and the Education for Sustainable
Development international implication scheme.
There are two main approaches for teaching Environmental Education in Secondary Schools.
These are Infusion and Integration

1. Infusing EE/ESD

Infusion refers to the incorporation of content and skills into existing subjects without
jeopardizing the integrity of the subjects; by respecting the integrity of both the scope and
sequence of the content and skills. It is usually applied in the non-carrier subjects that have no
specific environmental content. E.g., in mathematics a waste audit can be used to build
mathematical skills as well as address waste issues. In English a poem or composition can be
used to develop language skills such as creative public writing or speaking and at the same time
highlight environmental concerns.

2. Integrating EE/ESD

Integration of EE/ESD involves bringing environmental concepts into carrier subjects by way of
combining environmental and sustainability concepts with the content of the subjects so that
environmental concepts become fully part of the carrier subjects. Such subjects include History
and Government; biology; geography; chemistry; physics.
Environmental concepts already exist as topics in these subjects. These topics act as “plug-in”
points to address local environmental issues.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES IN ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION
EE can be presented in secondary school curriculum
a) Interdisciplinary approach or single subjected approach
b) Multidisciplinary approach or infusion approach
c) Issue-based approach

A. Interdisciplinary Approach

By this approach relevant components of many disciplines are drawn upon to create a destined
EE programme.
This model is represented in the diagram shown BELOW
Fig. 001: The Interdisciplinary Approach Model to Environmental Education, EE.

Languages
Biological Physical Sciences
45
Sciences
Advantages:
1) It’s easy to implement EE as a single subject in the curriculum.
2) The approach lends itself to serious and in depth study than when it’s integrated with
other subjects.
3) The unity and cohesion of EE is ensured through this approach as learners easily
interrelationships of the components of the environment.
4) It’s easy to evaluate the effectiveness of EE than if or when it’s integrated in other
subjects

Disadvantages:
1) It will require more time on the already crowded timetable and may end up being an
optional subject.
2) It may be taken as just another subject to be studied is satisfy examination requirements
thereby defeating the purpose for which it was introduced.
3) It is difficult to get teachers capable of teaching such an interdisciplinary subject.

B. Multi disciplinary approach

Adopted in Kenya
Fig. 002: The Multi disciplinary Approach Model to EE

Languages
Biological Physical Sciences
Sciences

Earth Sciences ENVIRONMENTAL Mathematics

EDUCATION, E.E

Creative Arts
Social Studies Technical/
Vocational Studies

46
By this approach EE components are infused into relevant subjects or disciplines. This means
that the responsibility for different aspects of the content of the subject areas.
Advantages:
a) The implementation of the programme may not overload the existing curriculum on the
timetable
b) Environmental concepts are taught in relation to the existing knowledge in the subject.

Disadvantages:
a) It requires that teachers of all disciplines be competent to adopt and use EE materials
b) It is different to carry out a comprehensive evaluation of the impact of EE
c) It requires greater coordination of the curriculum.
d) The approach lends to deny EE a discipline status.

TOPIC 4: INSTRUCTION IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Introduction
Environmental Education varies in terms of its curriculum and teaching depending on the level
of education i.e. Primary, Secondary or Tertiary institutions. Globally this is done using 3
approaches, interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary and issue-based approach. All these methods
have their advantages and disadvantages which must be taken into consideration when making a
school curriculum for teaching Environmental Education, EE. There are also various teaching
techniques/methods of instruction that are used to achieve the goals/objectives of instructions
that are used to achieve the goals/objectives of Environmental Education.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES IN ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION
EE can be presented in secondary school curriculum
d) Interdisciplinary approach or single subjected approach
e) Multidisciplinary approach or infusion approach
f) Issue-based approach

C. Interdisciplinary Approach

By this approach relevant components of many disciplines are drawn upon to create a destined
EE programme.
This model is represented in the diagram shown BELOW

Languages
Biological Physical Sciences
Sciences
47

Earth Sciences ENVIRONMENTAL Mathematics

EDUCATION, E.E
Fig. 001: The Interdisciplinary Approach Model to Environmental Education, EE.

Advantages:
5) It’s easy to implement EE as a single subject in the curriculum.
6) The approach lends itself to serious and in depth study than when it’s integrated with
other subjects.
7) The unity and cohesion of EE is ensured through this approach as learners easily
interrelationships of the components of the environment.
8) It’s easy to evaluate the effectiveness of EE than if or when it’s integrated in other
subjects

Disadvantages:
4) It will require more time on the already crowded timetable and may end up being an
optional subject.
5) It may be taken as just another subject to be studied is satisfy examination requirements
thereby defeating the purpose for which it was introduced.
6) It is difficult to get teachers capable of teaching such an interdisciplinary subject.

B. Multi disciplinary approach

Adopted in Kenya

Languages
Biological Physical Sciences
Sciences

Earth Sciences ENVIRONMENTAL Mathematics

EDUCATION, E.E
Fig. 002: The Multi disciplinary Approach Model to EE

By this approach EE components are infused into relevant subjects or disciplines. ThisArts
Creative means
Social Studies Technical/
that the responsibility for different aspects of the content of the subject areas.
Advantages: Vocational Studies
c) The implementation of the programme may not overload the existing curriculum on the
timetable
d) Environmental concepts are taught in relation to the existing knowledge in the subject.

48
Disadvantages:
e) It requires that teachers of all disciplines be competent to adopt and use EE materials
f) It is different to carry out a comprehensive evaluation of the impact of EE
g) It requires greater coordination of the curriculum.
h) The approach lends to deny EE a discipline status.

4.1 Methods, Techniques and Strategies of Teaching Environmental Education:

Teaching method – refers to general approach to conducting a lesson.
Two methods of teaching exist:
a) Expository method
b) Problem solving method
Expository method – is where a teacher largely provides the information.
Problem solving method – is where the students search for answers for information (learner
centered)
Teaching techniques refers to the specific actions and processes through which the teaching
method is realized e.g. the techniques which contribute to the expository method include:
 Lecture
 Recitation
 Discussion
 Demonstration
Techniques which contribute to problem solving method include:
 Debate
 Field course excursion
 Simulation
 Panel Discussion
 Laboratory experiments

Teaching Strategy
This refers to sequencing of the techniques a teacher has selected to teach a given lesson e.g. in a
lesson a teacher may order techniques as follows:
a) Introductory Lecture
b) Discussion

49
 c) Laboratory experiments
d) Summary lecture
Techniques of teaching Environmental Education
Some teaching techniques in EE are necessary for desired outcomes since techniques help
learners to develop.
a) A sense of environmental care
b) Willingness to act positively in the environment
c) A commitment to life sustaining rather than life destroying thought and action
Examples include:
i. Field studies/Excursions/Field work
ii. Affective techniques with such as values clarification moral dilemma and jurisdiction.
iii. Simulation games e.g. role play
iv. Case study – issue –based instructions
v. Panel discussion
vi. Debates
vii. Action projects
Simulations and Role play
Simulation is a game although there are no winners or losers. Is an imitation of a situation. Role
play is often a part of simulation whereby people act roles in a simulated action. Simulation can
also involve use of computers.
Panel Discussion
A panel consists a number of students assigned to act as a team to research and present their
findings on a particular environment issue, the panel orally reports to the class.
E.g. waterborne disease – visit water sources, hospitals or dispensaries to get data statistics.

Debate
This is when students apply the knowledge and attitudes to give opposing views on
environmental issues.
In order to defend their position students should plan thoroughly for it to make it as competitive
as real as possible e.g. “the application of chemical fertilizers in crop production is better than
the application of manure.”

50
Action projects
To be more effective projects should relate to community environmental problems. It should also
involve community members as resource persons and active participants. The projects can be
undertaken by one or several groups of students. To counteract any resistance from the
community.
Example 1: ‘Questions worth tasking’

Knowledge Define, recall, describe, label, match, What is it called?

name, state Where does… come from?
When did it happen? Who?
What types of triangles?
Comprehension Translate, predict, explain, summarize, Why does he….?
describe, compare (events and Explain what is happening in the
objects), classify crater…
So how is Tim feeling at this point?
What are the key features…?
Analysis Analyze, explain, infer, break down, What patterns do you see in the way
prioritize, reason logically, reason these verbs change?
critically, draw conclusions Why did the Germans invade?
What assumptions are being made…?
What is the function of…?
Synthesis Design, Create, compose, combine, Compose a phrase of your own using a
reorganize, reflect, predict, speculate, syncopated rhythm?
hypothesize, summarize What is the writer’s main point?
What ways could you test that theory?
What conclusions can you draw?
Evaluation Asses, judge, compare/contrast, Which slogan is likely to have the
evaluate greatest impact?
Should they develop the green-field
site?
Which was the better strategy to use?

51
4.2 Appraisal of EE Instruction in Secondary Schools in Kenya
4.2.1 Status of EE in Kenya
In Kenya today, environmental education has enabled learners to play a big role in
environmental conservation measures. An example is the Green Belt Movement which has over
600 community networks across Kenya which along with other networks has participated in
planting more than 30 million trees on private and public land, protected reserves, sites with
cultural significance and urban centers. This has resulted in the transformation of many
landscapes (forests, sleep slopes and other degraded areas) and protection and restoration of
habitats for local biodiversity (plants and animals).
Many communities work with the Green Belt Movement to conserve and harvest water more
effectively through construction of dams made of sand. That harvested water is used for
household needs, food crops and tree nurseries. A related program with the Green Belt
Movement Kenya improves food security i.e. the capacity of families to feed themselves, by
promoting planting of fruit trees and indigenous foods including yams, cassava and arrowroots.
In Kenya today, many groundbreaking initiatives including environmental education have been
launched so that people could identify the sources of their problems including poor use and
management of their environment and poor governance at local and national levels. They then
identify solutions to those problems hence helping in maintaining a stable environmental state.
Environmental education has been a reliable advocate for environmental and human rights by
challenging abusive or ill-conceived actions by the previous Kenyan governments and rallying
Kenyans to the cause. Through its advocacy and civic education campaigns, environmental
education has been instrumental in bringing environmental issues to the Kenyan policy makers’
attention and has enjoyed significant success most notably the protection from wanton
destruction of Uhuru Park and Karura Forest, both in Nairobi. This has been achieved through
the Green Belt Movement.
Environmental education should examine major issues locally and internationally. Currently in
Kenya, a certain aspect of environmental education, The Green Belt Movement, has opened the
Lang’ata Learning Center in Nairobi which continues to offer environmental education through
exchange programs that expose participating groups to community biodiversity issues through
discussions with local leaders and excursions to selected areas around the country. Through its

52
Pan African Green Belt Network, the Green Belt Movement has trained representatives from 15
African countries. As a result, several tree planting initiatives have been established in East and
Central Africa and in the west.
Environmental education in Kenya today has promoted cooperation among very many people.
Different people come together in joint initiatives to plant trees or build dams. They also partake
in attending and holding seminars and workshops to discuss diverse environmental issues. In this
way, people are able to listen to each other’s ideas and suggestions hence enabling exchange of
knowledge and skills. They also get a chance to inspire and help each other as they offer a
listening ear. Today, environmental education is increasingly becoming a continuous process
with so many environmental conservation measures being exercised.
The teaching approach used to teach environmental issues in our secondary schools is mainly
deductive i.e. the teacher primarily conveys the information with students being passive
recipients. While this fosters the acquisition of environmental knowledge it disregards a lot of
environment actions skills on one hand and concern for the environment on the other.
Teachers thus emphasize education about and form the environment rather than education for the
environment.
Constraints of teaching about environmental issues:
1) Many teachers are not well trained to handle environmental issues in the classroom to
issues taken constructively and usefully.
2) Examinations do not emphasize practical aspects of environmental action. This
discourages student’s participation in environmental issues.
3) Cultural values tend to inhibit students participation in environmental action e.g in some
communities girls are not allowed to plant trees or repair houses.
4) Schools do not have environmental programmes hence there is no coordination regarding
environmental issues taught in various subject areas for curricular activities performed by
students though clubs.
5) Curriculum congestion tends to inhibit students participation in practical activities in the
environment. There is no extra time set aside for such activities.

4.2.2 Challenges of EE

53
Environmental education has suffered from the lack of participation among social groups and
individuals. Studies have shown that most people formally educated make little efforts in
ensuring that they take responsibility of the environment. This leads to knowledge gained from
environmental education being stifled and may not get implemented and spread to other persons.
Groups may find it unnecessary due to lack of incentives to participate in environmental
education.
The lack of comprehensive strategies is another challenge facing environmental education in
Kenya. Kenya has not focused much on inter-linkages between the environment and sustainable
development. The environment has been mostly viewed in a great detail from the biophysical
view but with less emphasis on the economic and social perspective. This has led to less
participatory approaches to environmental education hence hindering its development.
There exists a negative attitude among some individuals towards environmental education. Some
people are suspicious about environmental education as they fear it may affect their day to day
living by e.g. preventing them from logging, use of chemicals on crops e.t.c. This brings a bad
image on environmental education especially on less educated individuals.

The relevant government authorities are mostly underfunded in their attempts to bring
environmental education to the forefront. The government allocates more funds to other
ministries and departments that are seen to bring instant returns to the economy such as
agriculture and tourism and thus undermines ministries such as environment. This makes it
unable to fund sensitization projects based on environmental education.
There is lack of enough manpower to undertake projects concerning environmental education.
People mostly in rural areas may end up not getting the relevant information concerning their
environment whereas they are the people directly in contact with natural resources such as rivers,
forests etc. This greatly undermines the spread of environmental education in the country and is a
huge challenge. In certain cases, there might be inadequate information on the threats that the
environment faces to the people. Theoretical teachings may not be sufficient to convince
individuals on why they need to undertake certain measures to prevent environmental
degradation and promote sustainable development. Practical case studies may have to be carried
out to convince learners adequately on threats on the environment.

54
4.3 Evaluation of EE
At its core, environmental education (EE) strives to engage the global citizenry in new ways of
thinking and acting in, with ,and for the environment—contributing to a more environmentally
literate population. Environmental education is often delivered through an educational program
and seeks to change the learner’s cognitive, affective and participatory knowledge, skills and
behavior. However, a gap exists between the potential for evaluation to inform EE programming
and actual practice as the majority of EE programs have failed to incorporate high quality,
systematic evaluation into their programming.

Challenges For Evaluating Environmental Education

1. Challenge: Diversity of the field
Environmental education (EE) teaches children and adults how to learn about and investigate
their environment, and to make intelligent, informed decisions about how they can take care of it.
EE is taught in traditional classrooms, in communities, and in settings like nature centers,
museums, parks, and zoos. Learning about the environment involves many subjects – geography,
biology, chemistry, social studies, even math and language arts – because understanding how the
environment works, and keeping it healthy, involves knowledge and skills from many disciplines
Thus, the interdisciplinary nature of EE effectively dilutes the accumulation of knowledge,
making it challenging for environmental educators or evaluators to learn from the literature base.

2. Challenge: Lack of clear program objectives

Evaluations of EE programs have been challenged by a lack of clearly articulated program
objectives. This critical step is essential for identifying outcomes and structuring an appropriate
evaluation plan. A related challenge occurs when there is a misalignment between the program’s
stated mission or objectives, and actual program activities. Goals and objectives should be
explicitly linked to key factors and focal targets of the project

3. Challenge: Need for evaluations other than summative

Summative evaluations are more frequently reported in EE publications. yet formative
evaluation is better.
4. Challenge: Need for greater diversity of research approaches

55
A critique of the state of evaluation in EE concluded that most published evaluation efforts have
been based on ‘‘a narrow and short-term ‘objectives-outcomes’ model of evaluation’’
5. Challenge: Compressed time frame
Most evaluations of EE have taken place in a relatively short time frame. Barriers to longer
implementation come from a variety of logistical, administrative and budgetary reasons. As
described above, the most common evaluative approach has been to implement pre- and post
intervention surveys, often within a few days of program completion.
Lacking a longer time frame for data collection, proxy measures such as perceived intentions can
be assessed in order to draw conclusions of future behavioral
intentions. These proxy measures, such as intention to recycle, must be interpreted cautiously.
6. Challenge: Institutional resistance to evaluation
Since the EE field does not have a long history of evaluation, many of the organizations and
institutions involved in EE lack a culture of evaluation, which may be manifested as institutional
resistance. Factors contributing to resistance to evaluation, including: (1) a lack of understanding
about evaluation; (2) a failure to give evaluation sufficient priority; (3) concern over possible
negative consequences of evaluation (i.e. demonstration of low levels of program or exhibit
effectiveness); (4) the nature of the institution (including management style, authority for
decision-making, and leadership personalities); (5) lack of incentives for conducting evaluation
studies, as well as the corollary, a lack of consequences for avoiding evaluations.
For some providers of EE, the possibility of negative outcomes can be reason enough to avoid
evaluation.
Suggestions for increasing the acceptance of evaluation include: (1) educating staff about
evaluation, and involving them as stakeholders and participants in planning and implementing
evaluation efforts; (2) minimizing threats of evaluation by encouraging front-end and formative
studies; (3) communicating the results of evaluations in a timely and useful format and (4)
recognizing the social and political climate of the institution
7. Challenge: Contextual factors
Given that EE takes place in such a wide variety of social environments, and within so many
diverse cultures it is imperative that evaluations of EE take into account the unique contextual
socio-political factors relevant to each program. E.g., evaluating environmental awareness and
action by school pupils and their parents, some differences may be socially based, drawing

56
distinctions between working class families and those with higher education and more
professional careers; evaluating forestry field trips for school children, the point gain on post-
test surveys may be different between lower socio-economic students and students from higher
socio-economic backgrounds.
8. Challenge: Confounding information sources
Environmental information – and misinformation – can come from many sources.
Media sources including Internet, print media, television and radio are an integral component of
modern culture, yet the quality and veracity of information varies widely.

Opportunities for evaluating environmental education

1. Opportunity: Interest in evaluation by environmental education practitioners
There is evidence on multiple levels of a growing interest among EE practitioners to incorporate
evaluation in their work.
2. Opportunity: National emphasis on educational accountability
Given the national emphasis on educational accountability, evaluation can play a key role in
justifying the effort and resources that are being expended.
3. Opportunity: Need for an informed population
The increasing complexity of a myriad of environmental issues – including energy – will require
a citizenry that is knowledgeable and able to make informed decisions.
Evaluation can provide evidence to improve the design and delivery of EE programs, and
increase program effectiveness. The urgency of environmental issues could increase the demand
for evaluation of EE programming.
4.4 Resources of Teaching EE
Environmental education focuses on:

1. Awareness and sensitivity about the environment and environmental challenges

2. Knowledge and understanding about the environment and environmental challenges
3. Attitude concern for the environment and help to maintain environmental quality
4. Skills to mitigate the environmental problems
5. Participation for exercising existing knowledge and environmental related programs.

Teaching resources include:

57
  guided field trips,
 puppet theatres,
 slide and video shows,
 art and writing competitions,
 games,
 debates,
 conservation festivals,
 tree planting,
 litter clean ups,
 newsletters and
 school yard and field trips to national parks,
 school wide sustainability projects
 Botanic gardens,
 arboretums

Components of E.E./Content of E.E.

Any programme in EE should consist of the following components:-
i. Basic Ecological Components
ii. Environmental issue/conceptual awareness
iii. Environmental study skills
iv. Environmental action skills

Basic Ecological Components

The basic ecological concepts to be included in any EE programme are those that aim at
providing the learner with sufficient ecologically sound decisions. E.g.
a) Levels of organization in the environment i.e. individuals, populations and communities
b) Intersections and interdependence among living and non-living things on the environment
c) Environmental influences and limiting factors
d) Ecosystem concepts
e) Energy flow and materials cycling in ecosystem
f) Succession

1) Environmental Issues and Conceptual awareness

These are the issues which arise from the intersection of man and the environment

58
 a) How man’s cultural activities impact on the environment-religious, economic, social and
political
b) The roles played by defining human beliefs and values
c) A wide variety of local, national, regional, and international environmental issues and the
ecological and cultural implications of these issues.

2) Environmental study skills

These are cognitive processes that enable the learner to investigate issues and evaluate
alternative solutions for resolving these issues. The skills included the following:
a) Identifying environmental issues using primary and secondary sources of information
b) Investigation skills including observation, data collection, data analysis, data
interpretation and communication (recording of information accordingly)
c) Identifying alternative solutions for specific environmental issues

Evaluating alternative solutions and associated value perspectives

d) Identifying and clarifying personal value positions with respect to specific environmental
issues.
3) Environmental action skills

These are cognitive processes and psychomotor abilities that enable the learner to make
responsible decisions concerning the resolutions of environmental issues and problems, and to
participate resolving them.
They include the following:-
Decision-making concerning the way we interact with the environment environmental action
strategies we can use to resolve various environmental issues.
i. Using a variety of citizenship skills such as
 Persuasion
 Consumerism
 Political action
 Legal action
 Economical, to resolve one or more environmental issues

a. Persuasion

Is used when an individual or a group of people tries to convince others that a certain action is
correct. E.g.
I. Convincing a friend to recycle materials such as bottles and aluminum
II. Writing an environmental letter to be published in a local newspaper
III. Making and putting up powers urging people to address specific environmental problems
e.g. recycling materials keeping free of litter, free of unnecessary footpaths, etc

b. Consumerism

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This is a specialized form of persuasion that relies on the power of money. It involves buying
goods and services that agree with one’s environmental values, and willing to buy goods and
services whose origin has to do with environmental destruction.
Example: Refusing to purchase products made by companies with environmental records. Or
purchasing goods from stores who use a minimum of packaging or who use recycled packaging
materials. Buying only soft drinks packaged in recyclable containers.
c. Political action

Pressurizing political or governmental agencies and individuals to take the environmental action.
Writing a letter to MP or counselor urging him or her to support an environmentally appropriate
law
1. Campaigning for a candidate with a good environmental history
2. Voting for a pre-environmental candidate
3. Appearing before a local authority requesting them to attend to a specific environmental
problem
d. Legal action

This involves any judicial action taken by an individual or organization aimed at the same aspect
of environmental enforcement of a legal restraint against environmentally undesirable behaviour.
Example: Filling court injunction against implantation of a potentially dangerous project in the
community e.g. construction of a dangerous factory, Filling a civil suit against an organization or
individual who might be polluting the environment
e. Eco-management

This is a physical action taken with respect to environment in an effort to either maintain or
improve environmental quality. E.g.
 Picking up a litter from a public park
 Cleaning a public hospital
 Recycling materials within the community
 Composing organic matter e.g. leaves and vegetable wastes

Introduction
The Relationship Between Environment and Development

The reality of environment and development are closely related. Development and environment
are two sides of the same coin'

On the one hand, environment provides the natural resources for the process of development. On
the other hand, the development process modifies the natural resources and environmental
quality to meet human needs. The goal of both environment and development is the same: to
improve human well-being.

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However, the type of development adopted can cause problems that destroy the environment that
sustains it and lowers the quality of life which it endeavors to enhance.
If the present and future generations are to be assured of quality living, then development must
be sustained by the environment and must, in turn, not destroy environmental resources.
Consequently, people should stop viewing environment in one camp and in another camp. They
should address the two as one integrated system. Hence, the clarion call is ''Our Common Future
is Sustainable Development".
Both development and lack of it have their own inherent problems. Where there is
underdevelopment, there could be environmental problems for two main reasons:
1. There are inappropriate production methods arising from lack of material resources and poor
technical knowhow. These cause resource destruction by overuse and misuse resulting in
problems like overgrazing, deforestation, soil erosion and desertification.
2. There is inadequate provision of infrastructure and social services such as water supply and
sewage disposal. This results in environmental diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis, and
intestinal worms. Inadequacies in these two areas, are perpetuated by poverty and
underdevelopment.
Poverty has been termed the worst enemy of environment because it gives rise to poor lifestyles
in terms of production, consumption, and living conditions. Poor lifestyles cause environmental
degradation in terms of depletion of resources which eventually reduce production and
perpetuate poverty.
A poor person will be least concerned with environmental quality. The foremost concern is to
provide family members with daily sustenance of whatever quality. Unless a solution to poverty
is found, then environmental problems will escalate among poor communities and poor nations.
For a long time, economic development was viewed as the saving solution to the problems of
poverty and underdevelopment.
However, the mode of development adopted by industrialised nations has resulted in two sets of
problems:
1. Exhaustion of natural resources: In the process of development, countries are using renewable
resources faster than they are renewed. Non-renewable resources are used faster than they can
find renewable substitutes.

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2. Large-scale environmental pollution: Pollutants resulting from the process of development are
being released faster than they can the earth's ability to neutralise them. For example the
emission of sulphur particles into the atmosphere has caused destruction of forests due to acid
rain formation. Emissions of chloroflorocarbons (CFCs) deplete the ozone layer while increased
carbon dioxide emissions cause global warming.

5.1 Modernization, Development and the Role of Environment

Some Problems Arising From the Development Process

Development Process

Consequences

A B C D E

Effects

Devegetation
Desertification
Soil Erosion
Crimes
Diseases: obesity, heart disease
Biodiversity degraded
Unemployment

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 KEY
A= Pressure on Land
B= Affluent Lifestyles
C= Urban Congestion
D= Socio-cultural Changes
E= Pollution of Environment

5.2 Pollution
5.3 Effects of Intensive Use of Resources
5.4 Role of man in Occurrence of Hazards
5.5 Global Efforts in Control of Environmental Problems: The Earth
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
6.1 Concepts of Environmental Management and Conservation
Definitions
1. Environmental Management (EM)
It is defined as the measures and controls undertaken at individual, community, national, and
international levels and directed as environmental conservation so as to ensure that natural
resources are allocated and utilized in a manner that will improve the quality of life for present
and future generations (UNESCO-UNEP, 1983).
It is the process of recognizing and developing ways of using environmental resources in such a
way that their supply will be balanced over time and their quality assured for future generation.

2. Environmental Conservation

It is defined as judicious use to avoid wastage of materials and degradation of environment.

Conservation of environment involves the conservation of the natural resources. Conservation is
an important aspect environmental management. It embraces preservation, maintenance,
sustainable utilization, restoration and improvement of the natural environment. Conservation
like development is for the benefit of the human kind while development ends at achieving
human goals, largely through the use of the biosphere.

The non-renewable resources have to be conserved as they cannot be replenished. The reserves
of the resources such as fossil fuels are limited and man is heavily dependent on these resources

63
for his day to day needs. The renewable resources too have to be judiciously used. Though they
are replenished, they are subjected to a lot of pollution that renders them useless.

For example: water is plenty on earth. However, most of it is in the ocean and cannot be used as
such by man. Man can only use the fresh water of the rivers that are being polluted by man. The
polluted waters cannot meet man's requirements effectively and satisfactorily.

Thus, conservation of the environment includes the conservation of all the natural resources. The
governments of different countries must contribute by making strict legislations to counter the
activities that are not environment friendly and lead to unsustainable development.
Environmental management is therefore integration of conservation and development to ensure
that modifications to the planet earth do not threaten the well being of human kind, other forms
of life and the planet itself. This approach to development is referred to as integrated
management.
Aim
The aim of EM is to ensure long-term productivity of the environmental resources so as to
sustain development. EM should ensure that in the process of development, the interrelationships
and interdependence within nature are maintained. This can be done by applying both ecological
and economic principles to the utilisation of resources. For example, there should always be fish
in a fishing pond, if the stock put there initially is not consumed.
In the context of sustainable development, all environmental assets, natural and man-made
comprise of the capital. These include the available stocks of non-renewable resources such as
oil, coal, and natural gas as well as the structure, habitat and functions of the environments such
as the ozone layer, the protective of forests and wetlands, the self-purification functions of rivers
and oceans and the store of biological diversity.

Conservation does not mean lack of economic growth. It suggests growth within limits set by the
ability of the environmental capital to regenerate itself. This can be achieved through proper
management. Management principles utilized in business firms should be applied to all
environmental activities like utilization of coastal resources, tropical forests, manufacturing
industries and others. The functions of management should be applied to resource utilization too.
This involves proper planning, organizing, staffing, coordinating, directing, communicating and
controlling. The success in carrying out these functions in all development projects and activities
will mean that resources will not be wasted, overused or misused. Their utilization will be

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properly directed to maintain their sustainability and reduce he conflict between environment and
development.

6.2 Strategies and Significance of Environmental Management.

The Management Process

The management process involves planning, organising, controlling, decision-making, problem-

solving, communicating, and reporting. All of them should be applied to environmental resource
utilisation to ensure that resources are sustained.

Planning: The process through which managers set goals and objectives of national development
and organization. A plan or strategy on how to achieve the goals is drawn up. Planning in
environmental management involves proposing economically efficient and environmental
friendly means of realizing goals.

Organizing: The process by which managers design a framework that will be used to implement
plans to achieve goals and objectives. This involves determining what programmes, projects and
activities must be performed. In EM, this involves a wide range of activities since human
activities utilize environmental resources and are likely to have an impact on the environment.

The control aspect is essential if goals and objectives of sustainable development are to be
attained.

Everyone is involved in environmental management in one way or another. Therefore people

should have the basic knowledge needed to manage resources efficiently.

The Integrated Approach

The main objective is to promote the concept of sustainable development, so that it is able to not
only meet present needs while conserving the quality and productive potential of the

65
environment, but to be also capable of meeting the needs of future generations. Because
ecosystems have complex interrelationships, there is need to use integrated approach to
environment and development issues.

In the Earth Summit in Brazil, 1992, there was a specific call for all countries to prepare
integrated national strategies for environment and development.

Establishing Goals, Regulations, Incentives, and Standard.

Governments and NGOs must work towards achieving the goals, providing resources,
cooperation, and vision to attain them. Implementation and enforcement of regulatory measures
to protect the environment is necessary. Incentives and standards should be included in national
plans and policies and there is need for constancy and continual monitoring and follow-up of
such activities.

Environmental Awareness, Research and Training

The creation of environmental awareness is essential for effective environmental management if

the goal of sustainable development is to be achieved. This is based on the premise that
environmental problems require cross-sectoral and interdisciplinary solutions, hence the need for
an integrated approach.

It is important that people recognise that environment and development are complimentary and
interdependent and in the long run mutually reinforcing. People must care for and participate in
sustainable development in their local environment. This would entail the adoption of
environmentally sound and socially acceptable methods of resource management.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The development process should be measured in terms of the impact it has on the environment.
This measurement should be done before each development project is implemented through a
pre-project evaluation known as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Once the impact is
known in advance, corrective measures can be incorporated into the project, or an alternative
project can be proposed.

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EIA answers the following questions:

1. What changes will the project cause on the environment?

2. Will the identified changes matter?

3. What can be done about the changes should they appear?

4. How can decision-makers be informed of what needs to be done?

Mitigation measures ask the question: "What can be done about the changes that matter?''

Though adverse environmental impacts are impossible to eliminate, it is important to identify

actions that would reduce the scale. This is done by suggesting mitigation measures for each
impact. Examples are:

- changing project site, route, processes, designs, raw materials, timing, etc.
- introducing pollution controls
- waste treatment
-landscaping
- special social services or public education
- money to affected persons, etc

Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)

Cost benefit analysis is a technique used in environmental protection and management. It is used
in the appraisal of projects and policies that have a direct implication on environmental
conservation, for example, siting of dams, factories, national parks and pollution control.

Environmental Management in Kenya

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The wide environmental management in Kenya is in the hands of National Environment
Management Authority (NEMA), a parastatal within the ministry of environment and mineral
resources. However environment being a multisectoral phenomenon, there are several other
government agencies that play a role as they manage their sectors. These include:
a. Ministry of public health and sanitation-environmental health including; Public Health, the
working environment radiation control and management of hazardous wastes.
b. Ministry of water development-through management of water resources utilization.
c. Ministry of Local government-through management of urban environments by urban councils.

d. Ministry of forestry and wild life-anti poaching and deforestation

e. Ministry of Agriculture-Controls farming practices to prevent soil erosion in areas with
sloppy land.
Functions of NEMA

The authority core functions are:

 Coordinating the various environmental management activities

being undertaken by the lead agencies
 Promote the integration of environmental considerations into
development policies, plans, programmes and projects, with a
view to ensuring the proper management and rational utilization
of environmental resources, on sustainable yield basis, for the
improvement of the quality of human life in Kenya.
 To take stock of the natural resources in Kenya and their utilization and conservation.
 To establish and review land use guidelines.
 Examine land use patterns to determine their impact on the quality and quantity of natural
resources.
 Carry out surveys, which will assist in the proper management and conservation of the
environment.
 Advise the Government on legislative and other measures for the management of the
environment or the implementation of relevant international conventions, treaties and
agreements.

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 Advise the Government on regional and international conventions, treaties and
agreements to which Kenya should be a party and follow up the implementation of such
agreements.
 Undertake and coordinate research, investigation and surveys, collect, collate and
disseminate information on the findings of such research, investigations or surveys.
 Mobilize and monitor the use of financial and human resources for environmental
management.
 Identify projects and programmes for which environmental audit or environmental
monitoring must be conducted under this Act.
 Initiate and evolve procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents, which may
cause environmental degradation and evolve remedial measures where accidents occur
e.g. floods, landslides and oil spills.
 Monitor and assess activities, including activities being carried out by relevant lead
agencies, in order to ensure that the environment is not degraded by such activities.
Management objectives must be adhered to and adequate early warning on impending
environmental emergencies is given.
 Undertake, in cooperation with relevant lead agencies, programmes intended to
enhance environmental education and public awareness, about the need for sound
environmental management, as well as for enlisting public support and encouraging the
effort made by other entities in that regard.
 Publish and disseminate manual codes or guidelines relating to environmental
management and prevention or abatement of environmental degradation.
 Render advice and technical support, where possible, to entities engaged in natural
resources management and environmental protection, so as to enable them to carry out
their responsibilities satisfactorily .
 Prepare and issue an annual report on the State of Environment in Kenya and in this
regard, may direct any lead agency to prepare and submit to it a report on the state of the
sector of the environment under the administration of that lead agency.

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The current environmental issues of concern in Kenya
1. Water pollution from urban and industrial water-this affects major urban areas like
Nairobi, Kisumu, and Mombasa etc. Decline of flamingoes in L. Nakuru has been attributed
to this cause.
2. Degradation of water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers-this affects
the agricultural areas and upsets ecosystems of local water systems e.g. L.Naivasha
3. Water hyacinth infestation in L. Victoria.
4. Solid waste management and disposal-Is a major challenge for the major urban areas.
5. Deforestation, desertification and soil erosion: these are intertwined and is blamed for
climatic changes and depletion of water catchment areas

Water resources
Water resources are under pressure from agricultural chemicals and urban and industrial
wastes, as well as from use for hydroelectric power. Kenya expects a shortage of water to
pose a problem in the coming years. Water-quality problems in lakes, including water
hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria, have contributed to a substantial decline in fishing
output and endangered fish species.
Water pollution from urban and industrial wastes poses another environmental problem.
Kenya has 20.2 cubic kilometers of renewable water resources with 76% used in farming
activity and 4% used for industrial purposes. Only about 42% of the residents in rural areas
and 88% of city dwellers have pure drinking water.

Forestry
Output from forestry also has declined because of resource degradation. Overexploitation
over the past three decades has reduced the country’s timber resources by one-half. At
present only 2% of the land remains forested, and an estimated 50 square kilometres of forest
are lost each year. This loss of forest aggravates erosion, the silting of dams and flooding,
and the loss of biodiversity. Among the endangered forests are Kakamega Forest, Mau Forest
and Karura Forest. In response to ecological disruption, activists have pressed with some

70
 success for policies that encourage sustainable resource use. The late 2004 Nobel Peace Prize
went to the Kenyan environmentalist, Wangari Maathai, best known for organizing a
grassroots movement in which thousands of people were mobilized over the years to plant 30
million trees in Kenya and elsewhere and to protest forest clearance for luxury development.

Deforestation
Deforestation and soil erosion are attributable to growing population pressure, which creates
increased demands for food production and firewood. Drought and desertification (to which
83% of Kenya's land area is vulnerable) also threaten potential productive agricultural lands.
By the mid 1980s, Kenya had lost 70% of its original mangrove areas, with the remainder
covering an estimated 53,000–62,000 hectares. In addition to pollutants from industry, the
nation's cities produce about 1.1 million tons of solid wastes.

Wildlife
There are a wide variety of wildlife species in Kenya, whose habitats are threatened by
encroachment of man. The late Michael Werikhe aka Rhino Man, pioneered Kenyan wildlife
conservation. Werikhe walked thousands of miles and raised millions of dollars to fund
White Rhino conservation projects. The Blue Wildebeest is currently abundant, but like other
more endangered species feels the pressure of habitat reduction. In an effort to preserve
wildlife, the government has set aside a sizable acreage as national parks and game preserves.
In 2001, 6% of Kenya's total land area was protected. Game hunting and trade in ivory and
skins have been banned, but poaching threatens leopards, cheetahs, lions, elephants,
rhinoceroses, and other species. As of 2001, 43 species of mammals and 24 bird species were
endangered and 130 plant species were threatened with extinction. Endangered species
include the Sokoke scops owl, Taita blue-banded papilio, Tana River mangabey, Tana River
red colobus, green sea turtle, and hawksbill turtle. There are 18 extinct species, including the
Kenyan rocky river frog and the Kenya oribi.

Poverty

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Widespread poverty in many parts of the country has greatly lead to over-exploitation of the
limited resources in Kenya. Cutting down of trees to create more land for cultivation, charcoal
burning business, quarrying among other social and occupational practices are the major threats
of environmental degradation due to poverty in rural Kenya. Regions like Murang'a, Bondo and
Meru are affected by this environmental issue.

Floods
There is the risk of seasonal flooding during the winter months, July to late August. In
September 2012, thousands of people were displaced in parts of Kenya’s Rift Valley Province as
floodwaters submerged houses and schools and destroyed crops. It was especially dangerous as
the floods caused latrines to overflow, contaminating numerous water sources. The floods can
also cause mudslides and two children were killed in September 2012 following a mudslide in
the Baringo District, which also displaced 46 families.

Techniques of Environmental Management

1) Environmental Education
2) Environmental Monitoring
3) Environmental Legislation
4) Environmental Impact Assessment, EIA.

Environmental Monitoring

Environmental monitoring describes the processes and activities that need to take place to
characterise and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the
preparation of environmental impact assessments, as well as in many circumstances in which
human activities carry a risk of harmful effects on the natural environment. All monitoring
strategies and programmes have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish
the current status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all
cases the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analysed statistically and published
Environmental Impact Assessment, EIA.
The EIA process is intended to improve environmental protection. It informs the decision
making processes by which public bodies, referred to as ‘competent authorities’, determine
whether certain projects should go ahead. It provides these bodies with a written statement about
the project’s effects on the environment that are likely to be significant (the environmental
statement or ‘ES’), together with the comments of the public and statutory environmental
organisations.

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THE ROLE OF EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS IN ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONEMENTAL EDUCATION FOR
SUSTAINABILITY
Effective environmental education for sustainability is not just a curriculum issue; it requires the
involvement of the whole school. It pervades all aspects of the school operations; curriculum;
teaching and learning; physical surroundings; and relations with the local community. All the
groups that make up the school community are important: the administration staff, teaching staff,
the ground staff, the canteen staff, the parents, the students and the local community.
Environmental Education for Sustainability (EE for S)
Effective Environmental education requires that elements of sustainability have to be brought
into focus, hence EE for Sustainability which is within the broader Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD). It requires the involvement of the whole school or learning institution. It
explores the aspects of environmental learning that is structured in a way that allows the learner
to explore the phenomenon under study, to form a direct relationship within the subject matter,
rather than merely reading about the phenomenon or encountering it indirectly. Experiential
learning, the, requires that the learner play an active role in the experience and that the
experience is followed by reflection as a method for processing and understanding.

Networks
And
Partnerships

Curriculum Governance
Organizatio
n

School
Ethos

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Teaching Physical
And Sorrounds
Learning
Fig 005.A Framework for Environmental Education for Sustainability

External agencies can provide funding, support and advice, but it is the discussion, Dialogue,
and Reflection that occurs within the School Community that will drive change.
Environmental Education for Sustainability is a core feature of the School Ethos – the value
structure of the school.
Strategies for Implementation of EE for S in Schools
Implementing EE for S in schools requires shared Vision, Goals and Learning Objectives.
These form the basis for a whole-school approach outline herein.
A Vision
School as: Flexible learning organizations where reflection and
evaluation are valued and sustainability and
community are central.
School leadership team as: A Supportive, proactive and actively involved in
implementing and growing all aspects of
environmental education for sustainability in
schools;
Teachers as: Enthusiastic about teaching and about developing
effective relationships with their students,
committed to the goals of education for
sustainability, life-long learners, adaptable, open to
new ideas and teaching strategies; and
Students as: Active, self-directed and collaborative learners and
ethical and responsible citizens taking action for a
sustainable future.
A shared vision in an important element of a whole-school approach to environmental education
for sustainability. The vision has implications for how schools are organized and the roles that
are assumed by administrators, teachers, parents and students. Once developed, a vision is not
static but is informed by the goals and objectives that follow
Goals
EE for S involves approaches to teaching and learning that integrate goals for Conservation,
Social Justice, Cultural Diversity, Appropriate Development and Democracy into a vision and a
mission of personal and social change. This involves developing the kinds of civic values and
skills that empower all citizens to be leaders in the transition to a sustainable future.
The long term goals foe EE for S include developing The Capabilities Of Students to:
 Understand and Value the interdependence of Social, Cultural, Economic and Ecological
dimensions at Local, National and Global Level.
 Reflect Critically upon how this interdependence affects communities, workplaces,
families, and individuals and can be able to make appropriate decisions;
 Develop Attributes and Skills which are conducive to the achievement of a Sustainable
future
 Appreciate and Respect the Intrinsic Value of the whole environment and a sense of the
sacred
 Develop an Ethic of Personal responsibility and stewardship towards all aspects of the
environment; and

74
  Participate as Active and Involved Citizens in building a sustainable future.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Schools implementing this vision will plan learning experience that enables students to achieve
the following Objectives or Outcomes. Some are specific to environmental education for
sustainability, while others are more generic and relevant across several or all key learning areas.
Knowledge and Understanding
This includes An Understanding of:
a) The nature and function of Ecological, Social, Economic and Political Systems and how
they are interrelated
b) The Natural and Cultural values intrinsic to the environment
c) The Impact of people to environments and how environment shapes Human Activities,
with particular reference to Unique and Distinctive Kenya Heritage and Traditions;

Skills and Capabilities

The ability to engage in:
a) Explorations of the many dimensions of the environment using all their senses
b) Observations and Recording Information, Ideas and Feelings about the environment
c) Identification and Assessment of Environmental Issues

Attitudes and Values

These are Reflected in an Appreciation and Commitment to:
a) Respecting and Caring for life in all its diversity
b) Conserving and Managing Resources in ways that are afir to the present and future
generations
c) Building Democratic Societies that are just, sustainable, participatory and peaceful; and
d) Understanding and Conserving Cultural Heritage

Action and Participation

Environmental Education for Sustainability also involves applying such knowledge and
Understandings, Skills, Attitudes and Values in Active and Informed Participation to address
environmental issues, problems and opportunities. This includes:
a) A willingness to Examine and Change personal lifestyles to secure a sustainable future;
b) The Ability to Identify, Investigate, Evaluate, and Undertake appropriate action to
maintain, protect and enhance local and global environments;
c) A Willingness to challenge preconceived ideas, accept change and acknowledge
uncertainty; and
d) The ability to work cooperatively and in partnership with others.

A WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACH

The Whole-School approach to environmental education for sustainability emerges from the
school vision and is articulated in all facets of school life:

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  How the school is organized and operates
 School design (within limitations of existing structures)
 Development and Management of School Grounds
 Reduction and Minimization of resource use by the school (water, energy, products and
materials);
 Enhanced connections between the school, its community and other educational
institution;
 Conservation and protection of heritage values in the schools and its grounds; and
 Re-orientation of the curriculum and the teaching and learning towards sustainability

SCHOOL GOVERNANCE
In preparing students for life in an ever-changing world, schools themselves need to be highly
adaptive. Schools need to build their organizational capacity to re-evaluate their operations and
the educational experiences of the students. School systems have long recognized the importance
of a planning cycle that involves reflection and evaluation of all the elements of the school
activity. Governance occurs when decision making is distributed across the school community
and involves students in an appropriate way. Good governance is important for schools because
it helps them to maximize their use of physical and human resources in a manner which is
economically, ecologically and socially sustainable.
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Schools can move towards becoming sustainable organizations by committing to identifying,
conserving and improving the environmental and heritage values of their school sites, and by
reducing their ecological footprint. As a starting point they can reduce waste, minimize energy,
conserve the heritage value of the site, use sound purchasing practices and ensure canteen
products are environmentally appropriate. Moving towards sustainability needs to become an
important feature of how the school organizes its daily operations. The savings can be used for
other sustainability initiatives.
PHYSICAL SORROUNDS
Schools are often judged by the physical appearance and presentation of the grounds and
buildings. Increasing the diversity and extent of vegetation cover in school grounds not only
enhances the image of the school but also maximizes the potential of these spaces to provide
educational and environmental experiences to the students.
Students, staff and parents can be actively involved in the sustainable management of the
grounds through activities such as habitat creation, mulching, vegetable gardening, landscaping,
productive enterprises (if appropriate) and litter reduction. The opportunities are limited only by
the imagination and enthusiasm of the school community.
Although schools may be limited in what they can do about the design of their existing buildings,
the refurbishing of the older buildings should incorporate energy-efficient elements. For most
schools it is how they use the buildings that will have the most impact. New buildings should be
designed with energy conservation as a priority.
NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS
Many environmental education developments are best achieved through collaborative action with
the local and broader community. This might include partnerships with other educational
institutions, local councils, business industry, and community groups and networks.

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The links student learning to the workplace and to local environmental and social issues, and
allows students to become active and involved participants
Schools that have fostered partnerships have sometimes gained access to resources not otherwise
available to the school.
Similarly, as schools are living communities, students should be encouraged to see themselves as
creators and carers of the school’s cultural and social heritage. Researching and documenting the
history of the school can strengthen recognition of the school heritage and links with the
community.
THE LEARNSCAPES CONCEPT
Learnscapes are places where a learning program has been designed to permit users to interact
with the environment. They may be natural or built; interior or exterior; located in, near or
beyond schools; related to any one of or many, key learning areas. They must be safe and
accessible.
Schools involved in Learnscape projects have increased the diversity of their school grounds and
buildings by adding features such as Gardens, Forests, Ponds, Shelters and Outdoor classrooms.
The increased diversity of the grounds and buildings allows for the design of a wider range of
learning experiences and the creation of a Learnscape Environment. Landscapes are gaining
worldwide acceptance as valuable pedagogical innovations.
Issues for Schools
Environmental Issues
The environment can be integrated into nearly every academic subject: Science, Geography,
Math, Languages, History, Current events, and even physical education.
Environmental topics that you might find useful when implementing the programme in your
school include:
Natural Resources
Natural resources are those commodities that are considered valuable in their natural form. This
means that the primary activities associated with it are extraction and purification, and not
creation. For instance, though gardening or farming cannot be considered natural resource
activities, mining or oil extraction can.
Natural resources are usually either renewable or non-renewable. The former refer to those
resources that can renew themselves in time. These include living resources like forests or non-
living ones like wind, water, solar energy.
Non-renewable resources, as the name implies, are those that can no longer be tapped once the
available stock at a site is exhausted. Once we use them, there isn’t any more. Mineral resources
are non-renewable. Fossil fuels, which are formed from the fossilized remains or prehistoric
organisms, are also considered non-renewable even though they can renew themselves given a
few million years.
Fossil fuels currently account for about 90% of the world’s energy consumption. They provide
around 66% of the world’s electrical power, and 95% of the world’s total energy demands, such
as, for heating, transport, electricity generation, and so on. Our consumption of fossil fuels has
nearly doubled about 20 years, which is quite an alarming statistic, given their levels are running
dangerously low.
Natural renewable resources, such as wind and water, have been used throughout history, and till
recently were a predominant energy source. In many developing countries, biomass remains the
primary source of energy for much of the population.

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Renewable sources have the advantage of producing lower emissions of carbon dioxide, and
reducing reliance on fossil fuels. The future of water and its roles as a renewable resource needs
to be studied further.
Biodiversity and Nature
The diminishing of biodiversity constitutes most of the most serious environmental; problems of
our time. Water, atmosphere, and nature as a whole do not recognize borders. Many species,
especially birds, fish, and mammals, move about over enormous areas ignoring the frontiers
between the various countries. The same applies for pollution. Many Human activities have a
harmful effect on the biodiversity beyond the country in which these activities are carried out.
Acid rain and spills is a couple of sad examples. In addition, the development of international
trade and tourism exerts pressure on natural resources. Schools may integrate biodiversity
activities in all subjects, and together with a specialist, study the biodiversity of their community
and country, so that pupils become aware of the value of conservation and the dangers that
threaten it.
Climate Change
Industries are burning more and more fossil fuels and our growing use of cars has caused a
variety of environmental, social and health impacts. For example, the gases and chemicals
released by engines make a large contribution to global warming and air pollution. The extra
carbon dioxide – the gas most responsible for global climate change – released into the
atmosphere over the last century has been linked to a rise in the average global temperature of
half degree Celsius.
The exact nature of the effects of global warming – including rising sea levels (caused by
melting ice caps) and climate change – are unclear. However, they are likely to vary from place
to place.
Energy
The amount of energy the world uses every day has trebled over the last century. An ordinary
school, for example, requires energy for heating, lighting, and powering equipment. To keep up
with growing demand for energy to heat and light our homes and power our industries, power
stations are burning more and more fossil fuels. As well as using up limited natural resources,
this process is releasing increasing volumes of Carbon dioxide into the atmosphere – the gas
most responsible for global climate change. The most important step schools can take is
reducing unnecessary energy use and regularly monitoring consumption. Surveys show that,
through simple low cost and no-cost measures, schools can reduce their fuel bills up to 10%
while also reducing their CO₂ emissions.

Healthy Living
The state of our health is directly related to not just our long term physical well-being but also to
our general happiness, confidence and outlook on life. The issue of healthy living is not confined
to exercise and diet. It must also address the health risks of smoking and drug use, and look
carefully at the aspects of society that influence our emotional health. The influence of the family
and education are the most important factors in encouraging healthy attitudes and habits of
young people; promoting regular exercise and healthy diets, and developing pupils’
emotional wellbeing. Schools should be prepared to equip pupils with the knowledge and skills
necessary to deal responsibly with a range of social pressures that may affect pupils their health;
from bullying and the stress of exams to peer pressure to experiment with smoking or drugs…

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Litter and Waste
Any building or environment where people live or work will produce a certain amount of waste,
and schools are no exception. In general, most school waste is made up of food, paper, and
packaging waste such as sweet wrappers. It may also contain some glass, metals and plastics.
Some forms of waste-broken glass bottles and tin cans on the playing field, for example – can
also pose a serious safety hazard for anyone using the school grounds. Most of the waste
produced, ends up in mountains of buried refuse called landfills. Even when managed properly,
landfills can harm the local environment, poisoning the ground, atmosphere and any nearby
water.
By reducing waste (Reduce – Reuse – Recycle), schools will not only help to raise awareness
of the issue but will also be making an important contribution to environmental protection.
School grounds
School grounds are an important asset to any school. Managed and used properly, the site
your school occupies can become not just a playground but also a rich source of teaching and
learning opportunities covering topics ranging from art and history to sustainable
development and biodiversity. Firstly, the grounds provide a recreational space for pupils
where they can play, interact with each other, and take part in exercise. The grounds often form
first impressions of the school. Schools should involve as many people as possible in the
development of the grounds: pupils, teaching and non-teaching, the governing body, parents and
the wider school community have a role to play. In particular, pupils should be given plenty of
opportunity to say what they think the grounds should contain, and how they should be
developed and managed.
Concern for your school’s grounds is concern for the wider environment. A school site that is
well developed, in an imaginative way, does much to convey to the wider community the ethos
values of the school.
Transport and Air Pollution
Every year there seems to be more traffic on the roads, making simple journeys longer and more
stressful, particularly in cities. Our growing use of cars has caused a variety of environmental,
social and health impacts. Some are highly visible and directly relevant to everyday life: accident
statistics show that our roads are still dangerous, while traffic congestion has adverse effects on
our health and well-being. Other impacts are less immediately obvious but not less important for
example, the contribution to global warming and air pollution.
Water
Water is a crucial aspect of our lives. We use it not just for drinking and washing but also for
industry, agriculture, and making almost any kind of product, from hamburgers and tin cans to
newspaper and cars. Our demand for water has grown to the point that the natural water cycle
can no longer keep up. Pollution – mainly caused by sewage leaks and chemical discharges – has
made clean water a rare and valuable commodity. Climate change may also contribute to making
water scarcer.
A sufficient supply of clean water is essential to the health of people and the environment. In
countries where water is scarce and where existing supplies are often contaminated by bacteria or
pollution, effective treatment and distribution is literally a matter of life and death.
Rights!
We all need rights, they ensure we survive, develop and they protect us. Rights are also about
having the opportunity to be involved and included on matters that affect us. Rights ensure that

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everybody is created equally and fairly. But the rights come with responsibilities. It is important
that your rights are respected but it is also important that you respect other people’s rights.
The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 was one of the most important Global Summits ever
held on Environment and Development. It agreed an overall Agenda for saving our planet in the
21st Century which was called Agenda 21. Sustainable Development is not only about
Environment, it also concerns peace and Human rights, because these issues are interdependent
and indivisible. It is about politics, communities, individuals, values and lifestyles.

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