THEOREM (Some Subset Relations):

1. Inclusion of Intersection: For all sets A and B,

(a) A ∩ B ⊆ A and (b) A ∩ B ⊆ B.

2. Inclusion in Union: For all sets A and B,

(a) A ⊆ A ∪ B and (b) B ⊆ A ∪ B.

3. Transitive Property of Subsets: For all sets A, B, and C,

if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

Proof:
1(a). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of A ∩ B. Then x ∈ A
and x ∈ B by definition of intersection. So, x ∈ A.
1(b). Suppose and are any sets and suppose is any element of . Then
and by definition of intersection. So,
.
2(a). Suppose and are any sets and suppose is any element of . Then
by definition of
.
2(b). Suppose and are any sets and suppose is any element of . Then
by definition of
.
3. Suppose A, B, and C are any sets and suppose A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C. To show that A ⊆ C,
we must show that every element in A is in C. To this end we note that if x ∈ A, then
x ∈ B (because A ⊆ B) and therefore x ∈ C (because B ⊆ C). Hence A ⊆ C.

1
EXAMPLES:
1. Prove that for all sets A and B,

A − B ⊆ A.

Proof:
Suppose and are any sets and suppose is any element of . Then
and
by definition of . So, .

2. Prove that for all sets A, B, and C,

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Proof:
Suppose , , and are any sets.
(I). We first prove that A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). Let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C). By definition
of intersection, x ∈ and x ∈ . Thus x ∈ A and by definition of union, x ∈ B or
.
Case 1 (x ∈ A and x ∈ B): In this case, by definition of intersection x ∈ , and so by
definition of union, x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
Case 2 (x ∈ A and x ∈ C): In this case, by definition of intersection x ∈ , and so by
definition of union, .
Hence in either case, x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
(II). We now prove that (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⊆ A ∩ (B ∪ C). Let x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). By
definition of union, x ∈ or x ∈ .
Case 1 (x ∈ A ∩ B): In this case, by definition of intersection and . Since
x ∈ B, by definition of union, x ∈ B ∪ C. Hence x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C, and so by definition
of intersection, x ∈ .
Case 2 (x ∈ A ∩ C): In this case, by definition of intersection and . Since
, by definition of union, . Hence and , and so by
definition of intersection, x ∈ .
In either case x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C).

2
THEOREM (Set Identities):
Let all sets referred to below be subsets of a universal set U.
1. Commutative Laws: For all sets A and B,

(a) A ∩ B = B ∩ A and (b) A ∪ B = B ∪ A.

2. Associative Laws: For all sets A, B, and C,

(a) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) and (b) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).

3. Distributive Laws: For all sets A, B, and C,

(a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) and (b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

4. Intersection with U : For all sets A,

A ∩ U = A.

5. Double Complement Law: For all sets A,

(Ac )c = A.

6. Idempotent Laws: For all sets A,

(a) A ∩ A = A and (b) A ∪ A = A.

7. De Morgan’s Laws: For all sets A and B,

(a) (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c and (b) (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c .

8. Union with U : For all sets A,

(a) A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A and (b) A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A.

10. Alternate Representation for Set Difference: For all sets A and B,

A − B = A ∩ B c.

3
EXERCISE SET:
For all sets A, B, and C,

1. (A − B) ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.

2. (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C).

3. (A ∪ B) − (C − A) = A ∪ (B − C).

4. (A − B) − (B − C) = A − B.

5. (A − B) ∪ (B − A) = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).

6. [(Ac ∪ B c ) − A]c = A.

4
THEOREM (Some Subset Relations):
1. Inclusion of Intersection: For all sets A and B,

(a) A ∩ B ⊆ A and (b) A ∩ B ⊆ B.

2. Inclusion in Union: For all sets A and B,

(a) A ⊆ A ∪ B and (b) B ⊆ A ∪ B.

3. Transitive Property of Subsets: For all sets A, B, and C,

if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

Proof:
1(a). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of A ∩ B. Then x ∈ A
and x ∈ B by definition of intersection. So, x ∈ A.
1(b). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of A ∩ B. Then x ∈ A
and x ∈ B by definition of intersection. So, x ∈ B.
2(a). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of A. Then x ∈ A ∪ B
by definition of union.
2(b). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of B. Then x ∈ A ∪ B
by definition of union.
3. Suppose A, B, and C are any sets and suppose A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C. To show that A ⊆ C,
we must show that every element in A is in C. To this end we note that if x ∈ A, then
x ∈ B (because A ⊆ B) and therefore x ∈ C (because B ⊆ C). Hence A ⊆ C.