CIGRE SC A2 & C4 JOINT COLLOQUIUM 2013

Zurich, Switzerland

http://www.cigre2013zurich.org/ CIGRE A2 & C4

ETH Zurich 2013
PS1: Interaction between Transformer and the Power System

An Overview of Transformer Energization Studies

Z. EMIN M. MARTINEZ DURO M. VAL ESCUDERO

Parsons Brinckerhoff EdF Eirgrid
United Kingdom France Ireland

Paper is presented on behalf of CIGRE WG C4.307

SUMMARY

This paper provides a generic overview of the forthcoming Technical Brochure entitled “Transformer
Energization in Power Systems: A Study Guide” formulated by CIGRE WG C4.307. It is aimed at
providing the readers with a glimpse into the actual brochure and, if possible, eliciting
suggestions/recommendations from the interested parties. The structure of the paper follows that of the
brochure, starting with the description of inrush currents in transformer energization and the various
scenarios where they may be observed. It then goes on to suggest tools and methodologies for
practising engineers to study and analyse voltage-related problems (RMS voltage drop and temporary
overvoltages) created by the inrush currents during transformer energization. Most of the theoretical
treatment was deliberately omitted from the paper in order to provide a full overview of the
transformer energization phenomenon.

KEYWORDS

Transformer energization, inrush current, saturation, temporary overvoltages, resonant harmonic

voltages, voltage dips.

[email protected]
1 INTRODUCTION

In electric power networks, the energization of transformers, even on a daily basis, is a commonplace
operational action and it is generally performed without any adverse consequence. However, as is the
case with all operations involving switching, such actions generate currents and voltages that are
transient in their nature. In the vast majority of cases, the transient currents and voltages generated by
such actions are damped within the power network. However, in certain situations, the transient
currents and voltages generated during the energization can lead to power quality issues in the supply
system and, in severe cases, to transformer insulation degradation and/or damage. Typical examples
related to the reduction of power quality due to transformer energization can be grouped under RMS-
voltage drop caused by high transient currents, temporary overvoltages (TOV) generated when a
parallel resonance within the supply network is excited by energization currents, slow-front
overvoltages and the maloperation of relays causing protection tripping where the inrush current is
interpreted as fault current.

In severe cases, transformer insulation damage(s) may occur if either a slow-front overvoltage or a
temporary overvoltage is generated during the energization. The occurrence of slow-front overvoltages
depends on the capacitive and inductive characteristics of both the transformer and the neighbouring
supply network it is connected to. The occurrence of temporary overvoltages depends on the existence
of low-frequency parallel resonances in the supply network, which may be excited by the transformer
inrush current with its rich harmonic content. The latter may be of particular interest during network
restoration following a system-wide blackout. This is mainly because during such times the network
tends to be weak, i.e. relatively low short-circuit level and hence higher system inductance with the
possibility of resonance at a much lower frequency.

Issues associated with transformer energization are not new in transmission and/or distribution
networks but nowadays are becoming more relevant because of the changes that are shaping power
networks. Liberalisation of electricity markets has led to an increased number of participants with
frequent changes in the network topology, and thus the possibility of an increased number of switching
operations. The expected increase in the penetration of offshore renewable energy will increase the
utilisation of cable circuits while integrating them onto onshore grids as well as their own internal
array networks. Considering that the per unit length capacitance of a cable circuit is much higher than
that of an overhead line, this will normally bring system resonance frequencies to the lower end of the
frequency spectrum. The result is an increase of the risk of temporary overvoltages due to the
possibility of exciting these parallel resonances. Furthermore, offshore renewable energy systems
where each wind generation turbine includes a transformer, when energized, may generate complex
sympathetic interactions. Wind turbine generator transformers have a relatively small power rating
(several MVA and dependent on wind turbine generator rating), but higher relative inrush currents.
Therefore, power systems engineers, either at the planning or operational stage, need to be aware of
potential problems that may arise due to transformer energization and, if necessary, study their
probability of occurrence, likely effects, and possibly evaluate various mitigation techniques that may
be required in order to alleviate identified issues.

Furthermore, in the existing aged networks, there are expectations that the operational life of
transformers could be extended, possibly implying the use of palliative solutions for the reduction of
the stresses such as those caused by the inrush currents.

2 INRUSH CURRENTS DUE TO TRANSFORMER ENERGIZATION

The transformer core may become saturated due to an abrupt change in the voltage applied to it. This
may be caused by switching transients, out-of-phase synchronization of a generator, external faults
and faults-clearance. When saturated, a transformer absorbs a magnetization current, also known as
inrush current, which can reach several times the nominal current of the transformer. The energization
of a transformer normally results in the most severe case of inrush current as the flux in the core can
reach a maximum theoretical value of two to three times the rated flux peak [1]. The flux-

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linkage/current relation is nonlinear and is determined by the saturation curve of the transformer.
Transformer saturation is a highly nonlinear phenomenon and hence the inrush current contains
harmonics and DC components besides its fundamental component. It is important to note that the
peak values of some harmonics may decrease to zero and then increase again to a value higher than the
initial value at the instant of energization, implying that the maximum overvoltages may occur during
the decay of the inrush current and not immediately after energization. The inrush current transient is
characterized by asymmetrical current waveforms that are damped in some tens of cycles primarily by
the series resistances of the components in the circuit (transformer winding resistance, transmission
line and cable series resistance, generator winding resistance, etc). A qualitative and simplified
representation of the inrush current phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 1 for energization at voltage
zero crossing where the effect of residual flux is also shown.

Figure 1 Qualitative representation of the inrush current phenomenon.

The main factors that affect the magnitude of the inrush current can be summarised as transformer
design, initial conditions, and network factors. The design of a transformer can shift the steady-state
operating point on the saturation curve depending on the operation point around the knee of the
saturation curve. Initial conditions affecting the magnitude of inrush current are residual flux and the
point-on-wave (POW) energization as these affect the DC offset of the flux-linkage and the saturation
of the transformer. The residual flux is the flux that remains trapped in the core due to a previous de-
energization of the transformer and defines the initial DC offset of the flux in the core. The worst
inrush current is obtained with maximum residual flux and energization at voltage zero crossing,
assuming that both flux contributions have the same sign. As for network factors, a high network
impedance acts as a limiting factor for inrush current, effectively minimising the voltage drop at the
transformer terminal which in turn limits the saturation of the transformer.

Sympathetic interaction in transformers first reported in 1941 [2] can occur when a transformer is
energized onto a system with long transmission lines in the presence of other electrically close and
energized transformers. The duration and magnitude of the transient magnetizing currents in the
transformers involved in sympathetic interaction differs significantly. This occurs because the
transformers already in service saturate due to the asymmetrical voltage waveforms on the system
busbar as a result of the asymmetrical voltage drop across the series resistance of the system caused by
the inrush current.

Another aspect of transformer energization is the so-called “pseudo-inrush” phenomenon that can
occur during the recovery process following a voltage sag event, such as after the clearance of a fault.

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3 TRANSIENT VOLTAGES

The Technical Brochure deals with two kinds of voltage issues associated with transformer
energization: a drop in RMS voltage, and overvoltages due to parallel network resonances (slow-front
overvoltages are not covered).

3.1 RMS Voltage Drop

A transformer may be switched on and off for various reasons. While network transformers are seldom
switched, generator transformers may be switched more frequently depending on dispatch
requirements. The energization or re-energization of transformers in this manner may result in the
transformer drawing a relatively large initial inrush current which decays over time to a much smaller
steady-state magnetizing current. The transient magnetizing current that occurs during transformer
energization is supplied from the system sources and through the network impedance to the
transformer being energized. Consequently, there is a voltage drop across the network impedance and
a drop in the line voltages where the effect increases in the direction towards the transformer. These
short-duration abrupt voltage drops are commonly referred to as voltage dips or sags. Typically, a
voltage sag or dip is a decrease in system voltage to between 0.1 p.u. and 0.9 p.u. at power frequency,
lasting from one-half cycle to one minute. Some high power electronic devices, such as adjustable
speed drives, programmable logic-based process controls in the mining and pulp and paper industry,
and semiconductor manufacturing plants are known to be sensitive to voltage variations. The time
required for the inrush current to decay and hence the voltage to recover depends on losses in the
circuit, the transformer leakage and magnetizing impedances, and the proximity to other significant
energized transformers [3].

It is important to recognize that, for a power system that is operated prudently, voltage sag caused by
transformer energization does not fall into the category of voltage fluctuation and should not be
characterized by the flicker curve. Flicker is the impression of fluctuating luminance occurring when
the supply to an electrically powered lighting source is subjected to voltage fluctuation [4]. The flicker
curve is applicable to a frequency of voltage change events ranging from a few events per hour to 20
or more per second. Furthermore, transformer energization is most of the time a planned operational
event for which the associated voltage sags must be limited to the withstand level of voltage-sensitive
industrial loads. Unfortunately, there is a lack of standards which quantify voltage sag withstand
capability for high-voltage industrial loads. Utilities normally restrict the voltage sag in the network
caused by the operation of their customers and, in the absence of recognized standards, usually apply
their own internal procedures.

3.2 Resonant Overvoltages

In the second category, the inrush currents interact with the power system and can result in long-
duration resonant temporary overvoltages (TOV). Higher inductances (relatively weak systems) and
higher capacitances (long lines and cables) yield lower resonant frequencies and therefore a higher
chance of TOV, whose duration may last several seconds [5]. This is especially the case during the
initial stages of system restoration following a system-wide blackout, when the transmission system is
generally weak with a relatively high system inductance. This tends to result in the first system
resonant frequency being much lower than during normal operation. A typical simulated TOV from
one of the examples given in the Technical Brochure is given in Figure 2. The figure shows a 1.55 p.u.
TOV in one phase within 7 cycles of energization for a 116MVA transformer with residual flux, and
the overvoltage appears to be sustained throughout the remaining 800 ms of the simulation.

Harmonic resonance overvoltages may also develop when transformers are switched in high-voltage
cable systems and HVDC stations [6]. Unlike overhead-line systems, cable systems generally produce
resonance points at relatively low frequencies due to the high capacitance. If these resonance points
happen to coincide with one of the harmonics produced during transformer energization, TOVs will
build up. Likewise, the AC filter circuits connected at the HVDC stations produce several parallel

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resonance points in the impedance-frequency characteristic of the system [7] and, when excited, high
saturation overvoltages may be observed,No
especially if the system
Other Transformers has a low degree of damping.
are Connected
5.00E+02
Va
Vb 364 kVp (1.55 pu) T.O.V.
4.00E+02 Vc

3.00E+02
287 kV Energizing Bus Ph.-Gnd Voltages (kV)

2.00E+02

Distortion Voltages:
1.00E+02 53% 2nd Harmonic
29% 3rd Harmonic
20% 4th Harmonic
0.00E+00

-1.00E+02

-2.00E+02

-3.00E+02

-4.00E+02

-5.00E+02
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (s)

Figure 2 Phase-to-Ground TOV at an Energizing Bus

4 MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF TRANSFORMER ENERGIZATION

4.1 Rationale for Modelling and Simulations

Transformer energization simulation studies are usually performed in order to acquire as much
information as possible for potential sets of initial conditions, system running arrangements as well as
system contingencies. This is done either at the network planning stage when it is not possible to
perform field tests or at operational timescales when it may not be possible to perform measurements
for various running arrangements and system contingencies. They are equally applicable when choices
about several mitigation measures are available for implementation so that the best and most cost-
effective solution can be identified.

Although there is no need to study every possible transformer energization configuration, in general,
two cases need to be considered: RMS-voltage drop and resonant overvoltages. For the RMS-voltage
drop, a rough estimate of the dip can be computed from the short-circuit impedance of the supply
system and the inrush current. The latter can be calculated analytically and an example is provided in
the final Technical Brochure. The higher the short-circuit impedance and the higher the rated power of
the transformer (for a given rated voltage), the higher the RMS-voltage drop. The prediction of
temporary resonant overvoltages is more complex as it depends on the frequency response of the
feeding network. It must be noted that there is no direct link between the frequency response of the
feeding network and its short-circuit power level, implying that knowledge of the short-circuit power
of the feeding network is not enough to assess the risk of TOV when energizing a power transformer.

During modelling for transformer energization simulation studies, the general guidelines
recommended for the analysis of low-frequency or slow-front transients [8, 9, 10] can be used for
representing system components as the frequency of interest ranges from DC up to 1kHz.

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4.2 Study Zone
It is a common practice to create a study zone where the system must be modelled in detail. Besides
the target transformer and the circuit-breaker energizing it, the study zone should normally include the
equipment in the same or neighbouring substations that may interact with the inrush harmonic currents
and associated voltages. For the system outside the study zone, a network equivalent capable of
reproducing the frequency response of the network in the range of the inrush current frequencies may
be used.

An alternative to the use of a frequency dependent network equivalent (FDNE) is to model the system
up to a sufficient boundary. In order to determine the minimum extent of this boundary, which
depends on the particular case being studied, the distance (both horizontally and vertically, i.e. at the
same voltage level and at different voltage levels) from the energized transformer should be increased
progressively up to a point where a further extension does not change the results in a significant
manner. Figure 3 illustrates the technique on the horizontal distance where representing the 400 kV
network up to three nodes away from the target transformer is sufficient to represent the resonance
points approximately. As a general principle, the model should be extended in priority to the electrical
nodes containing components with higher capacitances as these will affect the frequency response the
most.

Figure 3 Frequency response as a function of the horizontal distance (same voltage level)

4.3 Transformers
The transformer being energized has to be represented in sufficient detail so that it generates the inrush
currents that are the primary source of harmonic current injections in the system. An exact
representation of transformers is more complex than any other network component required for
energization studies. In transformer energization and resonance studies, the leakage impedance,
winding resistance, nonlinear saturation and core losses, air-core inductance, magnetic phase coupling,
residual flux and zero sequence impedance of the transformer need to be represented as a minimum [8,
9, 10].

The transformer core has an intrinsic nonlinear behaviour due to the saturation of the ferromagnetic
material. This nonlinear characteristic is the prime source of harmonic current injection and needs to
be modelled accurately. The most critical parameters are the final slope of the saturation curve (air-
core inductance) and the value of the saturation flux. The location of the core representation in the
transformer model topology is also important. The residual flux value is a fundamental parameter
during the re-energization of a transformer since it affects the first peak of the inrush current. The
possible approaches to modelling the various aspects of transformers are given in detail in the
Technical Brochure. In addition, an example of how to calculate the saturation curve of a transformer
from a no-load test report is provided in the annexes of the Technical Brochure.

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All electromagnetic transient analysis software packages include some form of transformer
representation to be used in simulations. The two most frequently used models are based on an
extension of the Steinmetz model to multi-phase transformers, and the use of either a branch
impedance or admittance matrix. Both types of models present significant limitations for simulating
some core designs. An extensive explanation of both models is provided in the Technical Brochure.

4.4 Overhead Lines and Cables

Care and diligence is advised when modelling other components within the study zone as these are
likely to affect the outcome of the studies. For overhead lines, the line asymmetry and coupling to
other circuits, and the frequency dependency of the ground mode, are of importance. The former is
critical in identifying the resonance frequencies and impedances for each phase whereas the latter
affects the damping of the harmonic overvoltage components. Hence, if no harmonic overvoltage is
expected, frequency dependency may be neglected. The final Technical Brochure covers in great
detail the practical approaches to overhead line modelling.

The main concern in the presence of long HVAC cable circuits or large concentration of short HVAC
cables is normally harmonic resonance excited by inrush currents, and hence the frequency of interest
is normally restricted to the lower end of the harmonic spectrum. The frequency dependency in cables
is more pronounced than in overhead lines mainly because of their highly nonlinear nature. For
transient studies, a distributed parameter model is recommended unless the cable is very short in
length. It is also desirable to have a model that is capable of reproducing the frequency dependency
behaviour of the cable.

4.5 Generators
For generator modelling a distinction is made between synchronous and asynchronous machines. Both
IEC TR 60071-4 [9] and CIGRE TB 39 [8] recommend the generalized Park’s model for low-
frequency transients based on the complete equations in the direct and quadrature axes. However, in
transformer energization studies the speed control may be neglected as there is no significant active
power variation. As for the voltage control the modelling must be aware of the behaviour of the
regulator in the presence of the voltage harmonics. In cases where TOV is a concern, automatic
voltage regulator (AVR) should be included in the overall generator model as it could be responding to
an RMS voltage dip. In the case of asynchronous generation such as wind turbines, behaviour of the
wind turbine generators during a voltage change is complex and is mainly determined by the
electronic converter controls designed to comply with the Fault Ride Through (FRT) requirements of
Distribution and Grid Codes that may differ from country to country. Hence it is preferable to ask for a
detailed model from the manufacturer applicable to the case under investigation.

4.6 Loads
Loads in the power system can have a significant effect on the response of the network to transformer
energization as they provide important damping of transient overvoltages. It is important to recognise
that large customer loads with synchronous motors that contribute to system fault levels may help to
mitigate voltage sag due to the flow of inrush current through the network. However, large induction
motors subjected to terminal voltage sag will absorb increasing reactive power due to their voltage
versus slip characteristic and hence may aggravate the voltage sag after a few cycles. Therefore, it is
particularly important to include, in the system model in detail, large loads that are located close to the
transformer to be energized. The Technical Brochure covers in greater detail the different types of
loads categorized as industrial, commercial and residential/distribution.

4.7 Circuit Breakers

A simple ideal switch can be used for representing the closing operation of a circuit breaker [8] for
low-frequency phenomena (below 5 kHz) but it is very important to represent mechanical pole spread.

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If a circuit breaker is equipped with a closing resistor it has to be simulated. Further information on
modelling the opening operation of circuit breaker can be found in the full Technical Brochure.

4.8 Shunt Reactors, Capacitors and Surge Arresters

Shunt reactors should be represented in a similar way to transformers. Shunt capacitor banks used for
power factor correction and harmonic filter banks should be explicitly modelled, as capacitors may
affect the lower frequency series and parallel resonances as seen from the busbar of the transformer
being energized.

It is common practice to include surge arresters in the modelling as they will absorb part of the energy
if the overvoltages are high enough. It should be emphasised that TOVs release a large amount of
energy compared to the surge arrester’s energy capability and therefore the principal concern with
them is whether or not they will sustain damage during the energization transient [11].

4.9 Parameter Uncertainty

It is important to realise that during modelling the value of a number of parameters is not precisely
known. The variation in many of these parameters within their uncertainty range does not affect the
results in a great way and hence these uncertainties can be neglected. However, for a small set of
parameters this may not be the case, i.e. for some parameters the results (in the form of currents and
voltages) are highly dependent on the particular parameter value within its uncertainty range. It then
becomes necessary to take this into account during the study. The resultant currents and voltages are
not deterministic but rather stochastic variables due to their dependency on uncertain parameters.
Therefore, the output of the simulation study is not a single figure but a probability distribution.
However, in most cases, the user is not interested in the whole distribution of the output but in the risk
of exceeding a particular threshold limit. In order to compute the probability distributions of the
stochastic variables (currents, voltages, stresses…) and the threshold-exceeding probability, it is
therefore necessary to perform a number of simulations to assess the effect of the uncertainties
associated with each input parameter. A full section is dedicated to the treatment of uncertainty when
performing transformer energization studies.

4.10 Quantification of Overvoltages

A further section is dedicated to the quantification of overvoltage stresses in transformers and surge
arresters in order to assess the potential damaging effects of these following their simulation. In IEC
terminology, resonant overvoltages belong to the class of temporary overvoltages (TOV) [12] and in
order to prevent any damage to the substation equipment, the amplitude and duration of the calculated
overvoltages must be compared to the TOV withstand capability of the most vulnerable equipment.
Hence, a distinction between phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase voltages is introduced and various
approaches and methods to asses these are covered in the Technical Brochure.

5 MITIGATION MEASURES

RMS voltage dips can be disruptive to power quality sensitive loads and the temporary overvoltages
can impose excessive stresses on equipment. Hence, various methods have been proposed or are
already in use to control or eliminate transformer inrush currents and prevent the above undesirable
effects, including harmonic resonant overvoltages.

The most widely referred but also the most complex mitigation technique involves the control of the
closing times of the energizing circuit breaker as opposed to random three-phase closing. Transformer
energization by segregated-pole breakers equipped with a special purpose point-on-wave (POW)
control can minimize the inrush currents and has been demonstrated to be very effective, particularly
in cases where voltage dip due to random closing can be high. The success of the POW technique
requires that the closing characteristics of the breaker be stable, repeatable, and have a relatively small
pole scatter. This is particularly important if the circuit breaker is going to operate several times a day

8
or hundreds of times a year. One particular example quotes a reduction of inrush current by a factor of
30, from 1500A to a value of 50A [13].

It must be noted that the commissioning of any practical and effective POW system for transformer
switching involves a number of tests, including some on-line uncontrolled or pseudo-random closings
in order to determine the parameters required for input to the controller. These tests include off-line
breaker timing test, energization (uncontrolled closing) test for sensor calibration, energization tests to
determine the Rate of Decrease of Dielectric Strength (RDDS) and optimal POW closing test.

Pre-insertion resistors installed in series with the main circuit breaker interrupters are another well
known method for the effective reduction of inrush current. They are relatively large and best
performance is achieved only by an optimal choice of the resistance value and the pre-insertion time.
However, the addition of switching devices equipped with pre-insertion resistors in series with the
energizing breaker is probably not practical because such devices are either unavailable or would have
to be specially ordered from manufacturers, possibly at a high cost. Circuit breakers equipped with
pre-insertion resistors are also no longer available for voltages lower than 500 kV since modern EHV
breakers are designed for use with POW closing.

Another method that is used for reducing the inrush current is the appropriate selection of an on-load
tap on the transformer to be energized which exceeds the power frequency voltage applied before
energizing. A higher number of excited turns produce a lower flux density in the core and hence less
inrush current.

Generator scheduled voltage can be lowered, leading to a proportional decrease in the pre-switching
steady-state voltages and consequently reducing the voltage on the system side of the open energizing
breaker. Minimizing the number of unloaded and energized lines and setting the sending-end
transformers at the lowest tap position will also assist in reducing system voltages. While effective
when voltage dip is only somewhat higher than acceptable limits, this method will probably not be
sufficient, by itself, to correct severe voltage dip problems or resonant overvoltages.

Energizing the transformer using disconnector switches instead of a circuit breaker is also a technique
that has been used by some utilities to reduce the inrush currents during transformer energization. The
disconnector switch contact has to be rated for this type of duty, to prevent the contact from becoming
welded. It should be noted that as disconnector switches are relatively slow devices, this technique
may result in pre-striking or flashover close to the voltage peak with the possibility of multiple
extinctions and re-striking producing high-frequency transients that will be imposed on the
transformer windings, stressing transformer insulation.

De-fluxing of the transformer core prior to energization and thereby reducing the magnitude of the
worst-case inrush currents is another technique. However, for most applications, this is neither
convenient nor practical. Other alternative methods have been proposed and these are mentioned in the
final Technical Brochure with appropriate references.

Mitigating inrush currents will conveniently mitigate temporary resonant overvoltages. However,
other methods have also been proposed. Network configurations leading to parallel resonances (as
seen from the energizing bus) at or close to undesirable harmonic frequencies can be identified. If only
a few configurations of the external network are responsible for the resonances, then it might be
feasible to de-tune these parallel resonances prior to energization by temporarily changing the system
configuration. This can be achieved by connecting or disconnecting elements such as unloaded lines,
cables, shunt capacitor banks or shunt reactors. Furthermore, adding as much load as possible before
energizing the transformer leads to a decrease in the magnitude of the impedance (due to increased
resistance) and, consequently, to a reduced amplification of the injected harmonic currents.
Alternatively, a high source impedance can be reduced by bringing additional generators online, since
a higher number of generators results not only in a lower overall system inductance but also in a shift
in resonances to a higher frequency band.

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6 CONCLUSIONS

A comprehensive summary of the forthcoming Technical Brochure on “Transformer Energization in

Power Systems: A Study Guide” is given. The summary covers the description of the inrush current
phenomenon during transformer energization, the characteristics of these currents and the special case
of sympathetic interaction between the transformer that is being energized and one that is already
energized. The mechanisms by which the RMS-voltage drop and the temporary overvoltages are
generated and the system conditions under which these phenomena may appear, are described briefly.
This is followed by recommendations on modelling the various components within the study zone.
Finally the paper provides a short summary of the possible mitigation measures that can be employed
to overcome the technical issues associated with transformer energization phenomenon.

Several study cases/examples, most with comparative simulation and field measurements, will be
provided in the annexes of the Technical Brochure.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] L. F. Blume, A. Boyajian, G. Camilli, T. C. Lennox, S. Minneci and V. M. Montsinger,

Transformer engineering: a treatise on the theory, operation, and application of transformers,
2nd ed., New York, N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1951.
[2] C. D. Hayward, “Prolonged Inrush Currents with Parallel Transformer Affect Differential
Relaying,” AIEE Trans., vol. 60, pp. 1096-1101, Jan. 1941.
[3] H. S. Bronzeado, P. B. Brogan and R. Yacamini, “Harmonic analysis of transient currents
during sympathetic interactions,” IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 2051-2056,
November 1996.
[4] “Planning Limits for Voltage Fluctuations Caused by Industrial, Commercial and Domestic
Equipment in the United Kingdom,” in Engineering Recommendation P28, Issue 1, 1989.
[5] D. Durbak, “Temporary overvoltages following transformer energizing,” Siemens PTI
Newsletter, no. 99, pp. 1-3, Sept. 2006.
[6] D. Povh and W. Schultz, “Analysis of Overvoltages Caused by Transformer Magnetizing Inrush
Current,” IEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and System, Vols. PAS-97, no. 4, pp. 1355-1365,
Jul./Ago. 1978.
[7] J. Bowles, “Overvoltages in HVDC transmission systems caused by transformer magnetizing
inrush currents,” IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. 93, no. 1, pp. 487-493,
Jan./Feb. 1974.
[8] CIGRE TB 39, “Guidelines for Representation of Network Elements when Calculating
Transients,” CIGRE WG 33.02, 1990.
[9] IEC TR 60071-4:2004, “Insulation co-ordination – Part 4: Computational guide to insulation co-
ordination and modelling of electrical networks,” 2004.
[10] R. Iravani (chair), A. Chandhury, I. Hassan, J. Martinez, A. Morched, B. Mork, M. Parniani, D.
Shirmohammadi and R. Walling, “Modeling Guidelines for Low Frequency Transients,” in
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TP-133-0, 1998.
[11] CIGRE WG 33.10, “Temporary overvoltages. Test case results,” Electra, vol. 188, 2000.
[12] IEC 60071-1:2006, “Insulation co-ordination – Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules,” 2006.
[13] M. Rioual, H. Digard, X. Legrand, C. Martin, H. Ito, Y. Corrodi, “Field application of a
synchronous controller based on the measurements of the residual fluxes for the energization of
hydraulic step-up transformers”, IEEE General Meeting, Detroit, July 2011, Paper n°2011
GM1021.

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