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Microphone
• Is a transducer which converts
variation of sound pressure into
Module 1 electrical signals of the same
frequency and phase.

• The amplitude of the electrical signals

is proportional to intensity of sound
waves.

Microphone should fulfill the following Microphone should fulfill the following
requirements. requirements.
1. Its response should be independent of 4. It should be mechanically robust.
frequency in the complete audio frequency
range i.e. (16Hz to 20kHz).
5. Its response should be independent of the
2. The noise generated within should be as low
direction of sound waves.
as possible.
3. Its performance should not be affected by
adjacent strong electric and magnetic fields.
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Qualities of Microphones. Qualities of Microphones.

• Sensitivity. • Sensitivity:
• Signal to noise ratio. It is the output in milli volt for a sound pressure
• Frequency response. of 0.1 Pa at 1000 Hz.
• Distortion. • Frequency Response:
• Directivity. described in terms of band width of frequencies
• Output impedance. in the output within ± 1dB of the output at 1000
Hz.

Qualities of Microphones.
• Signal to Noise Ratio:

output in the presence of sound.

output in the absence of sound.
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Qualities of Microphones. Qualities of Microphones.

Distortion : • Frequency distortion:
Non linear distortion means that the relative Means that some frequencies not present in the
amplitudes of different frequencies in the sound signal appear at the output.
electrical output is not same as in the sound
wave. Happens due to natural resonant frequency of
the movable parts of the microphone.
For High fidelity sound systems nonlinear
distortion should be less than 1 %.

Qualities of Microphones. Qualities of Microphones.

• Directivity:
• Phase distortion:
– The response of a microphone is not the same for
Inter-phase relationship between different sounds coming from different directions. this effect is
frequency components in the output is not the known as directivity.
same as in the input. – Microphone can be unidirectional , bidirectional or
omnidirectional.
D=
Generally occurs when more then one
microphone are used in the system.
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Moving coil Microphone

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Principle of Moving coil Microphone

• Works on the principle of induced emf • e=
(faradays law of electromagnetic induction).
=> e= B * change of area per second
• e= B*L*v
=> e= B * length of the conductor*distance
– e=emf in volts
moved per second
– B=flux density Wb/m2
– L=length of the coil in m
– v= velocity of the coil in m/sec • e= B * L * v
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Other features of Moving coil

Features of Moving coil Microphone
Microphone
• Sensitivity is 30µv when sound pressure is 0.1 Pa • Overall performance is satisfactory
• It does not need external bias
• s/n ratio is about 30 dB
• Mechanically robust and not affected by
• Distortion is less than 5%
weather
• Directivity is omnidirectional.
• Output impedance is low about 25 ohms.
• Cheaper than ribbon and condenser
microphones but is more costly then crystal
• Frequency response is flat from 60 Hz to 8000Hz.
and carbon microphones.
• Natural resonance frequency between 3kHz to
4kHz

Other features of Moving coil Applications of Moving coil

Microphone Microphone
• It can be spoken into from a distance of about • Public address systems and broadcast studios.
25 cm.
• Its weight is considerable because of heavy
magnet.
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Ribbon Microphone

Principle of ribbon microphone Construction

• Principle is the same as that of moving coil • The permanent
microphone. magnet has extended
• However instead of diaphragm and coil the pole pieces.
microphone has an aluminum ribbon which • Between the pole
acts as a diaphragm and a coil pieces is placed the
aluminum ribbon in
• When the sound waves strike the ribbon an which the emf is
emf is induced in it. induced.
• A step up
transformer is in built
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Working Features
• Because of the low mass of the ribbon the
• The ribbon acts as a diaphragm. frequency response is very good and is almost
• It is made to move at right angles to the flat from 20 Hz to 12000 Hz.
magnetic field by the force of sound pressure. • o/p impedance is very low generally less than
• When the sound waves strikes, it vibrates. 0.25 ohm. A step up transformer increases the
output impedance by 900 times.
• Because of this motion, an emf proportional
to the velocity of the ribbon is induced in it. • Bi Directional directivity
• This voltage is stepped up by the transformer • S/N ratio is 50db.
and appears at the output terminals. • Distortion is 1 %.

Disadvantages
• Ribbon being light, it is very delicate and can be
• Sensitivity: easily damaged by dropping.
– The sensitivity is less then moving coil type • DC current through ribbon from battery of the
because length of ribbon is less then the length of meter can strain the ribbon. hence continuity of
coil if wire in moving coil. About 3 µv ribbon should not be measured.
– If we put matching transformer (30:1) the output • Ribbon microphone should not be blown into. It
would be about 90 µv. will strain the ribbon. Sensitive to breathing also.
therefore should be kept 50 cm away from the
– Does not need external bias.
source of sound.
• Cost is very high
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Applications Crystal microphone

• Based on the principle of “Piezo electric
• Very well suited for drama. effect” .
• Defined as “ difference of potential between
the opposite faces of some crystals is
produced when these are subjected to
mechanical pressure”.

• The crystals which show this effect are quartz ,

Tourmaline, Rochelle salt and ceramic.
• Rochelle salt has high piezo electric effect but
is susceptible moisture. Cant withstand
temp > 50°
• Quartz and tourmaline have low piezo electric
effect.
• Ceramic is most suitable for crystal
microphones as it not susceptible to moisture
and can also withstand high temperatures
upto 100° C.
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Construction
• The crystal is cut along certain planes to form
a slice.
• Metal foil electrodes are attached to the two
surfaces to carry the potential difference to
the output terminals.
• A diaphragm made of aluminum is attached to
the crystal surface through the push rod.
• The whole unit is in protective case.

Principle
• When there is a sound wave of compression,
Features
it compresses the crystal.
• Good Sensitivity of 50 mv.
• In case of rarefaction converse takes place and
• Signal to noise ratio is high about 40 db.
the crystal is extended and is under tension.
• Frequency response 100 to 8000 Hz.
• Due to compression and extension a varying
potential difference is generated which is • Distortion is low about 1%.
proportional to the mechanical pressure • Directivity is omnidirectional.
applied. • Output impedance is high about 1M ohm
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Features Applications.
• Not as rugged as moving coil but more rugged
then ribbon type.
• Home recording system.
• Can be spoken into from close range.
• Amateur communication.
• Mixer circuit will load it and will cause severe
loss of bass, hence cannot be used in multi • Mobile communication.
microphone system
• It does not need a power supply.
• Should not be exposed to direct sunlight for a
long time.
• Cost is low.

Condenser (capacitor) microphone

• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is
inversely proportional to the distance
between the plates.
∗A
• C=

C = capacitance in farads
𝜖 =permitivity of free space= 8.85 * 10^-12 F/m
d = distance between plates.
A = area of the plate square meters.
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• As d changes due to pressure of sound waves

capacitance changes.
• This change causes change in the frequency of
the oscillator circuit.
• This change is a measure of pressure of sound.
• This causes successive charging and discharging
current in resistance.
• These currents produces oscillating voltage across
the resistance

features
• Sensitivity is very low and therefore It has a • It needs external power supply.
inbuilt amplifier, the amplifier output is 3mv. • Delicate because of the narrow separation
• It has a good and flat frequency response from 40 between the moving plate and the fixed back
Hz to 15 KHz plate.
• Distortion is less then 1 %. • Cannot withstand excessive heat.
• s/n ratio is high 40 dB
• Costly because of the necessity of dc bias.
• Omnidirectional
• Output impedance is very high, 50 Mega ohms.
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Applications Carbon microphone

• It is used as a standard microphone for • When fine carbon molecules enclosed in a
calibrating other microphones. case are subjected to variations of pressure
• Used in sound level meters the resistance of the granules changes.
• Used in professional high fidelity recording.
• When such device is connected in series with
the load through the DC supply, the current
through the load will vary in accordance with
the pressure variations on the carbon granules
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Functioning.
• When sound strikes the diaphragm, it moves
to and fro. • In the absence of sound a steady current flows
• During compression condition it presses the • Thus the sound waves superimpose a varying
carbon granules and during rarefaction, it current or audio current on a steady dc current.
loosens them. 𝒓 = 𝑹𝟎 + 𝜹𝒓
• When carbon granules is pressed the • R = net resistance in ohms.
resistance decreases and hence the current
increases • Ro = steady resistance for no sound
• When carbon granules loosen the resistance • δr = variation of resistance due to sound pressure.
increases and hence the current decreases

Features • It is mechanically very rigid.

• Sensitivity : Very high 100 mv. • Prone to moisture and heat.
• Signal to noise ratio : Poor. • It is small in dimensions.
• Frequency response : 200 Hz to 5000 Hz. • Cost of the microphone is the lowest
Therefore unsuitable for high fidelity work.
• Distortion : 10 %, carbon granules have a
tendency to stick to each other which further • Applications :
increases the distortion. – Due to limited frequency response it is useful only
in telephones.
• Directivity : omnidirectional.
– Portable radio communication sets.
• Output impedance : 100 ohms.
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Loudspeakers Moving coil cone type loudspeaker

• Loudspeaker is a transducer which converts
• A coil called as voice coil is placed in a uniform
electrical signals of audio frequency into magnetic field.
sound waves of the same frequency. • When audio current passes through the voice coil,
• Characteristics there is interaction between the magnetic field and
the current
– Efficiency.
• Results in a work force working on the movable coil.
– Noise. • The force is proportional to the audio current and
– Frequency response. hence causes vibratory motion in the coil which causes
– Distortion. diaphragm to vibrate and produces pressure variations
in air resulting in sound waves.
– Impedance.
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• F= B*L*i*sinα
– F = force in Newton
– B = flux density in Tesla
– L = length of the coil wire in meter
– i = current in A
– α = angle between the coil and the field = 90
hence F= B*L*i
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Characteristics
• Efficiency = 5%
• The whole paper in cone type loudspeaker • Signal to noise ratio =30 dB
acts as a diaphragm and causes pressure • Frequency response = restricted to mid
variations direct in the listeners area. frequencies only from 200 Hz to 5000 Hz.
• Hence it is called direct radiating type • Distortion = 10 %
loudspeaker. • Directivity = omni directional
• Impedance = 2 ohm to 32 ohm commercial
ones have 4, 8, 16 ohms.
• Power handling capacity = few milliwatts to
about 25 milli watts.

Electrodynamic loudspeaker
• To provide very strong magnetic field for high
wattage speakers electromagnet is used
instead of permanent magnet.
• Working principal is same as that of
permanent magnet type.
• Loudspeakers of more than 25 watts upto a
few hundred watt are of electrodynamic type
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Horn type loudspeaker

• Advantages : wattage from 25 watts to few
hundred watts.
• Disadvantages :
– Power supply is needed for field coil
– Heavier in weight.
– Costlier.

• A horn type loudspeaker uses a moving coil

placed in a magnetic field. • The horn acts as a acoustic transformer .
• But instead of radiating sound power directly • This allows better impedance match between
into the listeners area, the power is first low impedance of the free air and high
delivered to the air trapped in fixed non impedance of the vibrating voice coil
vibrating flared horn, and from there to the air assembly.
in the listeners area. • This results in increased efficiency.
• Thus it radiates sound power to the air in
• The efficiency of a horn type loudspeaker is 30
space not directly form the diaphragm but
indirectly through the horn. -50% as against 5% efficiency of cone type
loudspeaker.
• Hence it is called “INDIRECT RADIATING
LOUDSPEAKER”
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Characteristics
• Acts as a high pass filter • Efficiency : high 30 – 50 %
• Cutoff frequency, F =
∗ • Frequency response : 30 – 10000 Hz
– C = velocity of sound
• Signal to noise ratio : 40 dB
– A = cross-sectional area of throat • Distortion : low less than 5%
– V = volume of the air chamber trapped between • Power handling capacity : much more than
throat and diaphragm cone type , about 100 watts can be easily
• Lowest freq f = (170/d) achieved.
– d=diameter of mouth in meter.

Baffles & Enclosure

• Rigid flat material used to extend the edges of
the loudspeaker cone is baffle.
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Types of baffles
• Finite Baffle: The wooden cabinets, as in radio
receiver, act as finite baffle . • Infinite baffle: is one which
• Such baffle of finite size are not very effective has infinite lateral
dimensions. Such a baffle is
and do cause some loss of low audio freq not feasible.
signals due to diffraction. • A practical infinite baffle will
have huge dimensions.
several designs have been
developed to reduce the
size. one such design is to
bend the baffle at the edges

Enclosure
• When a loudspeaker is mounted in a closed
box with an opening in front(to enable the
cone to transmit vibrations to the air in front),
the box serves the purpose of infinite baffle
because the waves from the back of the cone
will not be able to come to the front side.
• Such a closed box is called enclosure.
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• The box must be air tight . All joints must be

glued
• All the terminals or wires on the back panel must
be should be properly sealed.
• The hole for the loudspeaker cone should be cut
accurately and a good adhesive should be used
around the edge of the speaker to ensure sealing
so that no air leaks out.
• Best material for enclosure is 18mm thick
plywood.
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• The only practical approach is have three

Woofers and tweeters separate speakers for low , medium and high
frequencies.
• The audio frequency range 16Hz to 20 KHz can
• The low frequency covers from 16 Hz to 500
not be satisfactorily covered by a single
Hz known as woofers.
speaker.
• Mid frequencies from 500 to 5000 Hz called as
• It is same for practical high fidelity range i.e.
squawkers.
40 Hz to 15 KHz.
• The high frequencies from 5000 Hz and above
• There is attenuation at low frequency (180
is called as tweeters.
phase shift) and at high frequency (cone and
diaphragm behaves as a inductance).

• Sometimes Cross-over circuits

squawkers are • When a combination of tweeter and woofer is
omitted in this used to give a better reproduction.
case the range • It is essential that the input signal is split in
is from 16 to two parts one for frequencies less than 1000
1000 Hz for Hz and one for frequencies above 1000 Hz.
woofers. • Such a circuit is called cross over circuit.
• In the absence the speakers will suffer over
heating and output will be distorted when
• 1000 Hz and full power at frequencies outside their range is
above for fed to them, reducing the overall efficiency.
tweeters.
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√2 𝑅
• L=

• C=

• L is inductance
• C is capacitance
• fc is crossover frequency Hz

• It is also possible to have a crossover

frequency for splitting the signal into three
parts.
• < 500 Hz fed to woofer ( lpf )
• Between 500 to 5000 Hz for squawker ( bpf )
• > 5000Hz for tweeter ( hpf )
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Public Address System

• A public address system is a system consisting
• The intensity of sound decreases with distance. of microphones, amplifiers and loudspeakers
• Hence when a large gathering is to be addressed etc. to satisfy this requirement.
sound needs to be amplified so that people at • In many halls and auditoriums, public address
distance of stage may receive good intensity of systems are permanently installed.
sound.
• The system which fulfills this function is called
as public address system.
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Block diagram of P A system

• Microphones
– They convert the sound waves to electrical signals
of the same frequency.
– In general a public address system requires more
than one microphone .
– In addition another input from tape/record player
is also provided so that some music can be relayed
till the main programme is started.

• Mixer
– It is necessary to isolate & mix the signals from
different microphones.
– The simple method of connecting the output
wires from the microphones in a more gradual
and controlled manner.
– Such a circuit is known as mixer circuit. Another
name given to a mixer circuit is a fader because
the intensity of sound can be faded in or faded • The fixed resistors provide isolation of different channels.
out by using such a circuit. • A still better mixer circuit uses separate pre-amplifier for each
channel and then a common amplifier and another amplifier for
impedance matching.
• This amplifier for impedance matching is generally an emitter-
follower amplifier.
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Requirements of PA system Requirements of PA system

• Acoustic feedback
• Distribution of sound intensity • Grounding
• Orientation of loudspeakers
• Ambient noise • Amplifier power 𝑃 = ∗
• Dynamic range limitation • Choice of loudspeakers
• Selection of microphone • AC hum
• Sense of direction of sound • Placement of microphones
• Phase delay
• RF pick up
• Impedance matching
• Presence not to be felt

Requirements of PA system
• Sound Intensity
– The loudness of sound is mainly contained in low
• Acoustic Feedback notes but the intelligibility in high notes.
– It is possible that some sound waves from the – Moreover as the sound travels, high notes suffer
loudspeakers reach the microphones. This can more attenuations than low notes. This means
cause a very irritating sound and must be avoided. that intelligibility will be poor at greater distances.
– Because of this reason a large number of small
size loud speakers distributed properly in the
whole space are better than a small number of
high power loudspeakers.
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• Reverberations
– Sound has all the characteristics of a wave viz.
reflection, refraction, absorption, diffraction.
– It is possible that a listener receives direct sound from • Direction of Sound
one loudspeaker and reflected sound of another – The orientation and placement of loudspeakers
loudspeaker. These reflections may be from ceiling,
walls etc. Multiple reflections may also be present.
should be such that sound appears to reach the
– The reflected waves reach the listener later than the
listener directly from the speaker and the degree
direct waves. This may cause interference between of loudness is also correct, neither too high nor
the two sets of waves i.e direct and reflected. The too low.
sound has a tendency to persist and fades away only
slowly. The slow fading of sound is known as
reverberation. A good address system must take care
of this aspect.

• Ambient Noise
– In many environments inherent noise is always • Levels Limitation and Speaker’s Drawbacks
present. This is especially true of sports meets, – During a speech, the speaker may speak too
railway station, airports etc. loudly at one time. Moreover his mouth may be
– It has been found that high frequency notes are near the microphone at one time and a bit farther
more affected by the noise than low frequency away at another time.
notes. – Most public address systems are equipped with a
– Since the high frequency notes determine the level limiter (also known as level stabilizer) which
intelligibility, it is necessary to boost the high keeps the output constant or limits the output to
frequency notes to a higher degree. This will a certain level when the input exceeds a certain
ensure that the listeners can make out what has value.
being spoken.
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Requirements of PA system

• Phase Delay • Grounding – chassis, shields should be earthed

– A listener may receive sound from more than one • Amplifier power 𝑃 =
∗
loudspeaker. • Choice of loudspeakers – Match power output of
– Because of the fact that these different Amp.
loudspeakers are at different distances from him, • AC hum – leads of mic should be as small as possible
a phase delay between the different sound waves • Placement of microphones – No cancellation
may exist. This may affect intelligibility. occurs
– Loudspeakers should not be placed more than • RF pick up – RF bypass cap at amp i/p
16m apart • Presence not to be felt

PA installation for Public Meeting PA installation for an Auditorium

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P A system for a football stadium

DISC RECORDING AND

REPRODUCTION

• Principle of Disc Recording.

– When an audio signal passes through a coil wound

on an armature and placed in a magnetic field, the
armature moves to and fro (motor action) in
accordance with the audio signal.

– A cutting needle (called cutter stylus), is fixed with

the armature and it also vibrates.
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– The cutter moves from edge to the centre on a Disc Recording Unit
rotating disc, made of wax or lacquer, and hence
cuts spiral grooves on the surface of the disc,
which change their positions laterally in
accordance with the audio signal.
– In the absence of sound, the grooves shall be
uniformly spaced and move spirally ending at the
centre.
– The audio signal makes the grooves shift laterally
and thus the sound is recorded on the disc as
shown in figure.

• It consists of a powerful electromagnet giving • When audio current produced by microphone

strong magnetic field between North and and amplified by audio amp flows in the
South poles when D.C. current is passes armature coil, it produces varying magnetic
through the field coil. field which is super imposed on the steady
field of the electromagnet.
• An armature of soft iron is placed between
the two pole pieces. • This causes the armature to vibrate in the
horizontal plane (i.e lateral vibrations). These
• A coil is wound on the armature, and a cutter vibrations are in accordance with the variation
stylus is attached to the lower end of of audio current, and are transferred to the
armature. cutting needle which is made of diamond.
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Principle of Disc Reproduction • For reproduction a device called cartridge, is

made to change the vibrations of the playback
needle (or stylus) into electrical signals which
can be amplified and converted into sound by
a loudspeaker.

• The working principle of a cartridge is similar

to that of a microphone. Like microphones,
cartridges can be of many types. A magnetic
cartridge is shown in Figure.

• When needle of the record player tracks the Block Diagram of Disc Recording
recorded grooves on the disc, it vibrates in System
accordance with lateral variations of grooves.

• These vibrations move a magnet placed in the

magnetic field , changes and hence e.m.f is
induced in the coil depending on the rate of
change of flux.

• The electrical signal is amplified by transistor

amplifiers and is fed to a loudspeaker to get the
original sound.
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• Audio signals in the output of a microphone • Pre-amplifier: It amplifies the weak output of
are processed and amplified to drive a disc the microphone. It is a low noise high gain
recording unit to cut grooves in lacquer amplifier to get high signal to noise ratio.
compound of the disc.
• Processing circuits: The amplified signals are
processed to deemphasize low frequency
• Microphone: a high grade microphone like signals and emphasise high frequency signals
condenser microphone or a specially designed
cardioid microphone is used to convert the
• This is to eliminate chance of over-
sound waves into electrical variations called modulation for low frequencies and improve
audio signals. signal to noise ratio for high frequencies.

• Cutter stylus: It cuts spiral grooves on the disc,

• Driver amplifier: The processed signals are further
amplified for voltage amplifications, so that high producing wavy pattern in the horizontal plane
output voltage is available to drive the next stage to when audio signals cause the stylus to vibrate
give adequate power. laterally.

• Power amplifier: It passes power amplification to the

signal. Its internal resistance is low and the output • The stylus moves radially on a rotating disc, and
circuit has a matching transformer to match the source hence, cuts spiral grooves from the edge of the
and load impedance with each other. disc to its centre.
• Recording unit: The output audio power from the
power amplifier is used to drive the recording unit to • Disc: It consists of wax or lacquer coating on a
convert audio signals into mechanical vibrations. metal disc. Grooves are engraved on the coating
by the vibrating stylus.
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• Turn table: The turn table carries the disc over itself.
When the turn table rotates the disc placed on it also
Disc Reproduction System
rotates.

• Motor: It is used to drive or rotate the disc at a

constant speed. A synchronous motor is used, as the
speed of a synchronous motor remains locked to the
frequency of a.c mains which is stable.

• The steady speed is necessary to reduce wow and

flutter noise during playback. The connection between
the motor and the turn table may be by means of
gears, friction drive and belt.

Production of Disc Records an Mass • 1. The original disc is made of metal or glass
Scale coated with cellulose nitrate lacquer compound.

• The disc on which sound is originally recorded – The chisel shaped cutting stylus tip, made of
diamond, removes a continuous thread of cellulose as
is called “ original disc’. it cuts the groove on the rotating disc.

– The cutter moves slowly from edge to the centre of

• It is necessary to make copies of it for public the rotating disc and these results in spiral grooves
consumption. being recorded on the lacquer.

– To give very smooth grooves, the stylus is heated by

• The records (or playback discs) are prepared in passing low voltage dc through a small coil of high
resistance wire around the shaft of the stylus just
three steps as described : above the tip.
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• 2. The wax or the lacquer compound surface of the • 3. When the negative copper disc is pressed on
original disc is made conducting by coating it with to a suitable recording material, a positive disc,
graphite or some conducting material. identical with the ‘Original disc’, will be obtained.

– Then, by electrolysis, the disc is heavily electroplated

with copper. – This process is called stamping. The positive disc
material consists of a mixer of shellac, shredded rags,
rotten stone, sulphate of barium carbon black etc.
– The copper shell (called electro- type) is removed from
the wax or lacquer by heating. The copper shell has ridges
in place of corresponding grooves of the original disc, and
hence it is called ‘ Negative’ or ‘ Master negative’.
– The record is made quite hard and smooth by pressing
the disc material between the heated rollers and then
cooled. Record discs can be made by the above
– The negative disc of copper is nickel plated and is backed
by steel plate to give it support and hence strength.
process on mass scale from a single copper ‘Master
Negative’.

Types of Grooves
• Hill and Dale – 150um
– High noise
– Excessive wear
• Lateral - 5um
– depth constant, width changes
• Stereo – 6um
– When current equal – vertical motion
– Else on the wall
• Course grooves.
• Micro grooves.
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• It was necessary to increase the playtime of

continuous playback of programme.
• Course grooves
– Playing time of about 6 minutes only.
• Two factors were combined to increase the
– 30 cm i.e. 12 inch.
duration of playback. These are:
– 78 rpm.
– 1. Decreasing the speed of rotation
– Groove width 150 µm (6 mils)
– 2. Reduction of size of the groove

• The speed was decreased from 78 r.p.m to 45

r.p.m for extended play (EP) records and 33 1/3
r.p.m (often mentioned as 33 r.p.m) for long play
(LP) records.

• the size of the groove width on top was reduced

from 150 µm (6 mil) to 50 µm (2 mil) or less and,

• for stereophony, as low as 6 µm ( or about 0.25

mil). The grooves made of such small size are
called’ Fine-grooves’ or Microgrooves’.
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Playback needles
• 1. Osmium needle :
– it is plain hardened steel
– good for small number of plays.
– Wears out after 10 hours of play.
– Cheapest one.
– Used with low quality gramophones.

• 2.Saphire needle: 3.Diamond needle:

– Most common. – Best of all.
– Longer life then osmium needle. – 400 hours of play.
– 50 hours of play – Costliest needle.
– Costly then osmium needle. – Most suitable for high fidelity
– Disadvantage:
• Delicate and can be broken with slight impact.
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Moving coil or Dynamic cartridge

Moving coil or Dynamic cartridge Magnetic Cartridge

• Coil wound on carboard cylinder • Frequency range is good
• As needle moves to and fro, magnetic flux • Distortion < 4%
changes in the coil • Output is about 10mV
• Has excellent frequency response • Most popular
• Low output (uV)
• Another version uses
electromanget
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Capacitor (Condenser) Cartridge Capacitor (Condenser) Cartridge

• Charge is fixed -> Voltage changes with
capacitance
• Output is low and needs a pre-amp
• Excellent frequency response
• Distortion is lowest < 1%

Crystal Pic-up Cartridge Crystal Pic-up Cartridge

• Simple construction
• Fair frequency response
• Cheapest
• Output is good about 0.5V
• Does not need equalizing
Circuits
• Impedance is high
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Equalization in Recording/Playback
• Dynamic range of orchestra for e.g. is very • To improve SNR, high freq. need to be boosted
high 20dB to 100dB and low frequency needs to be attenuated at
• Difficult to accommodate such large range on recording
disc or tape
• Sound in low freq. is more than high freq.
• Amplitude of high freq. may be comparable to
noise
• Amplitude of low freq. will occupy too much
space

Principle of Magnetic Recording and

Reproduction
• Magnetic recording is a storage of the sound
pressure variations in the form of elementary
magnets (formed in a magnetic material)
MAGNETIC RECORDING AND whose length and strength depend on audio
REPRODUCTION signals.

• It was discovered by Poulsen of Denmark in

1898.
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• Magnetic recording is based on the principle

that certain materials (like iron oxide) when
brought in a magnetic field, get magnetized
and retain the magnetism permanently until
altered.

The various steps involved in magnetic

recording are described below.
• When a tape with a coating of a magnetic
• Sound pressure variations are converted into material (like iron oxide) is made to pass across
electrical variations (audio signal) by a the gap, the lines of force get an easy path
microphone. through the iron oxide which is formed into
elementary magnets.
• The audio output of the microphone is amplified
and fed to the coil of an electromagnet.
• The magnetic strength of electromagnet and
hence through the gap covered by the iron oxide
• The electromagnet (called ‘Head’) has a minute
of the tape depends on the audio current.
gap through magnetic lines of force cannot pass
easily due to high reluctance of air.
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• Thus the coating of iron oxide on the tape is

• In reproducing the recorded sound, the tape is
magnetized in accordance with the audio again made to pass through a similar gap (or even
current and hence, in accordance with the the same gap) and it causes change of lines of
sound pressure variations. force through the coil.

• This induces e.m.f (audio signal) in the coil which

• The magnetism in the iron oxide can remain is in accordance with the rate of change of
retained for long time. magnetic flux in the tape.

• The induced e.m.f is amplified and is fed to the

• This means that sound has been recorded in loudspeaker which converts the audio signal into
the form of varying magnetic field. sound.

• Figure shows a magnetized tape for 3 cycles of audio signal.

• Recorded Wavelength, Gap-Width and Tape
Speed
• As the wavelength decreases , the length of the bar magnets
formed on the tape decreases. Each cycles give rise to two bar • The length of the tape magnetized by one cycle of
magnets. audio signal is called recorded wavelength. It is
expresses by Equation
λ=
– where , λ = recorded wavelength in cm
– S = speed of tape in cm/sec
– F = frequency of audio signal in Hz
– As the frequency increases, λ decreases.
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• In playback, audio signal in coil is proportional

to rate of change of mag field
• Rate of change increases with freq of signal
• When gap = wavelength -> output is zero
• Maximum when gap = half wavelength
• Decreases with increasing frequency
• Thus gap put is upper limit on high freq.
response
• Gap needs to be as small as possible
• Typical 10^-5 m

Relationship between gap-width , tape • One cycle of variation covers distance= λ on the tape.

speed and frequency • If T is the time period in second (i.e. time taken in
completing one cycle), then , in T second, distance covered
• The relationship between speed (S), gap width =λ
(G) and the highest usable frequency, fm is
• Hence in 1 second, distance covered =
expressed by Eq:
𝑆
𝑓 = • As distance covered in 1 second is called speed,
2𝐺
• So, Speed, 𝑆= = 𝑓𝜆

• Then, 𝜆 =
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• For optimum output, gap-width should be

Choice of tape speed
equal to for the highest frequency of use • If speed is high, programme of only small duration will be
(fm). recorded, because the cycle of audio wave will occupy long
space on the tape as,
– Distance occupied= Speed/ frequency
• Hence, Gap-width, 𝐺 = =
• Hence, for long play tapes, low speed is preferable.

• However if the speed is low, cycles will occupy small space,

• Then, 𝑓 = reducing resolution between adjacent cycles.

• The high audio frequency cycles, in particular, will merge

with each other. This will give rise to distortion. Further
closeness of bar magnets of opposite polarities will weaken
the magnetic strength.

• In view of these considerations, compromise is Besides tape transport mechanism, a tape

made while choosing the tape speed. recorder consists of the following parts:
• Tape
• The speeds which have been standardized for • Recording Head
tapes are: • Playback head
– 38 cm/s • Erase Head
– 19 cm/s • Microphone and recording amplifiers
– 9.5 cm/s
• Playback amplifiers and loudspeaker
– 4.75 cm/s
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Tape and tape materials Tape and tape materials

• Tape consists of a tough unstretchable non • However chrome type need a higher magnetic fields
and is costly. Also chrome type require 40 % more bias
magnetic base or backing material coated with than iron oxide tape.
fine particles of a magnetic material, such as
ferric oxide or cobalt doped ferric oxide (Fe2O3) or • Some good quality tapes use iron-alloy rather than
chromium dioxide (CrO2). oxide of iron or chrome. Iron alloy has a high coercivity
and hence its high frequency response is the best of all.
• Fe2O3 is prone to self demagnetization, but
• The tapes come in various standard widths, like 6.3.
chrome type has high coercivity and hence self- 12.7, 25.4 and 50.8 mm (or quarter inch, half inch)
destruction is very much reduced resulting in
good high audio frequency response. • Thickness is about 38 microns

Qualities of good tape Recording head.

• Not stretch • Consists of ring shaped ,high permeability core (mu-
metal or ferrite) with a very narrow gap, about 6
• High coercivity micron wide.
• Base should be tough material • Nickel-iron-molybdenum alloy
• Uniform coating
• Uniform thickness • Coil is wound on soft iron core.

• Record coils have an inductance between 0.5 to 7 mH

and are designed to take maximum operating level
current.
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Playback head Playback head

• In domestic low priced recorders, the record • Inductance is 10 times> that of record head.
head itself acts as a playback head.
• The wire is thin as small current is handled by
• Professional recorders use a separate head for it.
playback.
• Output is around 1 mV.
• This head has a narrow gap (4microns or less)
for better high frequency response.

Erase Head. Erase Head.

• It is also a core with high permeability with a gap. • The erase field should be such that the magnetic
recording is reduced in amplitude by atleast 75 dB.
• Coil has inductance of 40 to 80 mH.
• The erasing field is 5 times or more then the highest
• The gap width is much wider than record head. freq.

• Radio frequency current is passed through the coil and • Thus it is 100kHz for Hi-Fi tapes and 40 KHz for other
it demagnetizes the tape. tapes.

• Power of 2 to 4 watts is required for erasing.

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Advantages Disadvantages
1. There are no vibrating parts and hence
immune to wear and quality does not 1. Modulation noise is present in tapes.
deteriorate on playing. 2. Copying from one tape to others is not so
2. Editing and Dubbing is easy. easy as production of playback discs from
3. Recording can be monitored simultaneously master plate.
and can be used for immediate playback. 3. To search a program a tape is to be run from
4. The same tape can be used again for the very start , this is cumbersome.
recording different programs by simply 4. Transient response is not good in tapes.
erasing the previous program.

Tape Transport Mechanism Tape Transport Mechanism

• Tape needs to move steadily
• Standard direction travel is from left to right
• Professional type have separate motors for
supply, take-up and capstan
• Domestic have only one
– Capstan
• Fast fwd uses gears
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Head

• Capstan is a spindle, machined accurately that

pulls the tape past the heads
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Tape Recorder block diagram • Microphone: Sound waves strike the diaphragm of the
microphone which converts the sound pressure variation
into electrical signals, called audio signal.

• Pre-amplifier: It amplifies the weak output of the

microphone. Its noise figure is low.

• Processing circuits: These circuits in record section control

gain and level of recording and also provide de-emphasis
for low frequency and high frequency audio signal resp.

• Driver amplifier: It gives further voltage amplification to the

signal so as to reduce the internal resistance of the power
amplifier and hence, to drive it to give power amplification.

• Record/Play switch: It connects either the recording

• Power amplifier: It amplifies the power of the audio signal amplifier to the record/play head for the recording, or
so as to drive the record head. the preamplifier for playback.
• Filter: It is a trap circuit which does not allow bias
Oscillator’s signal to go to the amplifier as it will • Pre-amplifier, driver amplifier and power amplifier in
unnecessarily get overloaded the playback path have the same functions as
described above for the recording path.
• Head: There is one erase head before the record-head,
pressing on the tape. It erases all previous recordings.
• The processor does just the opposite of what has been
done by the processor in the recording chain. It
• The next to erase head is the record head which is also
generally playback head as shown in the block diagram. deemphasizes the high audio frequency signals and
– For professional Hi-Fi recording, a separate play back head is emphasizes the low frequency signals to restore the
used after the record-head). original proportionalities of sound. It also contains
– The record Head records audio current in the form of varying volume control, and treble and bass controls.
magnetic field in the magnetic material of the tape.
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Wow and Flutter Distortions Wow and Flutter Distortions

• Produced when tape speed is not steady • When variation is more than 6 Hz (upto 100
Hz) the distortion in sound is called ‘flutter’
• If variation in speed is in the range of 0.5 to 6
Hz, playback will result in sound having slow • It resembles a quiver
up and down variation in pitch.
• Caused by damaged capstan or pressure roller
• These variations sound similar to that of a or damaged disc
siren and is called ‘Wow’

Rumble and Hissing Noise Reduction Techniques

• Rumble - Low frequency distortion caused by • Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
mechanical vibrations of motor body or • Dolby’s method
capstan

• Hissing – Due to irregularities in tape coating

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Dolby’s Method Dolby’s Method

• Provides 10-15 dB improvement in SNR
• In normal pre-emphasis only weak high
frequencies are emphasized
• In Dolby, all weak signals irrespective of
frequency are emphasized
• When strength is < 40dB (e.g.) of any
frequency, it is boosted
• Signals above 40 dB are not changed

Dolby A system Dolby A system

• Boosting is done in 4 Bands • 16 – 80 Hz goes through LP
– Below 80 Hz – Improves SNR wrt hum and rumble
– 80 – 2999 Hz • 80 to 3 KHz goes through BP
– 3000 Hz and above – Improves mid band SNR
– 9000 Hz and above • 3 KHz to 9 KHz goes through HP
• Bands 3 and 4 overlap above 9000 Hz – Improves SNR wrt Hiss and modulation noise
– Hissing (high freq) is substantially reduced • Outputs are added to the main branch
• Each band using LP,BP, HP filters and limiters
 21-10-2024

Dolby A system Dolby A system

• Gives an improvement if 10 dB in SNR up to 5
KHz
• Up to 15 dB at 15 KHz and above

Dolby B system
• More simple than Dolby B for home use
• 500 Hz and above are processed
• 1 dB at 500 Hz increases to 10 dB at 10 KHz Optical Recording.
 21-10-2024

1.Recording on photographic films.

• This is done by converting audio signals into
• Optical recording of sound is of 2 types: variations of light intensity falling on the film.
1.Recording on photographic films.
2.Recording of compact discs.
• Such recording of sound appears in the form
of a sound track, 2.5 mm wide near one edge
of the movie film.

1.Recording on photographic films.

Variable density method
• Intensity of light from a slit is made to vary in AEO Lamp (Vacuum Tube)

accordance with the sound pressure

variations.

• When this varying light falls on the edge of

the main film, a photograph of varying light
intensity is recorded in the same way of
variations of light from a picture are recorded.
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Variable area method

• Output of mic is fed to anode of AEO Lamp

• Vacuum tube is filled with helium gas

• Intensity of lamp output varies with audio input

• Light is recorded as bars of varying distance and

density.

Reproduction of sound from films

• Sound recorded as an photograph of varying
area.
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Compact Disc (CD)

• Audio from the film is placed 37cm in advance • Digital system
of the corresponding picture frame • Immune to noise
• Each picture is projected twice to remove • Makes use of laser diodes to read and record
flicker effect
– Hence picture part of film has to move in jerks
– But audio should be smooth.

Optical Recording on Disc

• 0.5um width
• 1 um depth
• 1-3um length
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• Resist Master Disc

• Laser beam is modulated by digitized audio
• 44.1 kHz sampling
• 16 bit data
• 0.7056 Mbps • 1 is transition from OFF to ON.

• Master is • Modulated laser beam strikes master disc and

made of glass reacts with photo-resist
disc • Disc is then developed
• It is coated • Master is then coated with silver to make it
with photo- electrically conducting
resist • Father disc
compound
– Obtained by nickel plating master disc
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• After plating nickel is peeled off the master • Mother disc are plated and peeled to produce
disc son disc
• Father disc is again plated and peeled giving • Son disc is called negative nickel-plated stamper
mother disc. • Final disc is produced using stamping process
– 10 mother discs are produced from one father – 10000 discs per stamper
disc
– Made of polycarbonate
• Mother disc
– Thin layer of aluminium is added to make disk
– Inverted from master disc, cannot be used for final reflective
production
– Also protected by thin layer of lacquer

Playback Process

Half-silvered mirror

AlGaAs Laser 780um

 21-10-2024

• Stereo signals are multiplexed before

modulation of laser
• Disc rotates at 500rpm at center and about
200rpm at edge
• Scanning speed is 1.2m/s, total track length is
6km
• Total playing time is 60mins
• Freq response is 20 to 20kHz with SNR of 90dB

Modern CD
• Advantages • Disadvantages
– Not affected by dust,
grease and scratches – Recording cannot
– SNR is high at 90dB be erased
– High dynamic range
~ 90dB
– High channel
separation of 80dB
– No wow, flutter noise
– Total distortion is low
– Excellent frequency
response
– Small size
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Video Disc VCD

• Disadvantages of magnetic tape
– Capacity is limited
– Replication is time consuming
– Random access is not possible
– Magnetic tape is expensive
– Wear and tear is high
– Handling requires special precautions

Playback Process
• Photo resist is of 130um thickness
• Disc rotates at 1500 rpm for European and
1800 rpm for American systems
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DVD (Digital Video Disk) Recording

• VCD had capacity of an hour worth data • Recording on DVD is made using a dye
• DVD are higher density transformed by sharply focused laser of
10mW
• Use red light laser • Dye is spin coated onto clear polycarbonate
substrate
• Substrate has pre grooved spiral track
• Dye later is heated by laser beam, which
undergoes permanent transformation into
marks.

• Thin layer of aluminium is coated for

reflection
• A protective later of transparent material is
applied
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Audio Amplifiers Voltage Amplifiers

• 2 types of amplifiers • Used as pre-amplifiers, buffer amplifiers or
– Voltage amplifiers driver amplifiers
– Power amplifiers
• Main function is to amplify signal voltage

• Driver amplifier gives sufficient voltage to

reduce the resistance of power amplifier

Power Amplifiers Audio Amplifiers

• Final amplification stage • Class A
– Gives o/p for entire cycle
– 25% efficiency
• Can be single stage or push-pull type – Low distortion
– Linear
• Delivers power to the loudspeakers • Class B
– Half cycle output
– 78% efficient
– Severe distortion
– Used in push-pull configuration
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Audio Amplifiers Audio Amplifiers Characteristics

• Class C • Bandwidth
– Less than half cycle output – Flat response for 20-20 kHz
– 90% efficient
• Distortion
– Highest distortion
– Frequency – all freq. not amplified equally
– Used in RF applications
– Phase – phase relationship is not maintained
• Class D between i/p and o/p
– Digital
– Amplitude (non-linear)
– Assignment! (Working, block diagram, common
IC’s) – Self oscillations, due to positive feedback

Audio Amplifiers Characteristics Amplifier Circuits

• Power output • Voltage Amplifier
– Should be Sufficient – RC coupling has better distortion characteristics
– Few watts to several hundred
– High dissipation required heat sinks
• Impedance
– Should be properly matched
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Amplifier Circuits Amplifier Circuits

• Power Amplifier • Power Amplifier
– Single transistor – Push-Pull
– Should high power • Even harmonics
– Matching transformer cancelled
• Transformer core
– low internal resistance
is not saturated
• Heat dissipation is lower

Amplifier Circuits Amplifier Circuits

• Power Amplifier
• Power Amplifier – Complimentary Push-Pull without transformer
– Complimentary Push-Pull
• Requires same polarity at input of both transistors
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Amplifier Circuits Controls in Audio Amplifiers

• Power Amplifier
– Complimentary Push-Pull without transformer • Microphone gain control
• No dual power supply
• No output transformer
– Costly
– Bulky
– Picks up hum from mains
– Can introduce distortion
– Resonance effect at some frequencies

Controls in Audio Amplifiers Controls in Audio Amplifiers

• Volume control • Tone control
– After the mixer stage (master volume control) – Some people like bass, other like treble
– Greater noise is in the high frequencies
• To keep high SNR treble is cut
– Hum and external noises are in low frequencies
• Bass is cut
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Controls in Audio Amplifiers Controls in Audio Amplifiers

• Treble cut • Bass Control
– Pot towards c, more treble cut – Bass is cut when capacitive reactance in series
Treble cut
increases (capacitance decreases)
– When pot is at top c1 S.C., zero reactance
– When pot is at lower pos,
Max reactance!

Treble boost

Controls in Audio Amplifiers Special types of tone controls

• Combined Bass & Treble Control • 1. Parametric Equalizer.
• 2. Graphic Equalizer.
 21-10-2024

Parametric Equalizer
• Provides variable boost or cut of up to 15dB
• Parameters like frequency and bandwidth can
be varied
• Certain frequencies can be cut or boosted

Graphic Equalizer Graphic Equalizer

• Audio spectrum is divided into narrow bands
• Each band has individual control
• Boost or cut +15dB to -15dB
 21-10-2024

The ideal fidelity should have the

High Fidelity (Hi-Fi) following characteristics:
• The word ‘Fidelity’ means faithfulness. 1. Complete exclusion of noise from sound. The signal to noise ratio
should be indefinite.
• In audio systems, it is used to indicate faithful 2. Flat (0 dB) frequency response for complete audio range of
frequencies from 16 Hz to 20 kHz . It means that there should be
reproduction of sound. no frequency distortion.
3. Non-linear distortion (or amplitude distortion) should be nil.
4. High dynamic range from 0 dB to 130 dB signal power.
5. Ability to give sense of direction to identity the relative positions
from which different sounds are produced in original programme.
It means that there should be no ‘spatial distortion’.
6. Environmental conditions should be simulated where the sound is
being reproduced.

The following requirements of High The following requirements of High

Fidelity are: Fidelity are:
1. Signal to noise ratio should be better than 50 1. Signal to noise ratio should be better than 50
dB. dB.
2. Frequency response should be flat within ± 1 – Hum, hiss, crosstalk, self osc., RF interference,
dB over the frequency range of 40 Hz to 15000 irregularities in recording medium, ambient noise
Hz. pickup, etc.
3. Non-linear distortion should not be more than – Low noise pre-amps, proper shielding and
1% grounding, decoupling and filtering, stable power
4. Dynamic range of at least 80dB supply, pre-emphasis, equalization circuits, good
quality components
5. Stereo effect
 21-10-2024

The following requirements of High

Stereo System
Fidelity are:
1. Non-linear distortion should not be more than • Stereo – Solid / 3D
1% • Sound from different directions – 3D effect
– Negative feedback amps, biasing • Separate channels of audio
– At least 2: left and right

25cm

3-4 m
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