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Pointers-to-Review - pinter for grade 9 science 2nd quarter

BSEd- Science (Bonga National High School)

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2nd Quarter Science – Chemistry

Pointers to Review

I. HISTORY OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

II. ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF MATTER
III. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
IV. CHEMICAL BONDING
V. CHEMICAL BONDING PROPERTIES
VI. CARBON STRUCTURE
VII. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
VIII. MOLE CONCEPT
IX. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

I. HISTORY OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

A. Democritus
- Proposed that matter was composed of tiny indivisible particles
- He named the smallest piece of matter: “ATOMOS” (not to be cut)
B. John Dalton
- He deduced that all elements are composed of atoms.
- Atoms are tiny, hard and indestructible
C. JJ Thomson
- Cathode Ray Tube Experiments
- Discovered Electrons
- Plum-pudding Model (positive sphere (pudding) with negative electrons (plums) dispersed
throughout)
D. Ernest Rutherford
- Gold Foil Experiment
- Discovered the nucleus
- Nuclear Model
E. Niels Bohr
- Bright-Line Spectrum
- Planetary Model (electrons move in circular orbits within specific energy levels)
F. Erwin Schrödinger
- Quantum mechanics (electrons can only exist in specified energy states)
- Electron cloud model (orbital: region around the nucleus where e- are likely to be found)
- Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom (modern atomic model, dots represent probability of finding an
e- not actual electrons)

II. ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Quantum Mechanical Model

➢ This model views electron as a cloud of negative charge
Basis:
1. Louis De Broglie – electron is both wave and a particle
2. Werner Heisenberg – electrons cannot be located exactly
3. Erwin Schrodinger – developed a mathematical equation to find the
probable location of n electron
Orbital – region in space where electrons are most likely to be found

Specifically, the quantum mechanical model states the following:

1. Electrons that surround the nucleus are confined to regions called principal energy levels or shells.
Principal Energy level or Shells - region of space around the nucleus containing electrons having
approximately the same energy.

1.1 Shells are numbered, n = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 or named as K, L, M, N, O, P, Q

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1.2 Electrons closer to the nucleus are held tightly and are lower in energy.
1.3 Electrons farther to the nucleus are held less tightly and are higher in energy.
1.4 It takes an energy to move an electron away form the nucleus to an outer circle.
1.5 The farther the shell from the nucleus, the more electrons it can hold.

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE – electrons fill the atomic orbitals of the lowest energy levels
before occupying higher levels.

Pauli’s Exclusion principle

o Only two electrons can occupy an orbital at a time and each must have an opposite spin.
o Orbital diagram – represent the population of electrons with rectangles (∏) as orbitals
and arrows(↑↓) as electrons.

Hund’s Rule
o Each orbital must be filled up first before pairing of electrons must occur.
o When electrons enter a sublevel containing more than one orbital, they will spread out over
the available orbitals before they pair up.

2. Shells are divided into subshells or sublevels, identified as s, p, d, f.

Sublevel or subshell – region of the space within an electron shell that contains electrons that have
the same energy.
3. The number of sublevels or subshells in each principal energy level or shell is equal to the number
of energy of that energy level.
4. These subshells consist of orbitals.
4.1 Each Subshell contains a specific number of orbitals.
4.2 Each orbital can hold two electrons.

III. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

- Describes how electrons are arranged in successive orbitals.
- The distribution of electrons within the orbitals of the atoms of an element
- Filling of electrons start from lower energy level to highest energy level.

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Example: Long-hand
1. 2𝐻𝑒 = 1𝑠 2
2. 11𝑁𝑎 = 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 3𝑠 1
3. 35𝐵𝑟 = 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 3𝑠 2 3𝑝6 4𝑠 2 3𝑑104𝑝5

Example: Shorthand
1. 17𝐶𝑙 = [𝑁𝑒]3𝑠 2 3𝑝5
2. 11𝑁 = [𝑁𝑒]3𝑠 1
3. 35𝐵𝑟 = [𝐴𝑟]4𝑠 2 3𝑑10 4𝑝5

IV. CHEMICAL BONDING

- Period – a single horizontal row in the periodic table.
- Group or family – a vertical column of elements that have similar physical and chemical properties.
1. A group – representative elements
2. B group – transition elements
- Valence electrons – electrons found at the outermost energy level. Electrons are directly involved
in forming bonds to form compounds.
- Electronegativity – measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electron. The ability of an atom
to attract electrons towards itself.
 ↑ its value; ↑ its tendency to attract e-
 Left to Right – Increase
 Top to Bottom – Decrease
- Ionization energy – the energy needed to pull or remove electrons from a neutral atom.
 The lower the ionization energy, the easier it is to remove its electrons.
 Left to Right – Increases
 Top to Bottom – Decreases

A. Ionic Bonding
• Kind of chemical bond which involves transfer of electrons.
• Between metals and non-metals.
• Examples:
a. Na and Cl; Mg and O
b. Mg and Br; Ca and Cl
c. K and S
• Electrostatic force – holds the ions together
• Conduct electricity when they are molten or dissolved – but not in solid.
• High melting points.
• Often soluble in water.
• Common Ionic Compounds
1. Sodium chloride-salt
✓ Cooking
✓ Cleansing solution
✓ Can be dissolved in water as electrolyte solution for rehydration
2. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)-baking soda
✓ Baking
✓ Relieve heartburn, sour stomach, or acid indigestion by neutralizing excess stomach acid
3. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
✓ Common forms: chalk, limestone and marble.

B. Covalent Bonding
- Kind of chemical bond which involves sharing of electrons.
- Between non-metals.
- Example: CH4 and CO2

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- Steps:
- Compute the total number of v.e-
- Compute for the Octet rule requirement that each atom should have 8 v.e-
- Subtract a from b and divide by 2; it is the number of bonds around the central atom.

- Non-polar Covalent compounds

• Weak intermolecular forces
• Low melting points
• High volatilities
• Low boiling points
• Nonconductors of electricity in solid and liquid phases

- Polar Covalent compounds

• Stronger intermolecular forces
• Lower volatilities
• Higher boiling and melting points
• Good solvents for other polar substances, but not for nonpolar substances
•

C. Metallic Bonding
- Metals have low ionization energy so they easily lose their outermost electron.
- The electrons are not tightly attracted to the positive nucleus, they are easily removed.
- The chemical bond which holds the metallic atoms together, and which accounts for their
properties.
- The electrons are not moving around one nucleus only.
- The positive atomic nuclei of the metal are surrounded by electrons moving freely throughout the
piece of metal.
- Valence electrons are detached from the atoms but not held by any other atom.
- These v.e- are free from any particular atom and are only held collectively by the entire
assemblage of atom.
- These moving electrons in metals are called as “Sea of Electrons”.

Sea of Electrons
□ This arrangement gives rise to typical metallic properties such as thermal and electrical conductivity,
ductility, malleability, and luster.
□ Metallic bonds are the strongest of all bonds among atoms.

- Common Metals
o Gold o Copper
o Silver o Aluminum
o Tin o Nickel

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- Alloys
o The combination of metal with other chemical elements forming a solution or chemical compound
that retains metallic properties.
o Often have properties that are different to the metals they contain.
o Amalgam
➢ Hg (45-55%), Ag, Sn, Cu, and Zn
➢ Dental fillings
o Brass
➢ Cu (65-90%), Zn (10-35%)
➢ Door locks and bolts, musical instruments
o Bronze
➢ Cu (78-95%), Sn (5-22%), plus Mn, P, Al, Si
➢ Decorative statues
o Steel (general)
➢ Fe (89-98%), C (0.2-2%), plus others such as Cr, Mn, V
➢ Metal structures, car and plane parts, and many other uses.
o Stainless steel
➢ Fe (50+%), Cr (10-30%), small amounts of C, Ni, Mn, Mo, and others
➢ Jewelry, medical tools, tableware
o White Gold
➢ Au (75%), Pd (17%), Ag (4%), Cu (4%)
➢ Jewelry

V. CHEMICAL BONDING PROPERTIES

VI. CARBON STRUCTURE

➢ Organic chemistry
• The study of the compounds of Carbon.
• An exceptionally important area of chemistry because majority of chemicals occurring either
naturally or synthetically are organic compounds.

➢ Carbon
• Each carbon atom has four unpaired electrons in its outer energy shell.
• It can form covalent bonds up to four other atoms, including other carbon atoms.
• Fundamental structures of carbon-based molecules:

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• Has the ability to form long chains of carbon because carbon-carbon bonds are extremely strong.
• Since it makes four bonds, it can exist in many different forms – isomers.
• Allotropy – the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms –
allotropes.
• Allotropes – different structural forms of a single chemical element. These forms result from the
different ways atoms can bond to one another.

➢ Allotropes of Carbon
• Amorphous Carbon
• formed when a material containing carbon is burned without enough oxygen for it to
burn completely.
• Graphite
• One of the softest materials known.
• Most commercial graphite is produced by treating petroleum coke, a black tar
residue remaining after the refinement of crude oil, in an oxygen-free oven.
• Diamond
• One of the hardest substances known.
• Made by squeezing graphite under high temperatures and pressures for several
days or weeks and are primarily used to make things like diamond tipped saw
blades.
• Buckyball (Buckminsterfullerene)
• One of the first nanoparticles discovered.
• Composed only of carbon atoms linked to three other carbon atoms by covalent
bonds.
• Can trap other atoms within their framework.
• Readily accepts and donates electrons, a behavior that suggests possible
applications in batteries and advanced electronic devices.
• Capable of withstanding great pressure and have magnetic and superconductivity properties.
• Carbon-14
• a radioactive isotope of carbon; is used to find the age of formerly living things through a process
known as radiocarbon dating.
• White Carbon (Chaoite)
• a transparent material that can split a single beam of light into two beams, a property known as
birefringence.
• Rare hexagonal polymorph of Graphite and Diamond formed only in a meteoric environment where
extreme heat and pressure caused it to form.

VII. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

➢ Hydrocarbons
- Organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen.

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1. Saturated – all carbons are linked by single bonds.

a. Alkanes – carbon atoms are all linked by a single
bond.
o Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds.
o General formula: CnH2n+2
o Examples: methane, ethane, propane
o Ending in –ane.
o 1C to 4C – Gas
o 5C to 16C – Liquid
o 17C and above – Solid

2. Unsaturated – having at least a carbon-carbon double bond or triple bond.

a. Alkenes – carbon atoms are linked by at least one double bond.
o Unsaturated hydrocarbons; contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond.
o General formula: CnH2n
o Serve as primary materials in the production of polymers and in the manufacture of
plastics.
o Ending in –ene.
o Indicate the position of carbon-carbon double bond.
o The lowest possible number is assigned to the C-C double bond.

b. Alkynes- carbon atoms are linked by at least one triple bond.

o Unsaturated hydrocarbons; contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.
o General formula: CnH2n-2
o Ending in –yne.

➢ Hydrocarbon derivatives
✓ Results when one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon was replaced by another kind of atom
or group of atoms.
✓ Functional group – the substituted atom or group of atoms
✓ Alkyl group – a side chain that is formed by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane. Named by
attaching –yl.

a. Alcohols
o Any organic compound in which a hydroxyl functional group (-OH) is bound to carbon,
usually connected to other carbon or hydrogen atom.
o Colorless liquids with characteristic smell.
o High boiling points.
o Hydroxyl group, -OH, is the functional group.
o General formula: R – OH
o Where: R – alkyl group and -OH – the functional group
o Used as antiseptic or disinfectant, cleaning agents, others are used as component of
liquor, and few are used as fuel for stoves or other types of burners.
o Naming:
o Change the ending into –ol (IUPAC).
o Indicate the alkyl group, followed by alcohol.
o Indicate the position of –OH.
o Example:
▪ Isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol)/2-propanol –
disinfectant/sanitizer, fuel additive.
▪ Ethanol – antiseptics, alcoholic drinks, fuel, solvent for food additives
▪ Methanol – petroleum additives to improve combustion

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b. Aldehydes
o Characterized by the presence of a carbon atom that is doubly bonded to an oxygen
atom (carbonyl group) and located at the terminal portion of the carbon chain.
o General formula: R – CHO
o Where: R – alkyl group
o Naming: Change the ending into –al (IUPAC).
o Example:
▪ Methanal/Formaldehyde – used as preservatives in laboratories and
morgues. Colorless and has a very strong smell.
▪ Ethanal/Acetaldehyde – used as starting material in the synthesis of acetic
acid.

c. Ketones
o The carbonyl group is found at the interior of a carbon chain and is bonded to two alkyl or
aromatic groups.
o General formula: RCOR’
▪ Where: R – alkyl group
o Naming:
▪ Change the ending into –one (IUPAC).
▪ Indicate the position of the carbonyl group.
o Example:
▪ Acetone/2-propanone (CH3COCH3) – nail polish remover, solvents for lacquer
and varnish, used for drying glass wares.

VIII. MOLE CONCEPT

➢ Mole
✓ The fundamental unit of measurement of a substance and can be defined as the number equal
to the number of carbon atoms in 12.01 grams of carbon.
✓ A mole of a substance is 6.02 x 1023 representative particles (atoms, molecules, formula units)
of that substance.
✓ Thus, it is just another counting unit.
✓ Was originally coined by the German chemist Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (1853 – 1932). It
means “heap” or “pile”.
✓ 1 mole of H atoms laid side by side would encircle the earth ~ 1,000,000 times.
✓ If you put together 6.02 x 1023 basketballs, it will be as big as the Earth.

➢ Avogadro’s Number (N)

✓ The value of a mole.
✓ Named after Amedeo/Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856) (Italian lawyer and physicist).
✓ The number of particles in one mole of a substance.
✓ It is equivalent to a very large number of 6.02 x 1023 particles.
✓ (6.0221415 x 1023)

➢ Conversion
✓ Mole to Number of Particles Conversion
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴.𝑁.
no. of particles = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝐴. 𝑁.

✓ Mass to Mole
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

✓ Mass to Number of Particles

1. Determine the mass and molar mass of the substance (element or compound)
2. Calculate the number of moles of the substance
3. Determine the number of particles (atoms, molecules, formula units)

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IX. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

Definition. The mass of each element in a compound compared to the entire mass of the compound
multiplied by 100 percent.
I. To find the percentage composition of each element by mass data of a compound, use the
formula below:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑑

Sample Problem:
What is the percentage composition of a compound that is found to contain 34.6 grams of oxygen and
87.0 grams of nitrogen?

Given: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 34.6𝑔, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 87.0 𝑔

Solution:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 34.6 𝑔 + 87.0 𝑔 = 121.6g

34.6𝑔
%𝑂 = 𝑥 100 = 28.45%
121.6𝑔
87.0𝑔
%𝑁 = 𝑥 100 = 71.55%
121.6𝑔
II. Discuss the process on how to find the percentage composition given the chemical formula,
refer to the example below.
Sample Problem:
Calculate the percent composition of the compound 𝐻2 𝑂.
Solution:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 2 𝐻 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑥 1.01𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 2.02𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 1 𝑂 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑥 16.00𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 16.00𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 2.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 + 16.00 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 18.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

2.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
%𝐻 = 𝑥 100 = 11.21%
18.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
16.00 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
%0 = 𝑥 100 = 88.79%
18.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

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