LIMITS AND CONTINUITY / The Intuitive Concept of Limit ' % Limits: The Formal Definition @ Rules for Calculating Limits Z Methods for Calculating lim, , , f(x) ( One-Sided Limits @ Some Special Limits Invol Limits at Infinity Continuit ¢ Trigonometric or Exponential Functions 3-1. The Intuitive Concept of Limit ‘The concept of limit is important enough in the study of calculus that you should try to get as good an understanding of it as possible, and intuitively, that's easy to do. A. Limits reveal the behavior of a function near a point. You know that a function may be thought of as.a set of ordered pairs (x, 9, with the y value related to the x value by some rule. The notion of the limit of, a function is suggested by the question, “What happens to the y values (the! functional values) when you choose the x values in such a way that they are getting closer and closer to some number a?” That question, stated mathematically, becomes, “Find the limit of f(x) as x approaches a,” or, “Find lim,.., f(x)” EXAMPLE ind lim, ., (2? + 1), Solution: This problem seems easy; if x approaches x = 1, then surely x? + 1 approaches 1? + 1. A few calculations on your calculator will support your s. Take several values of x near x = I (some less than x = 1 and some greater than x = t) and find the value of x? + 1 09 | 181 gs | 1.9025 n ta} 221 t 105 | 2ims Figure 3-1 tor | 20201 feared A graph of y = 1 will also support your conclusion (see Figure 3-1), Let's get a bit mote formal in our description of “limit.” Consider a function f(s), with a number x = athat may or may not be in the domain of f:thatis, f(a) may not be defined at all. f there exists a number L-such that f(x} gets closer and o 1}closer to L when x gets closer and closer to a, then you say “the limit of f(x}, as x approaches 4, is,” and you write “lim,.. f(x) = L” EXAMPLE 3-2: Let f(x) = (x? ~ 1)/(x — 1) and find lim, fl. Solution: You notice, first of all, that f(1) = 0/0, which is not defined; and having noticed that, you move on to the problem of what happens to f(x) if x is near x = 1, Youcould use the calculator again, but there's a neater approach for this problem—simplity it, algebraically x41 forallx #1 Therefore fim <= Himes +0) a An extremely important point has just been made, Its repeated for emphasis The statement “lim, .. f(x) = L” is not equivalent to the assertion “f(a) = L.” Look at Example 3-2 again: /(1) is not defined, but lim,.., f(x} = 2,2 perfectly well-defined number! B. The limit of /(x) as x approaches « may not exist. For several reasons, lim, f(x) might not exist. Consider three cases. 1, The values of f(x) may become increasingly large as x approaches a EXAMPLE 33: Find lim, 1/ ‘Solution: Tiss, at frst glance, similar to Example 3-2: The function 1/x is not defined at x = 0, There the similarity ends, however; as x gets closer to x = 0 ‘through positive values, I/x gets larger and larger. f x approaches x = O through negative values, 1/x is negative, but becomes larger numerically. Look at the ‘graph of f/x in Figure 3-2; it should help you visualize this kind of functional behavior, 2. The limit of (x) may assume different values when x approaches a from different directions. EXAMPLE 3-4: Find lim, Solution: Recall that by definition \/x? given function: x|; this allows you to rewrite the Il _ {1 when x >0 x” [+t when x <0 i Now you can see that the limit as x approaches 0 depends on how x approaches 0. Approaching x = 0 through positive values, the limit is 1; approaching x through negative values, the limitis — 1. Consequently, you say thatthe limit, asx approaches 0, doesn't exist (see Figure 3-3) 3. The values of f(x) may fluctuate as v approaches a. EXAMPLE 3-5: Examine the behavior of sin I/x as x approaches 0. Build a table that shows x, I/x, and sin I/x, and choose your x values approaching 0 in such a way that sin 1/x is easy to compute. For example, choose x = 2/kr, means Limis and Continuity 40 Figure 3-2. tin (2) does note Figure 3-3 VF does not exist.2 Caleulus starting with k = 1 and continuing through integer values of k: 1 L x sine ‘Asx approaches 0, sin 1/x just bounces through al its possible values between 1 and +1 and starts ali over again; it never “settles down:” Therefore, lim, 4 sin I/xx doesn't exist. 3-2, Limits: The Formal Definition The discussion of the previous section was designed to give you an intuitive understanding of the limit concept, A formal definition makes precise the ‘meaning of “closer and closer.” Definition: tim... f(x) = Lif and only if, for each arbitrarily chosen positive number ¢, there exists & positive number 6 such that if 0 <|x ~ a] < 6, then If) ~ Ll a. Then the question of the existence and the value) of the limit as x approaches a requires that you examine the behavior of f on both sides of x = a. EXAMPLE 3-21: Find lim, , f(x), if ax ors < —1 limit of f(x) is found by looking at lim,..., 2x = —2. If x approaches —1 through values of x greater than —1, the limit of f(x) is found by looking at lim,..,(x?—3)=—2. Since these limits are the same, you have lim... f(x) = ~2(see Figure 3-4), Section 3-5 examines these one-sided limits ‘more closely. Figure 34 ‘Some functions, by their nature, demand that the limit problem be broken into ‘ ‘two steps (see Examples 3-4 and 3-21), For notation, mathematicians modify their - symbolic representation of “the limit as x approaches «” “The limit as x | approaches a from the left” is denoted by “lim,...-( ); *the limit as x Approaches a from the right” is denoted by “lim, .y.(_).” I the values of f(x) become increasingly large (and positive) as x approaches a from the right (or lef) then you say that the one-sided limit is infinity and write ‘ 3 oo= fe, forx > -1 Solution: If xapproaches — 1 feom the lf (i, through values less than ~ 1) the lim f(x)= 00 or tim f(x) = {has xapproaches afrom the right (or lft), the values of f(x) become increasingly large in absolute value while f(x) is negative, then you say that the one-sided limit is negative infinity and write lim fis) = 90 or tim f(x) = -o0 Hi, for some function f(x), lim, a» f(x) # lim,...- f(x) then you say lim... f(x) doesn't exist. To put that another way: If lim... fC) tim,.- f(x) = 5 then lim,.., f(x) = L (L-can be 2 or —-co). To find one-sided limits, you use the same techniques that you use to find ordinary limits, Now that you have one-sided limits, you can examine limits of the form where lim glx) # 0#8 Calculus and Jim h(x) = 0 more closely. There are three possibilities: 9) rhe) might not exist (if one of the one-sided limits is +00 and the other is — 00), or gt) Sho) can be +20, or it can be —c0. ‘ ince Js real only for x > 0, the one-sided limit from the right is the only limit that makes sense. lim /x = JO =0 a ind lim,.-,- ¥/1 — x7 /(1 + x). Solution: The function JT = x4/(1 + apis defined only fr -10 =-1 forx<0 ‘That i, you seeka limit at x = Oof a function that is defined diflerently on either side of x = 0; you must use one-sided limits: bl lim <= lim (—1) = -1 sa" Xo = lim (1) =Limits and Continuity 49 ‘The techniques and rules for finding limits discussed in the previous sections apply (0 trigonometric and exponential functions as well as to algebraic functions. Two additional imits (given without proof) may prove useful to you: 1. fim, so(sin a}/x = lim, .gx/foin x) = 1 2, lim, .o(1 ~ cos x)/x = 0 Find lim, 4) (Gin x)/e0s x. - Solution: Since 2/4 is in the domain of f(x) = (sin x)/cos x, you find sinx _ sin(n/4) saya 008. X cos(/4) 2 © EXAMPLE 326; Find lim, (1 — cos xy/sin x. Solutions — lim(1 — cos x)= 1-1 =0 and lim(sin x) = sin 0 = 0 ‘The rule for quotients doesn't apply. To investigate the lint as x approaches 0, you use an identity: ~ cos*x, 1 + 008 x)(1 = cos x) sin? If you multiply numerator and denominator by 1 + cos x, you discover a common factor of sin x: 1 = cos x (1 + cos x" cried sin x 1 + cos x sin x(1 + cos x) sin? sin x(1 + eos x) si = for sinx 40 + cox Therefore 1 ~ cosx sin x lim —S* = jim 2 * _ xo Sinx ol + cosx 0 =5=0 2 EXAMPLE 327: Find lim, (in 3x)/x Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator by three: sin 3x (4 ») Notice also that if x approaches 0, then 3x approaches 3(0) = 0. Therefore , jim 23% — fi 3 (8038 wo Xo 3K, = 3 tim 3 2 5) = 3 seo$0 Calculus ind lim, .o(1 ~ cos 2x)/sin 3x Use the technique of Example 3-27: multiply and divide by 2x (because ‘of the 1 — cos 2x term) and by 3x (because of the sin 3x term). You have f= cos 2x _ 4, (1—e0s2x)_3x_(1 sin3x (x sin 3x 3x, 1 cos 2x) 3x BL de) sin 3x and ‘Two limits involving e and the exponential function e are also useful in finding limits: 3. fim, .o(1 + x)!” 4, im,so(1 + 03)!" | PRAMPLES.2% Fini, 31-9 | Soltion: Let y = x — 1 Then asx approaches x = 1 approaches fim x" = fim +x = Yuen? mt ml = lim(l + 9)!” =e 0 Recall (see Section 3-3, Equation 6) that, as long as both limits exist, Time 9(F) = gllttsg £0) q lim(1 + x = lim [(l + "7 4 =o =o = [rina + om] ‘In many instances you'll be interested in what happens to the values of f(x) asx sets larger and larger. This problem is considered as an extension of the limit problem discussed in previous sections. “The limit of f(x) as x gets larger and larger” is lim, .., f(x). As in the case in which x approached a finite limita, the limit of f(x) might be finite (Lim,...5 f(x) = L) or not (lim,.... f(%) = %)- | | ur calculator or without) by assigning ‘numerically larger and larger values to x and computing the resulting reciprocals: x wo | ot 100 | oot 1000 | 0001‘When xis negative, 1/x is also negative, but numerically the results are the same: a8 x approaches — oo, 1/x approaches 0 through negative values. Refer again to Figure 3-2; or large |x the graph of 1/x approaches the x axis, that tient of two polynomials; hhe degree of the numerator is one; the degree of the denominator is two. Therefore fim 2+! wor $4 (The proper sign is determined by the polynomials p(x) and g,(x); if they ate ofthe same sign asx ges larger, the ‘quotient is postive; if they are of opposite sign, the quotient is negative) 3 La. lim, (2 — 2x? + 3x 4 AY Gx + 9) Solution: The degree of the numerator (three) is greater than the degree of the denominator (one); therefore the limit is + co. jere a is the coefficient of x" in the icient of x* in the denominator, ind lim,....(3 ~ 4x + 1/(3x? + 2x + 7), degree of the numerator (three) is equal to the degree of the lenominator (three); therefore jim 2 —4e+1 1 xeode + 2x$7 9 Again, you can verify this rule by dividing numerator and denominator by x*: ede e BOF +T AN3e e+ 7 34040 Limits and Continuity $152° Caleulus function f(x) is continuous at x = a ift f(a) is defined lim, g f(x) exists limyaa f(x) = fla) ‘Notice that, to becontinuous at x = a,all three conditions must be satisfied. If atleast one condition fils, fis said to have discontinuity at x = a. On the other hand,if f iscontinuous at every point ofits domain, you say that fiscontinuous. Interms ofthe graph of f(x), the definition means that the curveis unbroken at x = g;you can move along the curve, irom points corresponding to x values less than a through f(a), to points corresponding to x values greater than a, without lifting your pencil. | EXAMPLE 3-34: Determine whether f(x) = x? + 1 is continuous at x = 1. | Solution: From the discussion of limits in Section 3-4, and because x = 1 is in the domain of f(x), you know that lim (x? + 1) = f(t) tla? ‘Therefore f(x) = x? + 1 is continuous at x = 1 EXAMPLE 335: Show that f(a) = dp + ax + dax¥ + + axis con- tinuous at x = xp, where xp is any real number. Solution: ‘The domain of a polynomial is the set of all real numbers. As in Example 3-34, x = xo isin the domain of f(x) and hence lim,..., f(9 = flo) EXAMPLE 3-36: Determine whether f(x) = [x|/ is continuous at x Solution: Since f{0) isn't defined, f(x) is not continuous at x = 0. 0, EXAMPLE 3:37; Determine whether Et for x #0 x 0 fe 0 fore continuous at x = 0. Solution: Note that f(0) is now defined. First, you must examine limo f(). Using the definition of |x|, you get 1 for x>0 fx) = JL for x <0 0 for x=0 ‘Then, lim, .9 f(x) must be considered in two steps: fim f(a) = fim (“N= = lim f(x) = lim () = 1 anor ot Since the two one-sided limits aren't the same, lim, .o f(x) does not exist and f(x) is not continuous at x = 0. EXAMPLE 3. continuous at x = 2?aha Solution: Note that f(2)is defined; you must examine lim,... f(x} 7s tim (42) = 4 lim You have lim,.2 f(x) = 4 J() is continuous at x = 2. EXAMPLE 3-39; Determine whether 1 = forx<-t x Sep=jx—t for -t3 Solution: You must examine the limit from both sides 3 tim f(x) = tim 2*2 342s wee OO 238 lim f(x) = lim (x? — 4) = 3? 425 a a Because both one-sided limits agree, the two-sided limit exists: lim, . (x) (See Sections 3-4 and 3:5 PROBLEM 39 lim. (¢ — afl + J) Solution: x = 4isin the domain, so xovx De ee eae ae {See Section 3.4) PROBLEM 3-10 tim,..5,/9 — F/(3 — 1) Solution: Notice that the domain of this function is ~3 < 1 < 3 because9 — 2 must be positive and 3 ~ tmustn't be zero, Thus, what appears to be a two-sided limit is actually a one-sided limit: ‘Which is infinite because the numerator is nonzero and the denominator is zero when = 3. As¢ approaches 3 from the left, the numerator is positive and the denominator is positive, so the uotient is positive: lim er PROBLEM 3-11 fim,.,, /x — 1//x? — Solution: Factoring the denominator, you find [See Section 35] PROBLEM 3-12 lim,...,(x? + 3x + 1)/3x? + 2x)56 Calculus Solution: Both numerator and denominator have degree two, so the limit is the quotient of the leading coefficients tim EN Sesion 34 no deta 3 Caeemnie PROBLEM 313 lim, (8x? + Sx — 23x? +x 4 1) Solution: The degree of the numerator exceeds the degree of the denominator; both numerator land denominator are positive when x is postive, so the limit is +o. [See Section 3-7] PROBLEM 3-14 lim,.,..., (Bx? + Sx ~ 23x" + x + 1) Solution: The degree of the denominator exceeds the degree of the numerator, so 8x3 + Sx - 2 li im te See Seton 41 wenw tH Ex 7 PROBLEM 315. lim,.., 4x? + 8x? — yx + 1 Solution: Although this fraction isn’t a rational function, the technique of dividing by a power of x still works: jim = = m lim ae ya) = Ws) ae ea S/W x4) [Soe Section 3.7] PROBLEM 3-16 litt, .o (1 ~ ¢08 2x)/x Solution: Multiply and divide by 2 fim 12082 im af! = 9982") - of tin 1= 982%) — 20-0 see scion sf cee eee = 05 OMe moO PROBLEM 317 lim, .o [cos x ~ 1]/tan x ‘Solution: Use the identity tan x = (sin x}(cos x); then divide numerator and denominator by x: in $08 x[008 x — 1] _ 5, c08 xlleos x ~ Dx] sin x x0 sinx x [See Section 36] PROBLEM 3-18 im, .o (sin?2x)/8x* Solution: You find sin?2x. Ifsin2x\? Af, /sim2x\P td tinea = ns ) -{m(S2)] = {UP = 5 (Sesion 26) PROBLEM 319 lim, oo {1 + (x/3)]?* Solution: You find in('+(@))"-anl( +2)" -L0 5) T = [ep =e sion 36) aia ie cassLimits and Continulty 57 PROBLEM 3:20 lim,..o (1 — x}! Solution: You find lim (1 — 3) = fim (1 + (—1p)" PROBLEM 3-21 lim,.,_., x? — I/(4x + 3) Solution: Dividing numerator and denominator by x, you see tim YE! jx? = T(x) weno 4+ co (4x + SL/x) For x < 0, notice that 1/x = —1/,/x?, so the limit becomes -yi=We}_ 1 wea 4$4+(B/x) [See Seetion 36) {See Section 3.7) PROBLEM 3:22 lim. ((I//3) — (1/7) ~ 7) Solution: Clear fractions in the numerator and rationalize it: wf) m V1 = Vell + JD ote Te Se mT T-x = lim x7 — MYT IT + J) “RF +) a Son = eh =-% [See Section 3.4] PROBLEM 323 lim,..., 3x +2 — 3x Solution: Rationalizing, you see (3x #2 + /3x) cS lim (3542 — 85) Werte iin : 3x +2-3x = lim = wee Jix 2 + fox i ae [See Section 3.7) PROBLEM 3-24 lim, ..2 ¢08x/L¥ ~ (2/2)] ‘Solution: Recall from trigonometry that sin((n/2) — x) = cos x: Jim 28% tim 50 — 9) seunx Fan F Now let y = x — (x/2p a1 {See Sextion 36] PROBLEM 2 oS 388 limo oy + OE) ‘Solution: Multiply numerator and denominator by 02: one yee 28 4- (We) = (eye gy A= 1 03+ QM 410) — old +O) + (Ne ts Dead [See Section 3.4)$8 Calculus x-2 forx <0 PROBLEM 3:26. lim f(x) where f(x) = 4 yx +1 = 3Yx—2 forx>0 lim f(x) = lim (e - 2) = -2 Because the one-sided limits have different values, lim, .p f(x) does not exist, [SeeSotion 47 Ba! tox -3 PROBLEM 327 Find the discontinuities of f(x) =)? Fx 1 forx< =3 Solution: ‘The possible discontinuities are at x = —1 and x = 0 (the zeroes of x? + x) and at 0, f is discontinuous at x = —1 and 3, Since f isn’t even defined at x = —1 and lim aa weed 1 panel ceanae So f is also discontinuous at x = ~3. {See Seation 38 PROBLEM 3-28 Find the discontinuities of wile +1) forx > -1 fey =4 (0 IG? = 1) forx < -1 i forx = —1 ‘ Solution: Although x = lisa zero of x? ~ 1, f is defined by x/{x? + 1) in the vicinity of x = 1, so the only possible discontinuity is at x = — lim fox) = lim = 5 lim f(x) = Although the one-sided limits agree, they don't equal f(—1),s0 f isdiscontinuous at x = —1. [See Section 38] Supplementary Exercises 329 lim, (0 — 8)At - 2) 3-33. lim, (81? + 4y(3t? ~ t+ 2) 3-30 fimo (0° ~ 8)/(¢ — 2) 3.34 lim, dub/x — yx — 1) 331 tim, .o /3 Fx ~ V3 335 Himy.g (1+ (0/2) 32 lim. .p sin 3x/(1 — 05 2x} 3-360 lim.) (1 +!337 3.38 339 340, 356 é Limits and Continuity $9 lim,..o+ (V® ~ 2B /x — 4x) limga- J? = TPT lime (Vx + 3Yle - 4) lity-ag tan?x/(1 + cos x) limy.. 2 (x2 + 6x + 8)/(x? — 5x ~ 14) lity (X? + 6x + B(x? — Sx — 14) det 4 forx>2 fim, f(), where f(x) = 4.x? — 4x + 4 Pager bres? limay Bx — 9 Him,.5 (x — 8x + 15)/(x? + 10x + 25) Hime ALY + 2) - V2) limyog (1 +22)" 4 lim, (2 ~ cos x}/x lim, .. (8 — 85 + 5/7 — 25 lim. Timgso (Vx? +7 — 4)/(32 = 3x) : Tim,..g x/leos x — 1) lim, s (/5e — Sie +4 - 3) tin -— aly Tim, «2 (| = 2) ~ 2) Tim, 9 (sin 4x)/sin 3x lim, (7 = Ile + 3) lity rn ~ a? = x) limes (Ve = 2 = Ife —3 3-64 lim, .o LY ~ O/)J/LG/%) + J) Tim, ef 3) 3-65 lim, +g [1 + x(e)]'* fim... [8 + x ~ 9x $66 Him. LY ~ (GILG) + VX] fim. x/fx = 2/x)] 367 lim,.3 (x — /X — Ox — 3)60 Calculus Ylx — 3) forx > 3 3-68 Find the discontinuities of f(x) = {i Ne +3) fore (2 + Vx forx > 0 3.69 Find the discontinuities of f(x) = 10 forx =0 w(x? +x) forx <0 fi- Jt=1 forte 3-10 Find the discontinuities of f(t) = ty Spt 2) fort <1 Solutions to Supplementary Exercises G2 2 G8) 0 sn 43 8-30) 4 B44) 2/2 3-58) Jin G31) /36 B45) 0 59) } (8-32) doesn’t exist 46) 2/4 (3-60) 0 (3-33) 8/3 (347) & G61) e* B34) +00 (G48) doesn’t exist (3-62) 6 a9 2” e490 oa | (3-36) 2 (G-50) € (3-64) -2 (3-37) -00 B-51) doesn’t exist (3-65) e* (3-38) 0 (3-52) doesn’t exist (3-66) 1 39) 0 653) 3 (6-67) doesnt exist, 40) 0 54) 1 (6-68) x = 3 andx = —3 (3-41) —2)9 (3-85) | (3-69) x= -1 (3-42) 1 (3-56) 1 (3-0) f= 1THE DERIVATIVE Definition of the Derivative @ Using the Definition to Calculate Derivatives @ Derivatives of the Basic Functions © Derivatives of Sums, Products, Quotients, and Composite Functions @ Derivatives Involving Repeated Applications of the Product, Quo and Chain Rules % The Differentiation Formulas: Using the Chain Rule @ Higher Order Derivatives 4-1. Definition of the Derivative ‘The derivative of a function y = f(x) isa function f°(x) defined as a limit: THE fix + Ax) — fQ) DERWATWVE $0) = is « where Ax (read “delta x") represents a change in x. Your textbook may use the equivalent definition ; flx+ hy — f0) = fim JE = J ea eae The domain of f is the set of all numbers for which the limit exists; at those values of x, f is said to be differentiable. ‘The process of finding a derivative is known as diferentation ‘The derivative of y = f(x) is denoted in several ways: dy ca d oD z e j fo OF DS EF Efe) yor The presence of x in D,f, dy/dx, and djjdx is to remind you that x is the independent variable (and you speak of the derivative with respect to x). If ¥ = f(0),then you would write dy/dr, df jdt, and so on and speak of the derivative with respect to t. Yousnay want to find the valu of the derivative fora particular value of x. The value of f'(x) at x = ais denoted (as you might guess) by f(a, dy F@) o 2 42. Using the Definition to Calculate Derivatives You can use the definition of the derivative to find the derivative of simple functions, EXAMPLE 4-1: Differentiate f(x) = x 6h