INTRO |

Hey there, thanks for buying this DIY kit! We – Erica Synths and Moritz Klein – have
developed it with one speci c goal in mind: teaching people with little to no prior
experience how to design analog synthesizer circuits from scratch. So what you’ll nd in
the box is not simply meant to be soldered together and then disappear in your rack.
Instead, we want to take you through the circuit design process step by step, explaining
every choice we’ve made and how it impacts the nished module. For that, we strongly
suggest you follow along on two breadboards1, which are non-permanent circuit
prototyping tools that allow you to experiment and play around with your components. To
help you with this, we’ve included suggested breadboard layouts in select chapters.
In addition to this, you can also play around with most of the chapter’s circuits in a circuit
simulator called CircuitJS. CircuitJS runs in your browser. You’ll nd weblinks in the
footnotes which will direct you to an instance that already has example circuits set up for
you. We strongly encourage you to ddle with the component values and general
structure of those circuits to get a better understanding of the concepts we’re laying out.
Generally, this manual is intended to be read and worked through front to back, but there
were a few things we felt should go into a dedicated appendix. These are general
vignettes on electronic components & concepts, tools, and the process of putting the
module together once you’re done experimenting. Don’t hesitate to check in there
whenever you think you’re missing an important piece of information. Most importantly
though: have fun!

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC ………………………………………………………………………. 2
BILL OF MATERIALS ………………………………………………………………………… 3
POWERING YOUR BREADBOARDS ……………………………………………………… 6
CIRCUIT DESIGN CLOSE-UP ……………………………………………………………… 7
COMPONENTS & CONCEPTS APPENDIX ………………………………………………. 34
TOOLS APPENDIX …………………………………………………………………………… 47
MODULE ASSEMBLY APPENDIX …………………………………………………………. 50
SOLDERING APPENDIX …………………………………………………………………….. 63

1Note that there are no breadboards included in this kit! You will also need a pack of jumper wires
and two 9 V batteries with clips. These things are cheap & easy to nd in your local electronics
shop.

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 THE SEQUENCER
If you’re new to DIY synthesizer building, you might’ve run into this issue: you just set up
your rst VCO on a breadboard, spent a good long while troubleshooting the stubborn
thing – and then you realize you have nothing to actually control it with. If this is you, no
worries: here’s a super simple ve step sequencer I’ve designed that’ll make your
oscillator sing in no time.

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 BILL OF MATERIALS
Before we start, please check if your kit contains all of the necessary components. In
addition to a PCB, panel and power cable, your box should also contain:

An array of resistors. The speci c values (in ohms,

which you should check for with a multimeter) are

100k x14
68k x1
51k x1
47k x1
18k x1
6k8 x1
4k7 x1
1k x7
200 x1
10 x2

A bunch of capacitors. The speci c values (which are

printed onto their bodies) are

47 µF (electrolytic) x2
1 µf (1J/ lm) x1
100 nF (104/ceramic) x5
1 nF (102/ceramic) x1

Lots of diodes. The speci c model names (which are

printed onto their bodies) are

SB140 (schottky) x2
1N4148 (signal) x15

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 A bunch of transistors. The speci c model names
(which are printed onto their bodies) are

2N3904 (NPN) x5
BC547 (NPN)2 x1

A couple regular potentiometers. The speci c values

(which may be encoded & printed onto their bodies) are

250k (B254) x1
100k (B104) x5

Some switches. The speci c models (which you can

identify by the number of connectors on their underside)
are

Single pole, double throw x5

Single pole, triple throw x1

A few LEDs (light emitting diodes). The speci c model

(which you can identify by measuring their body’s width)
is

3mm (red) x5

A bunch of jack sockets. The speci c models (which

you can identify by their color) are

Switched mono (black) x5

2 Please note that you might get a di erent, but functionally identical model (e.g. BC548) in your
kit.

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 A couple of chips. The speci c models (which are
printed onto their bodies) are

TL074 (quad op amp) x1

CD4017 (decade counter) x1

Some trimmer potentiometers. The speci c values

(which are printed onto their bodies) are

5k x1
2k x2

You will also nd a few sockets that are only relevant when assembling the module in the
end.

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POWERING YOUR BREADBOARDS
Before we can start building, you’ll need to nd a way of providing your breadboards with
power. Ideally, you’d use a dual power supply for this. Dual power supplies are great –
and if you want to get serious about synth design, you should invest in one at some point.
But what if you’re just starting out, and you’d like to use batteries instead? Thankfully,
that’s totally doable. You just need to connect two 9 V batteries to one breadboard
like shown here. For this, you should use 9 V battery clips, which are cheap & widely
available in every electronics shop.

By connecting the batteries like this, the row on the left side labeled + becomes your
positive rail, the row on the right side labeled + becomes your negative rail, and both rows
labeled – become your ground rails.3 Next, use jumper wires to route the rails to the
second breadboard in the same con guration.
Please make sure you disconnect the batteries from your breadboards when you
make changes to the circuit! Otherwise you run the risk of damaging components.

3This is a bit awkward because breadboards weren’t really made with dual supply voltages in
mind.

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 SEQUENCER BASICS
Before we dive into the circuit’s design, let’s rst make sure we understand what a step
sequencer actually does. For that, we’ll have to separate two types of sequences: CV and
gate. CV, if you don’t know, stands for control voltage. A control voltage is a voltage that
is used to control some parameter on a synthesizer module. An oscillator, for example,
usually has multiple control voltage inputs. CV coming from a sequencer is often used to
control an oscillator’s pitch. The relation here is simple: the higher the control voltage, the
higher the pitch.
CV sequences are then really just strings of discrete
voltage levels – a bit like sheet music for your
synthesizer. Consider this example: here, we’ve got a
ve-step CV sequence, where the output voltage
increases by 1 on each step.
A CV sequencer would then take this sequence of
voltages and send them out one after the other via a
single output. It’s as if it was telling us the individual
values in succession. (In data transmission theory, you’d
call this serial communication.) Of course our sequencer
still needs to know how fast it should step through the
sequence. For that, we normally use something called a
clock signal.
A clock signal is really just a square wave-oscillation, going on and o at a steady pace.
Our sequencer would then proceed to the next step every time that clock signal goes
from o to on (also called „low“ to „high“). And so the frequency of our clock signal
determines the speed of our output sequence – i.e. how fast it switches from step to
step. After passing the last step, the sequencer would traditionally start over with the rst
value in the sequence, giving us an in nite ve step loop. In our case, we’d get an output
of „0 V, 1 V, 2 V, 3 V, 4 V“ over and over.
So that’s CV sequences. Gate sequences, on the other
hand, are a bit simpler. A gate, if you don’t know, is
really just a voltage going from low to high and back low
again. It’s essentially a digital signal. To program a gate
sequencer, you’d simply tell it wether you want a gate on
a speci c step – or not.
It will then go through these instructions, again
advancing one step at a time, in sync with our clock
signal. Every time it encounters a GATE ON, it’ll send out
a voltage pulse. Resulting in a gate sequence that looks
something like this. It’s basically just a voltage that’s
pulsing rhythmically.

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In a typical patch, you would use this to drive an envelope generator, which in turn would
drive a VCA and/or a lter. Allowing you to add rhythm and dynamics to your melodies.
Now ideally, you’d want your sequencer to be able to send out both types of sequences
at once – so that it’s able to provide both melody and rhythm simultaneously. And even
though that might sound somewhat complex, it’s actually reasonably easy to achieve.

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COUNTING WITH CHIPS
To do it, we’ll use an old favorite from the synth DIY scene: the CD4017. It’s a simple
decade counter chip – which means that it’s able to count from 1 to 10. For this, it has ten
count state outputs and a clock input.

Here’s how it works. When we re the chip up, the rst count state output will be on –
meaning that it sends out a high level voltage, while all others will be o – meaning that
they’re sitting at ground level. This tells us that the current count is 1. Now whenever the
signal we apply to the clock input goes from low to high, the currently active count state
output will turn o – and the next one will turn on. Meaning that the count has increased
by 1. So the chip is basically just turning on its count state outputs one by one in
sync with the clock signal.
For this to work, there’s one additional input we’ll need to pay attention to, though –
called the clock inhibit pin. Fortunately, all we have to do is tie it to ground permanently.4
This is necessary because the chip will only listen for a clock signal if that pin is sitting at
a low level voltage. If we give it a high level voltage, it’ll tell the chip to ignore anything
coming in through the clock input.
Speaking of the clock input, you might ask what the diode and resistor are doing here.
Didn’t we say that the chip is simply expecting a signal that goes on and o in regular
intervals? If that’s true, why can’t we just feed it a square wave-oscillation from an
oscillator? Simple: because oscillators usually send out a signal that is centered around
the 0 V-line. Meaning that it swings between a positive and a negative voltage.
The problem with this is that many chips really don’t like to receive any voltage levels that
are outside of the ones we supply them with. In our case, we’re powering our CD4017

4 Along with the reset pin, just to keep it from oating. We’ll talk about it in detail in a later chapter.

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 with +12 V and 0 V. So applying any voltage greater than 12 V or lower than 0 V to the
chip’s clock input is likely a bad idea.
In the worst case, it could even kill our chip completely. Which means we should protect it
from those out-of-scope voltage levels. Thankfully, we don’t really have to worry about
voltages higher than 12 V – because that’s the maximum voltage level in a typical
eurorack system. So we’ll only shield our chip from negative voltages.
To do that, we just need a bog standard diode. Diodes
are basically like one way streets for electricity. They
allow for current to ow in only one direction – which is
indicated by the arrow in the diode symbol.5 If we set
up the diode so that the arrow is pointing towards
our clock input, only positive voltages will be
allowed to pass through. Negative voltages, on the
other hand, will try to suck current out of the chip –
which the diode will block.
Great! But then why the additional 100k resistor?
Because without it, while the diode is blocking, the
clock input pin would be oating, meaning that there’d
be no de ned voltage applied to it. This is a problem
because oating inputs are prone to picking up noise
and radio waves, which would cause the chip to behave
in weird and unexpected ways. To avoid this, we use a
pull-down resistor. Which is just a decently big resistor
going to ground after our diode.
Here’s how that works. Whenever the voltage coming from our clock signal is high, a
small current is owing through the diode and resistor and to ground. This is why the
resistor should be relatively big: because we don’t want to waste a lot of current here.
When the clock signal then swings low, the diode will block. But because the resistor is
connecting the clock input to ground, it will be pulled down to ground level. It’s as if the
resistor was setting a default voltage that gets overridden whenever the diode
conducts. So with this setup, we e ectively chop o any part of our clock signal that
might dip below the 0 V-line. Which should keep our chip safe and happy.
To try all this on a breadboard, we’ll need to make the
chip’s internal state visible somehow. For this, we’ll
simply use a bunch of LEDs attached to the count state
outputs through current limiting resistors. These are
necessary because LEDs are super quick to burn out if
we push too much current through them. Now, you
might ask why we’re setting up only ve LEDs – when
the chip has ten outputs in total?

5 Read more about diodes in the components & concepts appendix (page 38).

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Well, there’s actually nothing stopping us from using all ten. I simply made the decision
to build a sequencer with ve steps exactly – so I’m only interested in the rst ve
outputs. Assuming you’re willing to go along with this, let’s set up the circuit on a
breadboard. You’ll notice that a couple tie points are simply labeled with a number – this
means that you should make the connection with long, exible jumpers: 1 to 1, 2 to 2, 3
to 3 etc.
Also, mind the LED’s orientation! They are essentially diodes, which means that they’ll
only let current ow through them in one direction: from anode to cathode. You can
identify both by looking at the LED’s legs – the longer leg is the anode, the shorter leg is
the cathode. Additionally, the LED’s body gives you further indication if you look at it from
the top. One side is rounded (anode), the other looks almost cut-o (cathode).

To test this, you’ll need something like an LFO or a clock source. If you have one – great!
Plug it into the clock input and see what happens. If you don’t, no worries. Since our
sequencer should have an internal clock anyways, we’ll take slight detour and set one up
right now.

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 THE CLOCK GENERATOR
To do that, we’ll use just an op amp, a few resistors, a potentiometer and a capacitor. If
we set these components up like this, we can pick up a square wave oscillation at the op
amp’s output.

Confused about how this works? If so, let’s analyze this circuit step by step.6 For that,
we’ll rst have to understand what an op amp does. The basic concept is this: every op
amp has two inputs and one output. Think of those inputs like voltage sensors. You can
attach them to any point in your circuit and they will detect the voltage there without
interfering. No current ows into the op amp’s inputs – that’s why we say their input
impedance is very high. Near in nite, actually. Okay, but why are there two of them?
The key here is that op amps are essentially di erential
ampli ers. This means that they only amplify the
di erence between their two inputs – not each of
them individually. If that sounds confusing, let’s check
out a quick example. So we’ll imagine that one sensor –
called the non-inverting input – is reading 8 V from
somewhere. The other sensor – called the inverting
input – reads 5 V.
Then as a rst step, the op amp will subtract the
inverting input’s value from the non-inverting input’s
value. Leaving us with a result of 3. (Because 8 minus 5
is 3.) This result then gets multiplied by a very large
number – called the op amp’s gain. Finally, the op amp
will try to push out a voltage that corresponds to that
multiplication’s result.

6 You can try this chapter’s circuit in a simulator. I’ve already set it up for you right here: https://
tinyurl.com/2yk6obr5 – you can change all values by double clicking on components.

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 But of course, the op amp is limited here by the voltages that we supply it with. If we give
it –12 V as a minimum, and +12 V as a maximum, the highest it can go will be +12 V. So in
our example, even though the result of that multiplication would be huge, the op amp will
simply push out 12 V here and call it a day.
So far, so simple. But in our clock generator, the relation between the two input voltages
and the op amp’s output voltage is quite complicated, because we feed the output
voltage back to both inputs. To simplify things, we can isolate the two feedback paths for
now.
Let’s start with the lower one. Here, the two resistors
between output, non-inverting input and ground form a
50% voltage divider.7 It works like this. By taking two
resistances, connecting them in series, tying one
end to a voltage and the other to ground, we can
pick up a fraction of that voltage where they meet.
The relation between them will determine what fraction
we get.
Since both resistors are of the same value here, the op amp’s output voltage will be
slashed in half before it reaches the non-inverting input. So we know that the voltage at
that input is always exactly half of what the output voltage is. With this in mind, let’s move
on to the upper feedback path.
Here, things are a bit more messy, because instead of
connecting output and input with a voltage divider, we
use a combination of a variable resistance and a
capacitor. That resistance is made up of a xed 6k8
resistor and a 250k potentiometer set up as a
variable resistor. We’ll talk a bit more about
potentiometers in a later chapter.8 For now, all you have
to know is that if we set one up like shown here, it will
work as a resistor whose value you can control by
turning a knob.
The added 6k8 resistor is then setting a minimum resistance – so that when the
potentiometer is set to 0 Ω, there is still some resistance between the op amp’s output
and the capacitor. This is important, because the whole idea is that we want to slowly
ll and drain that capacitor by having a restricted amount of current ow from and
to the op amp’s output.9
Why? Because this is what makes this circuit oscillate. Here’s how. Imagine that we’ve
just set this circuit up and connected our power supply. Then you might assume that the

7 Read more about voltage dividers in the components & concepts appendix (page 39).
8You can also read more about potentiometers in the components & concepts appendix (page
40).
9 Read more about capacitors in the components & concepts appendix (page 37).

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 voltages at the inverting and non-inverting inputs and the op amp’s output must be 0 V. In
theory, this is true – which means that nothing should happen, really, because no current
is owing on either path.
In reality, there will be subtle voltage di erences though, because we’re dealing with
analog components in a non-ideal world. And because the op amp’s gain is so strong, we
can expect its output voltage to either crash down to –12, or jump up to + 12 V
immediately. Let’s assume it’s the latter.
Then, the voltage divider on the lower feedback path will set the voltage at the non-
inverting input to 6 V exactly. At the same time, we’ll see a small current ow through the
potentiometer and resistor on the upper feedback path and into the capacitor. As it lls
up, the voltage at the inverting input rises slowly. Until it crosses the 6 V-line. Then,
because the result of the op amp’s input subtraction is now negative, the output will
crash down to –12 V. Pulling the voltage at the non-inverting input down to –6 V with it.
At the inverting input, the voltage will only slowly start dropping down from 6 V, as the
charge inside the capacitor is pulled into the op amp’s output. As soon as it crosses the –
6 V-line, everything resets: the output jumps to +12 V, pushing the non-inverting input’s
voltage up to 6 V, and the capacitor is slowly lling up again.
Since this process will repeat inde nitely, we get a constant square wave-oscillation at the
op amp’s output as a result. Better yet: we can adjust the frequency of that oscillation by
turning the potentiometer’s knob. Because the lower the resistance on the top
feedback path is, the quicker the capacitor is charged and discharged. (Of course, if
there’s no resistance on that path, the mechanism falls apart – hence the 6k8 baseline
resistor.)

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So let’s set this up on our breadboards and see how we fare. Make sure that the TL074-
chip (which houses four standard op amps) is set up exactly as shown in the layout
– if you reverse the power connections, it will heat up and die!

Since we’ve hooked our clock generator up to the 4017’s clock input directly, you should
now be able to see that all LEDs go dark for an extended period of time as the count
state increases past 5. This is not really what we’re looking for. As I said earlier, we’d
expect a standard sequencer to loop back to the rst step after it passes the last one. So
how do we achieve this with our chip?

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 RESETTING THE LOOP
Simple: by using the chip’s reset functionality. It works
like this. Whenever we apply a high level voltage to the
reset pin, the chip will clear its internal count state.
Setting the count to one and making the rst step LED
light up, no matter where we were before. If we want
our counter to loop around after step ve, we simply
connect step six to the reset pin.
Why step six and not step ve? Because the reset
input is triggered the instant it detects a high level
voltage. So by connecting step six to the reset pin, we
jump back to the rst step as soon as we try to move
past step ve. Testing this on the breadboard is as easy
as connecting step six and the reset pin with a jumper.

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 The chip should now be trapped in an endless ve-step loop. Just as we wanted! Of
course, there’s nothing keeping us from shortening the loop to our heart’s content. Go
ahead and try it with four steps, three steps and two steps!
Doing this with a jumper is of course not the most user-
friendly method, though. So in an actual eurorack
module, you’d probably want to use a switch. With a
regular single pole, double throw-switch, we can
connect one point in a circuit to one of two others –
depending on the switch’s position. It’s the equivalent
of keeping our jumper plugged into one spot, while
moving the other end between two xed points.
This would allow us to connect our reset pin to two
di erent steps, giving us the choice between two
di erent loop lengths.10 Since I like to be a bit more
exible with my options, though, we went for a single
pole, triple throw-switch in the nalized design instead.

It’s the same basic concept, but with three instead of just two signal destinations.
Allowing us to choose between three distinct loop lengths: ve steps, four steps and
three steps.

10 For the nal module, we’re using a similar idea to switch between the internal clock and our
external clock input. But instead of a dedicated SPDT switch, we use something called a
switched socket. It works like this: whenever nothing is plugged in, it will forward the internal
clock signal. But once you do plug in an external signal, that signal takes precedence.

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 THE RESET INPUT
In some situations & patches, it might be useful if we’re able to reset our sequence using
an external trigger. For that, you might be tempted to simply set up a jack socket and
connect it straight to the chip’s reset pin. Unfortunately, it’s not quite that easy. There are
two problems with this approach.
First, since the reset pin is always tied to one of our
step outputs, there’d be a straight connection between
that step output and the new reset input. This is a
problem because for one, the path between reset
input and step output doesn’t have any resistance.
It’s basically a short circuit. So if our reset signal is able
to provide a lot of current, we might actually see our
chip go up in smoke. Also, since the step outputs are
connected to our status LEDs, we’d see one of them
ash every time we trigger the reset input externally.
The second problem is arguably more of a subjective thing, and it relates to way the
4017’s reset pin works: as long as there is a high level voltage present at that reset
pin, the chip stops counting. Meaning that it doesn’t advance past the rst step. It’s
essentially waiting for the reset pin voltage to fall back down to ground.
So if you’d use a standard square wave-signal to trigger a reset, the sequence would halt
for a signi cant stretch of time. Simply because that square wave’s high phase comprises
half of its entire wavecycle. For me, this is not really desirable. I’d like my sequencer to
keep on trucking along after each reset – even if the reset signal stays high for an
extended period of time.
So how do we pull this o ? Easy: with a basic, passive
gate-to-trigger converter – which is really just a
capacitor and a resistor, set up like this. This circuit will
turn a square wave-cycle into two short voltage
spikes.11 First a positive one, when the input transitions
from low to high – and then a negative one, when it
drops from high to low.
Since we’re not interested in the negative spike, and it
could potentially harm our chip, we’ll eliminate it using
another diode plus pulldown resistor-combination. This
way, only the positive spike can get through and trigger
our chip. It’s the same idea we’ve used for the clock
input earlier.

11You can try some of this chapter’s circuits in a simulator. I’ve already set them up for you right
here: https://tinyurl.com/y8v7mrkr – you can change all values by double clicking on components.

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The 100k pulldown resistor ensures that there’s always a de ned voltage at the reset pin,
no matter what happens at the reset input and step outputs. Speaking of the step
outputs: to address the rst problem and protect them from current coming in through the
reset input, we’ll simply use another diode that we’ll put between them and the reset pin.

Cool! Unfortunately, our two breadboards will get pretty crowded as we move on – so I’ve
decided to omit the reset input from the suggested layout. If you want, you can of course
try to set this up anyways and test it out. If you do, experiment with di erent input signals
– you could try LFOs, other sequencers, maybe even a sample & hold for some chaotic
randomness.

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THE CV OUTPUT
As cool as watching our chip light up some LEDs is, it’s still not sending out any type of
sequence. So let’s change that. We’ll start with implementing a control voltage output.
Right now, our individual steps are either sending out 0 V when they’re o , or 12 V when
they’re on. And while we can’t do much with 0 V, we can do a lot with 12 V.
Because if we take those 12 V and route them through a
potentiometer set up as a variable voltage divider, we
can scale them down to any voltage between 12 and 0
V. This is possible since conveniently, a potentiometer is
really just a voltage divider shoved into a single
component which allows us to change the resistance
relation by turning a knob.12
So let’s say we add in such a variable voltage divider
after every one of our ve step outputs. Then by turning
the potentiometers’ knobs, we can set a speci c output
voltage between 0 and 12 V for each step. Cool! Only
problem is that now, we’ve got 5 individual outputs: one
for each step. That’s not really what we were looking
for – we wanted a single output that gives us each
step’s voltage in succession.
Now you might be tempted to simply connect all these
individual outputs together. After all, the chip’s steps
only send out a voltage when they’re active, right? And
since no two steps are active simultaneously, we should
only see the currently active step’s voltage at our
spliced-together output.
Unfortunately, this idea ignores the fact that these ve
outputs can’t just source current – they can also sink it.
Which means that when one of the outputs is active,
current from that output would ow back into the other
four. This is not only shoddy engineering – it would also
mean that the output voltage is much lower than
expected. So how do we x that? Easy: with a bunch of
diodes.
As we’ve discussed earlier, diodes only let current pass through in one direction. So if we
place one after every individual step output and then connect all the diodes together, the
problem should be xed.

12 You can try this chapter’s circuits in a simulator. I’ve already set them up for you right here:
https://tinyurl.com/yakndukq – you can change all values by double clicking on components.

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 Now, no current can ow back into the outputs, since the diodes are blocking that. Great!
There’s just one small additional thing we need to do before we can give this a try. And
that’s bu ering the output voltage. Because without doing that, the current coming from
our chip has to squeeze through those potentiometers before it reaches the output.
This means that if the module we’re driving with our output is even a bit power-
hungry, it will make the output voltage drop noticeably. This is not ideal – we want the
output voltage to be the same in any and all situations. To ensure that, we use an op
amp-based bu er. Bu ers are great in situations like these, because they allow us to
make copies of voltages without pulling any current.13
So by placing a bu er between our diodes and the output socket, we can make sure the
module we drive with it can pull plenty of current without the output voltage dropping. As
a nal touch, we’ll put a 1k resistor after the bu er’s output. This is just to limit the
maximum amount of current owing out of (or into) the op amp in case of a short circuit.

13 Read more about op amps and bu ers in the components & concepts appendix (page 42/43).

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Let’s see if this works! If you play with the potentiometers, you should be able to get a
melody going. Cool! Although it’s unfortunately pretty di cult to dial in notes with any
kind of precision. This is because the CV range per step is just way too big – it’s going
from 0 all the way up to 12 V!

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 CV SCALING
Thankfully, adjusting this is pretty easy. All we have to do is scale our CV down using a
standard, xed voltage divider. If we want our CV to stay within a range of 0 to 5 V, for
example, we’ll have to choose two resistors that’ll give us a divide-down factor of about
2.4. (Simply because 12 V divided by 2.4 gives us 5 V.) Unfortunately, that ratio is hard to
hit exactly. Partly because of component tolerances, partly because nding the right value
resistors can be tricky. So we’ll have to give ourselves some wiggle-room by
including a small-value trimmer potentiometer in our voltage divider.14

And even though we now technically have three resistors in our voltage divider, we can
simply act as if the trimmer and the 51k resistor form one single, bigger resistor. So by
turning the trimmer’s knob, we can ne tune the voltage divider’s ratio.15

14 You can try this chapter’s circuit in a simulator. I’ve already set it up for you right here: https://
tinyurl.com/ycvhha6h – you can change all values by double clicking on components.
15Please be aware that the trimmer included in your kit might have a di erent footprint than the
one shown in the suggested breadboard layout below. If that’s the case, you’ll have to slightly
adapt the layout.

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Now, to make sure that our sequencer’s maximum CV level is close to 5 V, you should
connect a multimeter to the CV output, while setting all potentiometers to maximum blast.
Then, you’ll have to ddle with the trimmer until you hit those 5 V. Once you get there,
connect your oscillator again and see if dialing in a melody has gotten any easier.
Of course you could reduce the range even more if you
want. All you’d have to do is adjust the voltage divider’s
ratio. For the production design, we’ve decided to
implement two di erent ranges – 2.5 V and 5 V – that
are selectable via an SPDT switch. Both paths include
a dedicated trimmer that you’ll need to adjust when
you’re calibrating the nished module.

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 STATUS LEDS
Now, before we move on to the gate output, I’d like to take a short detour and add our
LEDs back in – simply because that would make it much easier to know which step is
currently active. You might be tempted to simply drive them the same way as we did
before.

But that would actually be a bad long-term decision. Because while the 4017 is able to
provide enough current for a single LED, this already pushes it to its absolute limits.
Which means that if we have it drive LEDs for an extended period of time, we’re risking
damage or even component failure. So we’ll have to nd a way to o oad it. For that, we
can use an NPN transistor.16 If we set it up like this, a very small current coming from the
chip will be enough to drive the LED at full throttle.17

Here’s how it works. As long as the chip’s output is sitting at 0 V, no current will ow
through the 100k resistor and into the transistor’s base – which means that the transistor
blocks any current from owing between its collector and emitter. So the LED will be
turned o as well.
But as soon as the output goes high, a very small current is squeezed through the 100k
resistor and into the transistor’s base. This is enough to make the transistor open up
wide, allowing for lots of current to ow between collector and emitter.

16 Read more about NPN transistors in the components & concepts appendix (page 45).
17 You can try this chapter’s circuits in a simulator. I’ve already set them up for you right here:
https://tinyurl.com/ybvstvjp – you can change all values by double clicking on components.

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That current might actually be strong enough to wreck our LED – so to be safe, we’ll put a
1k resistor between the LED and our power rail. Now, whenever the output is high, our
LED will safely light up without stressing the chip at all. Great! So let’s set this up on the
breadboard. Make sure you use 2N3904-transistors here! Their pinout di ers from the
BC547 also included in your kit.

If you now plug your batteries back in, you should immediately see the ve LEDs light up
the same way they did before. They do? Then it’s time to move on to the gate output.

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 THE GATE OUTPUT
Since we said earlier that a gate is really just a voltage going from low to high and back
low again, you might assume that our chip is already providing gates for us. After all, it
simply turns its outputs on and o in succession – so we’re essentially getting a gate per
step, right? If that were true, we could apply what we’ve learned from the CV output and
set up something like this.

Each step gets routed through its own switch, followed by a diode. Then, we’d simply
connect them all together and bu er the resulting voltage with another op amp. Now, by
turning these switches on or o , we should be able to decide if we want to get a gate on
a speci c step or not. To make sure our bu er’s input isn’t left oating when a step’s gate
is turned o , we also need to add in a 100k pulldown resistor here.
Unfortunately, if you’d try this by connecting the output to an envelope generator, you’d
encounter something odd. With all step switches turned on, that envelope won’t get
triggered at all. Why is that?
With the sequencer running, take a closer look at our step indicator LEDs. You can see
that one of them is lit up at all times. There’s never a moment where all LEDs go dark.
Since we are combining all of the steps together for our gate output, that gate output will
be stuck at a high level voltage permanently.
Simply because if one of the step outputs is high, the
gate output will be high as well. This is why the
envelope wouldn’t be triggered properly – the gate
output has to momentarily go low for that. Bummer! So
how can we x this?
Take a look at these two graphs. The one up top is what
we’re currently getting out of our gate output. The one
below shows us what a proper gate sequence with all
gates active should look like.

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Because a gate, as we said in the beginning, is a voltage going from low to high and back
low again. So how do we convert our output signal into a proper sequence of gates? This
is where it gets a bit tricky. We basically have to make sure that our output always goes
low before we reach the next step. Thankfully, we’ve got something that can help us out
with this.
That something is the clock signal. Because if we
overlay our current output and that clock signal, we see
something interesting. Where the output stays high
during each entire step, the clock actually goes low for
the second half.
So if we were somehow able to pull the output low
whenever the clock is low, our problem would be
solved! And though this might sound complicated, it’s
actually quite easy to implement.18

All we need are three components: an op amp, a 100k resistor and a diode. Here’s how it
works. Whenever the clock input is low, the clock bu er’s output will also be low. This will
allow for current to ow through the diode and into the clock bu er. Now, without the
100k resistor in the center, this would basically result in a short circuit and burning chips.
But with it, we’ll simply see the voltage at the gate bu er’s input drop close to
ground level, as the clock bu er is comfortably eating up what’s squeezed through
the 100k resistor. This is why we need the clock bu er, by the way: to ensure that we
can sink all the current coming down through the diode.19

18You can try some of this chapter’s circuits in a simulator. I’ve already set them up for you right
here: https://tinyurl.com/yatgsglm – you can change all values by double clicking on components.
19Also, the bu er allows us to set up a clock output/clock through by simply connecting a jack
socket to the bu er’s output through a 1k resistor. If you check the initial, complete circuit
schematic, you’ll see that that’s exactly what we’ve done for the nal module.

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On the other hand, whenever the clock signal is high, the clock bu er’s output will also be
high. This means that the pull-down diode will now be pushed shut from below. Because
of this, current is blocked from owing into the clock bu er. Leaving whatever voltage we
currently have at the gate bu er’s input undisturbed. So no matter if that voltage is high
or low, it will stay that way whenever the clock is high. Cool! Let’s set this up on the
breadboard and see how we fare.

Now, depending on the envelope you’re trying to drive with our new gate output, it might
or might not get triggered. If it does – great! But in case it doesn’t, we’ll have to retrace
our steps for a bit.

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 THE FAILSAFE GATE OUTPUT
There is one small thing that you might be concerned about already if you’re really
observant. When we added in this extra 100k resistor after our ve diodes, we only
wanted to prevent creating a short circuit.

Unfortunately, this has an unintended side-e ect. Together with our pulldown resistor,
the new current limiting resistor forms a voltage divider. This means that even if the
clock input is high and the pulldown diode is blocked, the voltage at the gate bu er’s
input will be cut down. By 50%, to be precise.
So instead of the full 12 V coming from our counter chip, we’ll only get around 6 V at the
gate bu er’s output. Now apparently, this is still a strong enough signal to trigger some
envelopes. But di erent envelopes have di erent gate signal requirements. Some might
only trigger at 8 or even 10 V. So in order to make our sequencer compatible with any
envelope, we should try and boost its gate output up to 12 V. To do that, we’ll rst
turn our gate output bu er into a comparator.20

Comparators, if you don’t know, simply compare an input voltage to a reference voltage.
When the input voltage is above the threshold, the comparator’s output will jump to the
positive supply voltage. Conversely, when the input is below the threshold, the output will
jump to the negative supply voltage.

20 You can try this chapter’s circuits in a simulator. I’ve already set them up for you right here:
https://tinyurl.com/y6vasvt7 – you can change all values by double clicking on components.

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 In our setup here, I’ve set the comparator’s threshold to about 3.8 V with a 100k/47k
voltage divider. The exact value is actually not that important here – as long as its
signi cantly above 0 V and below 6 V. Because as we know, the voltage at the
comparator’s input will be swinging between slightly above 0 and around 6 V. So the
threshold needs to be somewhere in the middle between those two values.
Then, the comparator will push out super beefy gates jumping between + and – 12
V. Unfortunately, that’s overshooting the mark considerably. We said we want 12 V gates
– not 24 V gates! To x this, we use a trick that should be very familiar by now: routing our
signal through a diode, followed by a pulldown resistor.

This will cut o our gates’ lower halves, making them swing between just +12 and 0 V.
There’s just one problem with this. Whenever the comparator’s output is low and the
diode blocks, the circuit’s output impedance is really high – simply because there’s
a big 100k resistor between the output and ground. Meaning that it can’t sink a lot of
current. This can be a problem if the module we’re driving with our gate output relies on it
having a low output impedance both in the high- and low phases.
Okay, so why don’t we just bu er our output with another op amp? Unfortunately, we’ve
already used up all four op amps in our TL074. And while we could set up an additional
single op amp-chip, the problem is that we couldn’t really t it onto the module’s PCB. So
we’ll have to nd a more compact solution. Thankfully, we can build a decent, if
somewhat power-hungry bu er with a single NPN transistor and two resistors.

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 Here’s how it works. We set the transistor up in what’s known as the emitter follower
con guration. For that, we simply connect its collector to the power rail, its base to the
signal we want to bu er, and its emitter to ground through a rather small-value resistor.
Then, we can pick up a bu ered version of our gate signal directly at the transistor’s
emitter (which we’ll hook up to an output socket through a current limiting 200 Ω resistor).
To understand why, let’s analyze the two di erent states this circuit can be in.
The rst one would be if the comparator’s output is currently low. Then, the transistor will
be closed, because there is no current owing into its base. As a result, our gate output
is simply connected to ground through the 200 Ω + 4k7 resistor combination. This is
still a considerably higher output impedance than the 1k that we’ve got on all other
outputs. But compared to the 100k from the diode plus pulldown resistor setup, it’s a
marked improvement. (This is why we use a 200 Ω output resistor here, by the way – to
not push up the output impedance any further.)
The circuit enters its second state once our comparator’s output goes high. Then, a small
current will start owing through the diode and into the transistor’s base, opening the
connection between collector and emitter. This results in a much larger current owing
directly from the power rail through the 4k7 resistor and to ground. And because that
4k7 resistor restricts the maximum amount of current that can ow, a voltage will build up
above it – so right at the transistor’s emitter.
Now conveniently, that voltage will be just slightly lower than the voltage our comparator
is applying to the transistor’s base. Because if it was much lower, then more current
would ow into the base, opening the transistor up even wider, which in turn would raise
the voltage at the emitter. Until they are pretty close to each other. That’s why it’s called
an emitter follower – because the emitter voltage follows the base voltage! And so
our gates should be properly bu ered as a result.

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If your envelope wasn’t triggered using the previous setup, it should work just ne now.
But there’s one thing you maybe haven’t tested yet: deactivating some of the steps’
gates. If so, go ahead and try it by removing some of the gate’s diodes. If that works:
congratulations, you’ve built a fully functional ve step sequencer!
If you now want to make your creation permanent, dig out the panel and PCB from the
kit, heat up your soldering iron and get to building! You can nd more information on how
to populate the board & how to solder in the enclosed appendix.

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COMPONENTS & CONCEPTS
APPENDIX
In this section, we’ll take a closer look at the components and elemental circuit design
concepts we’re using to build our module. Check these whenever the main manual
moves a bit too fast for you!

THE BASICS:
RESISTANCE, VOLTAGE, CURRENT
There are three main properties we’re interested in when talking about electronic
circuits: resistance, voltage and current. To make these less abstract, we can use a
common beginner’s metaphor and compare the ow of electrons to the ow of water
through a pipe.

In that metaphor, resistance would be the width of a pipe. The wider it is, the more water
can travel through it at once, and the easier it is to push a set amount from one end to the
other. Current would then describe the ow, while voltage would describe the pressure
pushing the water through the pipe. You can probably see how all three properties are
interlinked: more voltage increases the current, while more resistance to that voltage
in turn decreases the current.

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USING TWO 9 V BATTERIES AS A
DUAL POWER SUPPLY
Dual power supplies are great – and if you want to get serious about synth design, you
should invest in one at some point. But what if you’re just starting out, and you’d like to
use batteries instead? Thankfully that’s totally doable. You just need to connect two 9 V
batteries like shown here. For this, you should use 9 V battery clips, which are cheap &
widely available in every electronics shop.

By connecting the batteries like this, the positive terminal of the left battery becomes your
+9 V, while the negative terminal of the right is now your –9 V, and the other two combine
to become your new ground.21 Please make sure you disconnect the batteries from
your breadboard when you make changes to the circuit! Otherwise you run the risk of
damaging components.

21If you’re struggling with setting this up, you can watch me do it here: https://youtu.be/
XpMZoR3fgd0?t=742

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RESISTORS
While a conductive wire is like a very big pipe where lots of water can pass through, a
resistor is like a narrow pipe that restricts the amount of water that can ow. The
narrowness of that pipe is equivalent to the resistance value, measured in ohms (Ω). The
higher that value, the tighter the pipe.
Resistors have two distinctive properties: linearity
and symmetry. Linearity, in this context, means that for
a doubling in voltage, the current owing will double as
well. Symmetry means that the direction of ow doesn’t
matter – resistors work the same either way.
On a real-life resistor, you’ll notice that its value is not
printed on the outside – like it is with other components.
Instead, it is indicated by colored stripes22 – along with
the resistor’s tolerance rating. In addition to that, the
resistor itself is also colored. Sometimes, depending on
who made the resistor, this will be an additional
tolerance indicator.
For the resistors in this kit, a yellow body tells you that
the actual resistance value might be ±5 % o . A dark
blue body indicates ±1 % tolerance. Some kits will also
contain light blue ± 0.1% resistors to avoid the need for
manual resistor matching.
While in the long run, learning all these color codes will
be quite helpful, you can also simply use a multimeter to
determine a resistor’s value.

22For a detailed breakdown, look up resistor color coding. There are also calculation tools
available.

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CAPACITORS
A capacitor is a bit like a balloon that you can attach to the open end of a pipe. If
there’s some pressure in the pipe, the balloon will ll up with water until the pressure
equalizes. (Since the balloon needs some space to expand into, both of the capacitor’s
legs need to be connected to points in your circuit.)
Then, should the pressure in the pipe drop, the balloon
releases the water it stored into the pipe. The maximum
size of the balloon is determined by the capacitor’s
capacitance, which we measure in farad (F). There are
quite a few di erent types of capacitors: electrolytic,
foil, ceramic, tantalum etc. They all have their unique
properties and ideal usage scenarios – but the most
important distinction is if they are polarized or not.
You shouldn’t use polarized capacitors against their polarization (applying a negative
voltage to their positive terminal and vice versa) – so they’re out for most audio-related
uses like AC coupling, high- & low-pass lters etc.
Unlike resistors, capacitors have their capacitance value printed onto their casing,
sometimes together with a maximum operating voltage. Be extra careful here! That
voltage rating is important. Your capacitors can actually explode if you exceed it! So they
should be able to withstand the maximum voltage used in your circuit. If they’re rated
higher – even better, since it will increase their lifespan. No worries though: the capacitors
in this kit are carefully chosen to work properly in this circuit.
Ceramic capacitors usually come in disk- or pillow-like
cases, are non-polarized and typically encode their
capacitance value.23 Annoyingly, they rarely indicate
their voltage rating – so you’ll have to note it down
when buying them.
Film capacitors come in rectangular, boxy cases, are
non-polarized and sometimes, but not always, directly
indicate their capacitance value and their voltage rating
without any form of encoding.24
Electrolytic capacitors can be identi ed by their cylinder
shape and silver top, and they usually directly indicate
their capacitance value and their voltage rating. They
are polarized – so make sure you put them into your
circuit in the correct orientation.

23For a detailed breakdown, look up ceramic capacitor value code. There are also calculation
tools available.
24 If yours do encode their values, same idea applies here – look up lm capacitor value code.

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 DIODES
Diodes are basically like one-way valves. Current
can only pass through in one direction – from anode
to cathode. That direction is indicated by the arrow in
the diode symbol and by a black stripe on the diode’s
casing. So any current trying to move in the opposite
direction is blocked from owing.
There are a few quirks here, though. For one, the diode
will only open up if the pushing force is strong enough.
Generally, people say that’s 0.7 V, but in reality, it’s
usually a bit lower. Also, diodes don’t open up abruptly
– they start conducting even at much lower voltages,
although just slightly.
There are a lot of di erent diode types: Zener, Schottky,
recti er, small signal etc. They all have their unique
properties and ideal usage scenarios – but usually, a
generic 1N4148 small signal diode will get the job done.

SCHMITT TRIGGER INVERTERS

You can think of a Schmitt trigger inverter as two
separate things. On the left, there’s a sensor that
measures the pressure inside an attached pipe. On
the right, there is a water pump. This pump’s
operation is controlled by the sensor. Whenever the
pressure probed by this sensor is below a certain
threshold, the pump will be working. If the pressure is
above a second threshold, the pump won’t be working.
Here’s a quick graph to visualize that. The squiggly line
represents the voltage at the input, while the dotted line
shows the voltage at the output. So every time we cross
the upper threshold on our way up, and the lower one
on our way down, the output changes its state. One
thing that’s very important to keep in mind: no current
ows into the sensor! It’s really just sensing the voltage
without a ecting it.

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 VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
A voltage divider is really just two resistors set up
like this: input on the left, output on the right. If R1
and R2 are of the same value, the output voltage will be
half of what the input voltage is. How does it work?
Let’s use our analogy again: so we have a pipe on the
left, where water is being pushed to the right with a
speci c amount of force. Attached to it is a narrow pipe,
representing R1, followed by another wide pipe. Then at
the bottom, there’s another narrow pipe, representing
R2, where water can exit the pipe system. Finally,
imagine we’ve set up a sensor measuring the voltage in
the right hand pipe.
First, think about what would happen if R2 was
completely sealed o . Our sensor would tell us that the
pressure on the right side is exactly the same as the
pressure on the left. Because the pushing force has
nowhere else to go.
On the other hand, imagine R2 would just be a wide
opening. Then the pressure on the right would be 0,
because it’d all escape through that opening. But what
happens if R2 is neither completely closed o nor wide
open? Then the pressure would be retained to varying
degrees, depending on the narrowness of the two
resistor paths.
If pipe R1 is wide and pipe R2 is narrow, most of the
pressure will be retained. But if it’s the reverse, the
pressure level will be only a tiny fraction. And if R1 and
R2 are identical, the pressure will be exactly half of
what we send in.

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POTENTIOMETERS
Potentiometers can be used as variable resistors that you control by turning a knob.
But, and that’s the handy part, they can also be set up as variable voltage dividers.
To see how that works, let’s imagine we open one up.
Inside, we would nd two things: a round track of
resistive material with connectors on both ends plus
what’s called a wiper. This wiper makes contact with the
track and also has a connector. It can be moved to any
position on the track. Now, the resistance value
between the two track connectors is always going to
stay exactly the same. That’s why it’s used to identify a
potentiometer: as a 10k, 20k, 100k etc. But if you look
at the resistance between either of those connectors
and the wiper connector, you’ll nd that this is
completely dependent on the wiper’s position.
The logic here is really simple: the closer the wiper is
to a track connector, the lower the resistance is
going to be between the two. So if the wiper is dead
in the middle, you’ll have 50 % of the total resistance
between each track connector and the wiper.
From here, you can move it in either direction and thereby shift the ratio between the two
resistances to be whatever you want it to be. By now, you might be able to see how that
relates to our voltage divider. If we send our input signal to connector 1 while grounding
connector 3, we can pick up our output signal from the wiper. Then by turning the
potentiometer’s knob, we can adjust the voltage level from 0 to the input voltage – and
anything in between.
In these kits, you will encounter di erent types of
potentiometers. First, there’s the regular, full-size variant
with a long shaft on top. These are used to implement
user-facing controls on the module’s panel and they
usually – but not always – indicate their value directly on
their casing. Sometimes, they’ll use a similar encoding
strategy as capacitors, though.25
Second, we’ve got the trimmer potentiometer, which is
usually much smaller and doesn’t sport a shaft on top.
Instead, these have a small screw head which is
supposed to be used for one-time set-and-forget
calibrations. Trimmers usually encode their value.

25 Look up potentiometer value code for a detailed breakdown.

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AC COUPLING
What is AC coupling – and how does it work? Imagine two adjacent pipes with a balloon
between them. Now, no water can get from one pipe into the other, since it’s blocked by
the balloon. But, and that’s the kicker, water from one side can still push into the other
by bending and stretching the balloon, causing a ow by displacement.

Next, we’ll bring in a resistor after the coupling point, going straight to ground. This acts
like a kind of equalizing valve. Now imagine we apply a steady 5 V from one side. Then
on the other side, we’ll read 0 V after a short amount of time. Why? Because we’re
pushing water into the balloon with a constant force, causing it to stretch into the other
side, displacing some water. If we didn’t have the equalizing valve there, we’d simply raise
the pressure. But since we do have it, the excess water can drain out of the system. Until
the pressure is neutralized, and no water is actively owing anymore.
Okay, so now imagine that the voltage on the left hand side starts oscillating, let’s say
between 4 V and 6 V. When we start to go below 5 V, the balloon will begin contracting,
basically pulling the water to the left. This will create a negative voltage level in the right
hand pipe – like as if you’re sucking on a straw, making the voltage there drop below 0 V.
Then, once the pressure on the other side rises above 5 V, the balloon will in ate and
stretch out again, pushing water to the right. And the pressure in the right hand pipe will
go positive, making the voltage rise above 0 V. We’ve re-centered our oscillation
around the 0 V line. Okay, but what about the resistor? If current can escape through it,
doesn’t that mess with our oscillation? Well, technically yes, but practically, we’re
choosing a narrow enough pipe to make the e ect on quick pressure changes negligible!

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 OP AMPS
Op amps might seem intimidating at rst, but they’re actually quite easy to understand
and use. The basic concept is this: every op amp has two inputs and one output. Think of
those inputs like voltage sensors. You can attach them to any point in your circuit and
they will detect the voltage there without interfering. No current ows into the op amps
inputs – that’s why we say their input impedance is very high. Near in nite, actually.
Okay, but why are there two of them?
The key here is that op amps are essentially di erential
ampli ers. This means that they only amplify the
di erence between their two inputs – not each of them
individually. If that sounds confusing, let’s check out a
quick example. So we’ll imagine that one sensor –
called the non-inverting input – is reading 8 V from
somewhere. The other sensor – called the inverting
input – reads 5 V. Then, as a rst step, the op amp will
subtract the inverting input’s value from the non-
inverting input’s value. Leaving us with a result of 3.
(Because 8 minus 5 is 3.) This result then gets
multiplied by a very large number – called the op
amp’s gain. Finally, the op amp will try to push out a
voltage that corresponds to that multiplication’s result.
But of course, the op amp is limited here by the voltages that we supply it with. If we give
it –12 V as a minimum and +12 V as a maximum, the highest it can go will be +12 V. So in
our example, even though the result of that multiplication would be huge, the op amp will
simply push out 12 V here and call it a day.
The handy thing though about op amp outputs is that they draw their power directly from
the power source. This means that they can supply lots of current while keeping the
voltage stable. That’s why we say an op amp has a very low output impedance.

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 OP AMP BUFFERS/AMPLIFIERS
Bu ering, in the world of electronics, means that we provide a perfect copy of a voltage
without interfering with that voltage in the process. With an op amp-based bu er, the
bu ering process itself works like this. We use the non-inverting input to probe a voltage,
while the inverting input connects straight to the op amp’s output. This creates what we
call a negative feedback loop. Think of it this way. We apply a speci c voltage level to
the non-inverting input – let’s say 5 V.
Before the op amp starts processing the voltages at its
inputs, the output will be switched o . This means that
output and inverting input sit at 0 V at rst. So then,
the op amp will subtract 0 from 5 and multiply the result
by its gain. Finally, it will try and increase its output
voltage to match the calculation’s outcome.
But as it’s pushing up that output voltage, the voltage
at the inverting input will be raised simultaneously.
So the di erence between the two inputs is shrinking
down. Initially, this doesn’t matter much because the
gain is so large. As the voltage at the inverting input
gets closer to 5 V though, the di erence will shrink so
much that in relation, the gain suddenly isn’t so large
anymore.
Then, the output will stabilize at a voltage level that is
a tiny bit below 5 V, so that the di erence between the
two inputs multiplied by the huge gain gives us exactly
that voltage slightly below 5 V. And this process simply
loops forever, keeping everything stable through
negative feedback. Now if the voltage at the non-
inverting input changes, that feedback loop would
ensure that the output voltage is always following. So
that’s why this con guration works as a bu er: the
output is simply following the input.
How about amplifying a signal though? To do that, we’ll
have to turn our bu er into a proper non-inverting
ampli er. We can do that by replacing the straight
connection between inverting input and output with a
voltage divider, forcing the op amp to work harder.
Here’s how that works. Say we feed our non-inverting
input a voltage of 5 V. Now, the output needs to push
out 10 V in order to get the voltage at the inverting
input up to 5 V. We call this setup a non-inverting

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 ampli er because the output signal is in phase with the
input.
For an inverting bu er/ampli er, the input signal is no
longer applied to the non-inverting input. Instead, that
input is tied directly to ground. So it’ll just sit at 0 V the
entire time. The real action, then, is happening at the
inverting input. Here, we rst send in our waveform
through a resistor. Then, the inverting input is connected
to the op amp’s output through another resistor of the
same value.
How does this work? Well, let’s assume that we’re applying a steady voltage of 5 V on the
left. Then, as we already know, the op amp will subtract the inverting input’s voltage from
the non-inverting input’s voltage, leaving us with a result of –5 V. Multiply that by the huge
internal gain, and the op amp will try to massively decrease the voltage at its output.
But as it’s doing that, an increasingly larger current will ow through both resistors and
into the output. Now, as long as the pushing voltage on the left is stronger than the pulling
voltage on the right, some potential (e.g. a non-zero voltage) will remain at the inverting
input. Once the output reaches about –5 V though, we’ll enter a state of balance. Since
both resistors are of the same value, the pushing force on the left is ghting the exact
same resistance as the pulling force on the right. So all of the current being pushed
through one resistor is instantly being pulled through the other.
And that means that the voltage at the inverting input will be lowered to about 0 V,
allowing our op-amp to settle on the current output voltage level. So while we read 5 V on
the left, we’ll now read a stable –5 V at the op amp’s output. Congrats – we’ve built an
inverting bu er! If we want to turn it into a proper ampli er, we’ll simply have to
change the relation between the two resistances. By doing this, we can either increase
(if you increase the right-hand resistor’s value) or reduce (if you increase the left-hand
resistor’s value) the gain to our heart’s content.

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 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
Bipolar junction transistors (or BJTs for short) come in two avors: NPN and PNP. This
refers to how the device is built internally and how it’ll behave in a circuit. Apart from that,
they look pretty much identical: a small black half-cylinder with three legs.
Let’s take a look at the more commonly used NPN
variant rst. Here’s how we distinguish between its three
legs. There’s a collector, a base and an emitter.26 All
three serve a speci c purpose, and the basic idea is
that you control the current ow between collector and
emitter by applying a small voltage27 to the base. The
relation is simple: more base voltage equals more
collector current. Drop it down to 0 V and the
transistor will be completely closed o . Sounds simple –
but there are four important quirks to this.

First, the relation between base voltage and collector current is exponential. Second,
unlike a resistor, a BJT is not symmetrical – so we can’t really reverse the direction of the

26Please note that the pinout shown here only applies for the BC series of transistors. Others, like
the 2N series, allocate their pins di erently.
27The voltage is measured between base and emitter. So „a small voltage“ e ectively means a
small voltage di erence between base and emitter!

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 collector current. (At least not without some unwanted side e ects.) Third, also unlike a
resistor, a BJT is not a linear device. Meaning that a change in collector voltage will not
a ect the collector current. And fourth, the collector current is a ected by the transistor’s
temperature! The more it heats up, the more current will ow.
Now, for the PNP transistor, all of the above applies, too – except for two little details.
Unlike with the NPN, the PNP transistor decreases its collector current when the
voltage at its base increases28. So you have to bring the base voltage below the emitter
to open the transistor up. Also, that collector current ows out of, not into the collector!

28 Again, the voltage is measured between base and emitter.

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TOOLS APPENDIX
There are two types of tools that will help you tremendously while designing a circuit:
multimeters and oscilloscopes. In this appendix, we’ll take a quick look at each of these
and explore how to use them.

MULTIMETERS
Multimeters come in di erent shapes and sizes, but the
most common type is probably the hand-held, battery
powered variant. It can measure a bunch of di erent
things: voltage, current, resistance, continuity. Some
have additional capabilities, allowing you to check
capacitance, oscillation frequency or the forward
voltage drop of a diode.
When shopping for one, you’ll probably notice that there
are really expensive models boasting about being TRUE
RMS multimeters. For our purposes, this is really kind of
irrelevant, so don’t feel bad about going for a cheap
model!
Using a multimeter is actually really straightforward. Simply attach two probes to your
device – the one with a black cable traditionally plugs into the middle, while the red one
goes into the right connector. Next, nd whatever you want to measure and select the
corresponding mode setting.
In some cases, it doesn’t matter which probe you
connect to which component leg or point in your circuit.
This is true for testing resistors, non-polarized
capacitors (foil/ lm, ceramic, te on, glass etc.),
continuity29 or AC voltage.
In others, you’ll have to be careful about which probe
you connect where. For testing the forward voltage drop
of a diode, for example, the multimeter tries to push a
current from the red to the black probe. Here, you’ll
have to make sure the diode is oriented correctly, so
that it doesn’t block that current from owing. For
testing a DC voltage, you want to make sure the black
probe is connected to ground, while you use the red
one to actually take your measurement.

29 Just a fancy word for saying that two points are electrically connected.

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 OSCILLOSCOPES
While multimeters are fairly cheap and compact,
oscilloscopes are usually somewhat pricey and bulky. If
you’re willing to make the investment, they are a
huge help with the troubleshooting process, though.
Using one is, again, surprisingly straightforward – if you
manage to work your way through the sometimes quite
convoluted UI, especially on digital models.
To start using your scope, simply attach a probe to one
of the channel inputs. These probes usually have two
connectors on the other end: a big one that you operate
by pulling the top part back – and a smaller one, which
is usually a standard alligator clip. The latter needs to be
connected to your circuit’s ground rail, while you probe
your oscillation with the former. Now what the
oscilloscope will do is monitor the voltage between
the two connectors over time and draw it onto the
screen as a graph. Here, the x-axis is showing time,
while the y-axis is showing voltage. You can use the
device’s scaling controls to zoom in on a speci c part of
your waveform.
Usually, digital oscilloscopes will also tell you a couple useful things about the signal
you’re currently viewing: minimum/maximum voltage level, oscillation frequency, signal
o set. Some even o er a spectrum analyzer, which can be useful to check the
frequencies contained in your signal.

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BUILD GUIDE

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MODULE ASSEMBLY APPENDIX
Before we start building, let’s take a look at the complete mki x es.edu Sequencer sche-
matics (see next page) that were used for the final module’s design and PCB fabrication.
Most components on the production schematics have denominations (a name – like R1, C1,
VT1, VD1, etc.) and values next to them. Denominations help identify each component on
the PCB, which is particularly useful during calibration, modification or troubleshooting.

XS1 is the Clock input jack socket, XS2 is the Clock output jack socket; it basically dupli-
cates clock input, so you can use it to synchronize other modules to the clock of the
Sequencer. XS3 is the Reset input jack socket, XS4 is the Gate output jack socket and
XS5 is the CV output jack socket. In our designs, we use eurorack standard 3,5mm jack
sockets (part number WQP-PJ301M-12).

XP1 is a standard eurorack power connector. It’s a 2x5 male pin header with a key (the
black plastic shroud around the pins) to prevent accidental reverse polarity power supply
connection. This is necessary because connecting the power incorrectly will permanently
damage the module.

VD18 and VD19 are schottky diodes that double-secure the reverse polarity power supply
protection. Diodes pass current only in one direction. Because the anode of VD18 is con-
nected to +12 V on our power header, it’ll only conduct if the connector is plugged in cor-
rectly. If a negative voltage is accidentally applied to the anode of VD18, it closes, and no
current passes through. The same goes for VD19, which is connected to -12 V. Because
schottky diodes have a low forward voltage drop, they are the most efficient choice for
applications like this.

Next, we have two 10 Ohm resistors (R12 and R13) on the + and – 12 V rails, with decou-
pling (or bypass-) capacitors C3 – C6. These capacitors serve as energy reservoirs that
keep the module’s internal supply voltages stable in case there are any fluctuations in the
power supply of the entire modular system. In combination with R12 and R13, the large 47
microfarad pair (C3 and C4) compensates for low frequency fluctuations, while C5 and C6
filter out radio frequencies, high frequency spikes from switching power supplies and
quick spikes created by other modules. Often another component – a ferrite bead – is
used instead of a 10 Ohm resistor and there’s no clear consensus among electronic
designers which works best, but generally for analogue modules that work mostly in the
audio frequency range (as opposed to digital ones that use microcontrollers running at 8
MHz frequencies and above), resistors are considered to be superior.

Another advantage of 10 Ohm resistors is that they will act like slow “fuses” in case
there’s an accidental short circuit somewhere on the PCB, or an integrated circuit (IC) is
inserted backwards into a DIP socket. The resistor will get hot, begin smoking and finally
break the connection. Even though they aren't really fuses, just having them there as fuse
substitutes is pretty useful - you’d rather lose a cent on a destroyed resistor than a few
euros on destroyed ICs.

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Capacitors C8 and C9 are additional decoupling capacitors. If you inspect the PCB, you’ll
see that these are placed as close to the power supply pins of the ICs as possible. For
well-designed, larger PCBs you will find decoupling capacitors next to each IC. Like the
others, their job is to simply compensate for any unwanted noise in the supply rails. If the
input voltage drops, then these capacitors will be able to bridge the gap to keep the voltage
at the IC stable. And vice-versa - if the voltage increases, then they’ll be able to absorb the
excess energy trying to flow through to the IC, which again keeps the voltage stable. Typi-
cally, 0.1 uF capacitors are used for this purpose.

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Before you start soldering, we highly recommend printing out the following part place-
ment diagrams with designators and values. Because some of our PCBs are rather densely
populated, this will help you to avoid mistakes in the build process.

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Place the Sequencer PCB in a PCB
holder for soldering or simply on top of
some spacers (I use two empty solder wire
coils here).

I usually start populating PCBs with lower,

horizontally placed components. In this case,
these are switching diodes, 10 ohm resi-
tors and the power protection diodes.
Bend the resistor leads and insert them in the
relevant places according to the part place-
ment diagram above. All components on the
PCB have both their value and denomination
printed onto the silkscreen. If you are not sure
about a resistor’s value, use a multimeter to
double-check. Next, insert the diodes.
Remember – when inserting the diodes,
orientation is critical! A thick white stripe
on the PCB indicates the cathode of a diode
– match it with the stripe on the component.
Flip the PCB over and solder all components.
Then, use pliers to cut off the excess leads.

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 Next, insert the first DIP socket, hold it in
place and solder one of the pins. Continue
with the next DIP socket. Make sure the DIP
sockets are oriented correctly – the notch
on the socket should match the notch on the
PCB’s silkscreen. Now, turn the PCB around
and solder all remaining pins of the DIP sock-
ets. Then proceed with the ceramic
capacitors. Place the PCB in your PCB
holder or on spacers, insert the capacitors
and solder them like you did with the resis-
tors & diodes before. Now your PCB should
look like this:

In order to save space on the PCB, some of our projects, including the Sequencer, have
vertically placed resistors. The next step is to place & solder those. Bend a resistor’s legs so
that its body is aligned with both legs and insert it in its designated spot. Then solder the longer
lead from the top side of the PCB to secure it in place, turn the PCB around and solder the
other lead from the bottom. You can insert several resistors at once. Once done with soldering,
use pliers to cut off excess leads.

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Once you are done with soldering all resis-
tors, your PCB should look like this:

Next up: inserting & soldering transistors.

Make sure you align the transistor with the
marked outline on the silkscreen – orienta-
tion is critically important here.

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Now, insert film capacitors and solder them.
Then, insert & solder the electrolytic capaci-
tors. Electrolytic capacitors are bipolar, and
you need to mind their orientation. The posi-
tive lead of each electrolytic capacitor is
longer, and there is a minus stripe on the side
of the capacitor’s body to indicate the
negative lead. On our PCBs, the positive
pad for the capacitor has a square shape,
and the negative lead should go into the pad
next to the notch on the silkscreen.

Now, your PCB should look like this.

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Then complete the component side of the
Envelope PCB by soldering the PSU socket
and trimmer potentiometers. Make sure
the orientation of the socket is as shown in
the picture below – the arrow pointing to the
first pin is aligned with a notch on the
silkscreen. The key on the socket will be
facing down. Now your PCB should look
like this:

Now, turn the PCB around and inspect your

solder joints. Make sure all components are
soldered properly and there are no cold
solder joints or accidental shorts. Clean
the PCB to remove extra flux, if necessary.

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Insert the jack sockets and solder them.

Insert the potentiometers (make sure, you

have right values! The RATE potentiometer is
250 kOhm, step potentiometers are 100
kOhm), but don’t solder them yet! Fit the
front panel (you may want to fix it with few
nuts on the jack sockets) and make sure that
the potentiometer shafts are aligned with the
holes in the panel – and that they’re able to
rotate freely. Now, go ahead and solder the
potentiometers.

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The switches require special attention. There
are two nuts for the switch (they look identical
to the jack socket nuts, but the thread is
different). Screw on one of the nuts until it
fixes itself on the bottom of the thread.

Now, insert the switches in the relevant

places on the PCB, place the front panel, fix it
with few nuts on the jack sockets and solder
the switches.

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Insert the LEDs in the relevant places on the
PCB, but do not solder them, yet! Orientation
of the LED is important – check the
silkscreen! A notch on the silkscreen indi-
cates the cathode of the LED (a shorter lead
next to a notch on the LED) and the longer
lead – the anode of the LED – has to go into
a hole with square-like polygon on the PCB.

Fit the front panel again and fix it with some

nuts on jack sockets and one nut on the
switch. Now, solder the LEDs. We are almost
done!

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 Now, insert the ICs into their respective
DIP sockets. Mind the orientation of the ICs
– match the notch on each IC with the one on
its socket.

Congratulations! You have completed the assembly of the mki x es.edu Sequencer
module! Connect it to your eurorack power supply and switch it on. If there’s no "magic
smoke”, it’s a good sign that your build was successful. The step LEDs have to light on
sequentially; the speed has to change depending on RATE potentiometer setting.
Check if the STEP COUNT switch changes the length of the sequence. If all above
works, proceed with calibration as described in the build manual above. Adjust the
trimpots R35 and R37 in order to achieve desired voltage on the CV output. We already
have several modules that can be controlled by the Sequencer. It’s time to patch them up
and enjoy some musical results!

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SOLDERING APPENDIX
If you’ve never soldered before – or if your skills have become rusty – it’s probably wise
to check out some THT (through-hole technology) soldering tutorials on YouTube.
The main thing you have to remember while soldering is that melted solder will flow
towards higher temperature areas. So you need to make sure you apply equal heat to
the component you are soldering and the solder pad on the PCB. The pad will typically
absorb more heat (especially ground-connected pads which have more thermal mass),
so keep your soldering iron closer to the pad on the PCB. It’s critically important to dial
in the right temperature on your soldering station. I found that about 320 °C is the opti-
mal temperature for most of parts, while for larger elements like potentiometers and
sockets, you may want to increase that temperature to 370 °C.

Here’s the recommended soldering sequence:

1 2 3 4

Heat part and Add Continue Let cool

pad 2 - 3 sec solder heating 1 -2 sec.

After you have completed soldering, inspect the solder joint:

Perfect Too much Not enough Cold Too much Short

solder solder joint heat

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DIY electronics is a great (and quite addictive) hobby, therefore we highly recommend you
invest in good tools. In order to really enjoy soldering, you’ll need:

A decent soldering station. Top-of-the-line

soldering stations (brands like Weller) will cost
200€ and above, but cheaper alternatives
around 50€ are often good enough. Make
sure your soldering station of choice comes
with multiple differently-sized soldering iron
tips. The most useful ones for DIY electronics
are flat, 2mm wide tips.

When heated up, the tips of soldering irons

tend to oxidize. As a result, solder won’t
stick to them, so you’ll need to clean your
tip frequently. Most soldering stations
come with a damp sponge for cleaning the
iron tips – but there are also professional
solder tip cleaners with golden curls (not
really gold, so not as expensive as it
sounds). These work much better because
they do not cool down the iron.

Solder wire with flux. I find 0,7mm solder

wire works best for DIY projects.

Some soldering flux paste or pen will be

useful as well.

Cutting pliers. Use them to cut off excess

component leads after soldering.

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 A solder suction pump. No matter how
refined your soldering skills are, you will
make mistakes. So when you’ll inevitably
need to de-solder components, you will
also need to remove any remaining solder
from the solder pads in order to insert new
components.

Once you have finished soldering your

PCB, it’s recommended to remove
excess flux from the solder joints. A PCB
cleaner is the best way to go.

All of these tools can be found on major electronic components retailer websites, like
Mouser, Farnell and at your local electronics shops. As you work your way towards
more and more advanced projects, you’ll need to expand your skillset and your tool belt
– but the gratification will be much greater.

“Satisfaction of one's curiosity is one of the greatest sources of happiness in life.”

– Linus Pauling

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