Research: Definition, meaning

Research (re-search) means ‘to search again’. It is the search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic.
According to Redman and Mory research is a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.

Fred N. Kerlinger in his popular book Foundations of Behavioural Research, has defined
scientific research as“a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”.
.
Roger D.Wimmer and Joseph R.Dominick have defined scientific research as “an
organized, objective, controlled, qualitative or quantitative empirical analysis of one or more
variables”
Characteristics of Research
i. Systematic- Research is a systematic process. This implies that the procedure adopted to
undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.
ii. Unbiased and objective- Research should be objective. It means that we have taken each
step in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of our ability and without
introducing our own vested interest.
iii. Controlled- In research, there are many factors (variables) that affect the outcome of the
study and our intention is to establish cause and effect relationship among them. The concept
of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, we set up our study
in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
iv. Valid and verifiable- This concept implies that whatever we conclude on the basis of our
findings is correct and can be verified by us and others.
vi. Empirical- This means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real life experiences or observations. he findings should be
adequately supported with evidences.
vi. Critical- Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Importance of research in managerial decision making.
The process of undertaking a detailed study of all the areas of a business including its
customers and the market and effectively using such information gathered in maximizing the
sales and profit of the business can be called as Business Research. Business research is the
process of gathering the necessary data for an industry to be successful. Business research is
synonymous with market research, but companies typically use every type of market research
available to fully analyze their business situation: industry analysis, product research, and
even identifying key customer groups.
Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand customers, the market and
competitors. Such a research helps companies to understand the demand and supply of the
market. Such a research will help businesses reduce costs, and create solutions or products
that are targeted to the demand in the market and the correct audience.
Business research enables the company to track its competitors and hence can give you the
upper hand to stay ahead of them. Failures can be avoided by conducting such a research as it
can give the researcher an idea if the time is right to launch its product/solution. It will help
understand the brand value and measure customer satisfaction which is essential to
continuously innovate and meet customer demands. This will help the company grow its
revenue and market share. Business research also helps recruit the ideal candidates for
various roles in the company. By conducting such a research a company can carry out SWOT
analysis, i.e. understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. With the help of
this information, wise decisions can be made to ensure business success.
Business research is the first step that any business owner needs to set up his business, to
survive or to excel in the market. The main reason why such a research is of utmost
importance is because it helps businesses to grow in terms of revenue, market share and
brand value.

The business research process is necessary to assist managers in making major business
decisions. Its major advantages are;
1. Business research helps identify opportunities and threats.
2.It helps to identify problems and wise decisions can be made.
3. It helps to understand customers better and hence can be useful to communicate better with
the customers or stakeholders.
4.Risks and uncertainties can be minimized by conducting business research in advance.
5.Financial outcomes and investments that will be needed can be planned effectively using
business research.
6. Help track competition in the business sector.
.7.Business research can enable a company to stay up-to date with the market and its trends.
1.5 Application of research in business
The broad areas of research in Business management are:
a.Marketing
b. Finance
c. HR
d. Production
e. Entrepreneurship
a.Application of Research in Marketing:
- Decision making
- Market research
- Survey on demand
- Product research
- Customer research
- Sales research
- Promotional research
- Risk management on collaboration
- Research for market development
- Research on marketing and reach of competitors
- Research on formation of marketing strategy
- Research to build up competitive advantage
b. Application of Research in Finance:
- Break even analysis
-Capital Budgeting
- Ratio analysis
-Portfolio management
-Financial crisis management
- Decision making
- Risk perception
-Investment analysis
- Strategies for tax savings
c. Application of Research in HR:
- Training and development
- Recruitment
- Manpower planning
- Labour welfare study
- Administrative roles
-Performance appraisal system
- Leadership style
- Problem identification
- Conflict management
d. Application of Research in Production:
- Supply chain management
- Testing new products
- Prototype development
- In-house research is required for professional and self development of the workers through
training and mentoring
- Undertaking research can help a company avoid future failure
- New technology approach
-Strategic module for overall production and distribution
- Operational module for production and sales synchronization
- R&D for fully utilization of the machines
e. Application of Research in Entrepreneurship
-Market analysis
- Barriers in start-ups
- Diversification and reverse strategy
- Existing competitors or substitutes
- Competitive advantage
- Differentiation from others
- Investment decisions
- Govt. rules and regulations
- Social culture and practices to utilize the opportunities

1.6 The Research Process

The scientific research process is a multiple-step process that consists of;
1. Identification and selection of research problem
2. Review the Literature
3. Formulation of research problem
4. Preparation of research design
 5. Construction of data collection instruments
6. Collection of data
7. Processing of data
8. Analysis of data
9. Writing and Presentation of report

1. Identification and selection of research problem

Research problem is the topic or title of the research. It is a phenomenon that the researcher
intends to explore. Research problem in business research may;
-a disturbing situation that needs to be solved
- A question that needs to be in answered
-A concept that the researcher wants to understand
- Cause and effect relationship the researcher wants to explore
Identification of research problem refers to the sense of awareness of a prevalent the
business problem, a social phenomenon or a concept that is worth. The researcher
identifies such a research problem through his observation, knowledge, wisdom and
skills.
The sources for identification of a research problem are as follows;
i. subject area of the researcher
ii. knowledge of the current social Trends- issues and situations
iii. knowledge of political and economic trends- issues and situations
iv on-going programs and initiatives- evaluation of their effectiveness etc.
v. deep observation
vi. cause effect relationship of a phenomena
vii. awareness for social surrounding
viii. literature survey, and
ix. personal experiences- situations faced by the researcher.
After the identification of viable topic, the next step is to select the best affordable topic.
While selecting the researcher should consider the following;
i. One unique topic to avoid duplication of studies
ii. Researcher’s interest in the topic
iii. Subject area and expertise of the researcher
iv. Urgency to address the problem
v significance of the topic
vi. Resource availability - time and money
vii. Availability of enough literature- for initial theoretical understanding
viii. Applicability of methodology in the specific topic
ix. Ethical considerations of the topic
2. Review the Literature
This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature
also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these
studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In short, a literature review
has the following functions:
a.It provides a theoretical background to the study.
b.It helps to establish the links between what we are proposing to examine and what has
already been studied.
c.It enables to show how the findings have contributed to the existing body of knowledge .
d.It helps to integrate the research findings into the existing body of knowledge.
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
1. Searching for the existing literature in the area of study.
2. Reviewing the selected literature.
3. Developing a theoretical framework.
4. Developing a conceptual framework.
3. Formulation of a research problem
Formulation of a research problem refers to state the problem in a researchable manner..
Problem formulation is the process of translating and transforming the selected problem into
a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying what the research
problem is and why it is studied. The formulation of research problem consists of the
following steps
i. identify a broad research area of your interest
ii.. divide the broad area into sub areas
iii. Select one of the sub areas
iv. Raise research questions
v. Formulate the objectives
i. Identify a broad research area- A researcher always start with identifying a broad research
area. Identification of a broad research area is depending on researcher’s interest, knowledge,
speciality, expertise and profession. For example, major research areas are, production,
marketing, finance, accounting, human resource, etc.
ii. Divide the broad area into sub areas
After selecting a broad area you need to narrow down the area into the specific topic that is
responsible and manageable for research. For this divide the broad area into sub areas. For
example, brand preference, customer satisfaction, pricing strategy, effectiveness of
advertising etc. come under the broad area of Marketing research.
iii. Select one of the sub areas
It is not it is not feasible for the researcher to study all areas due to the limited resources time
and monetary resources. Hence, select one the sub area that interest you more and is more
visible and manageable for you. This selected area should be relevant your subject knowledge
it should also have research significance.
iv. Raise research questions
After selecting specific raise important questions about the chosen sub area which need to be
answered in your research. There can be many questions but you have to choose the most
important.
v. Formulate the objectives
Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. Since these objectives inform a
reader of what you want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to word them
clearly and specifically. Objectives should be listed as main objectives and sub-objectives.
4. Preparation of Research design
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. It
is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for
the collection, measurement and analysis of data. A research design helps to decide upon
issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means we can complete our research
study.
Thus, Research design covers;
1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
There are different types of research designs. The various designs have been classified by
examining them from three different perspectives:
1.On the basis of the number of contacts: (This based on the number of contacts with the
study population)
- The cross-sectional study design (one-short or status studies). Most commonly used. design
in social sciences. It suited to studies aimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon,
situation, problem, attitudes or issue.
- The before and after study design (pre-test/post-test design).
This can measure changes in situation, phenomenon, problem or attitude. It is the most
commonly used design in evaluation studies and the most appropriate design for measuring
the impact or effectiveness of a program. An example: The impact of increased funding on
the quality of teaching in universities.
- The longitudinal study design. This is used to determine the pattern of change in relation to
time. It is also useful when a researcher need to collect factual information on a continuing
basis.
2.On the basis of the reference Period: This refers to the time-frame in which a study is
exploring a phenomenon, situation, event or problem.
- The retrospective study design. This investigates problems that have happened in the past,
based on available old data, or respondents' recall of the problem).
- The prospective study design. This investigates the prevalence of phenomenon in the future.
- The retrospective- prospective study design. This focuses on past trends in a phenomenon
and studies it in the future.
3. on the basis of nature of the Investigation:
- The experimental study design
-Non-experimental; and -Quasi or semi-experimental.

5. Construction of data collection instruments

At this stage we have to;
1. Identify the data needs
2. Delineate data sources
3. Drafting of data collection instruments such as, observation schedule, interview
schedule
4. Check lists
 5. Mailed questionnaire
The data collection tools should be pre tested and revised if required. The construction of a
research instrument is the most important aspect of any research endeavour as it determines
the nature and quality of the information. This is the input of your study and the output, the
relevance and accuracy of your conclusions, is entirely dependent upon it.
6.Collection of data
Once the data instruments are prepared, the actual study begins with the collection of data.
The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the
research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is
from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected
in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the
literature.
The data may be collected by experimental or field work. In the case of sample study, we
have to prepare a sample frame and make list of sample respondents. We can collect data
either directly or indirectly.
7.Processing of data
The processing of data involves editing, coding, transcription and tabulation.
The editing of data is a process of examining the raw data to detect errors and omissions and
to correct them, if possible, so as to ensure legibility, completeness, consistency and accuracy.
Data transcription is the process of converting the data collected in form of audio or video
into written format.
Coding is the process of assigning some symbols (either) alphabetical or numerals or (both)
to the answers so that the responses can be recorded into a limited number of classes or
categories. The classes should be appropriate to the research problem being studied. The
coding is necessary for the efficient analysis of data. It is highly important when the analysis
is done with help of software.
Tabulation is the process of converting the collected data in the form of tables. The
tabulation is used for summarization and condensation of data. It aids in analysis of
relationships, trends and other summarization of the given data. The tabulation may be simple
or complex.
.8.Analysis of Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the research design, the researcher specified how the data will
be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this
analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if the differences are statistically
significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the study validates the theory that
was the focus of the study. In short, analysis of data consists of statistical treatment, testing of
hypotheses and interpretation of findings.
9.Writing and Presentation of report
Writing the research report is the most crucial step in the research process as it communicates
the findings with the supervisor or the readers. Styles of research writing vary but all research
reports must be written clearly and concisely a badly written report can spoil all hard work
had been put into research study. Furthermore, scientific writing requires intellectual
strictness and there are certain obligations in terms of accuracy and objectivity. In the case of
academic research, strict adherence to report format is necessary.

Types of Research
1.Pure Research
Pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in
practice. Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of
intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at
extension of knowledge. The findings of pure research formed the basis for innumerable
scientific and technological inventions like steam engine, machines automobiles, electronic
gadgets, telecommunication, etc, which have revolutionized an enriched out human life.
2. Applied Research
An attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a
business organisation, or the society is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in
such researches aim at drawing certain conclusions confronting a concrete social or business
problem. It is thus problem oriented and action action-directed. It seeks an immediate and
practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for developing a new market or for
studying the post-purchase experience of customers.
3. Exploratory research
Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a
patient suffering from an unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. “it is ill-
structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives.” It usually takes from of a
pilot study. Explorative research is also called formulative research as it helps to formulate a
research problem from those areas which are highly unexploited.
The purpose of an exploratory study may be:
-To generate new ideas
-To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem
- To make a precise formulation of the problem
- To gather information for clarifying concepts
-To determine feasibility of the study
4. Descriptive research
Descriptive study is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest
type of research. It focuses on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is
designed to gather descriptive information and provide information for formulating more
sophisticated studies. A descriptive study aims at identifying the various characteristics of a
community or institution or problem under study However, “it can reveal potential
relationships between variables thus setting the stage for more elaborate investigation later”.
Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being
studied. It addresses the "what" question and does not answer questions about how/when/why
the characteristics occurred.
This method is applicable to problems which satisfy certain criteria.
1. the problem must be describable and not arguable. For instance, philosophical and
controversial issues are not suitable for descriptive study.
2. the data should be amenable to an accurate, objective, and, if possible, quantitative
assemblage for reliability and significance.
3. it should be possible to develop valid standards of comparison.
4. it should lend itself to verifiable procedure of collection and analysis of data.
5.Analytical research
Analytical research is one where the researcher has to use facts and information which are
available and after collecting these data the researcher can analyse and make a critical
evaluation on the materials in the method of analytical research. Analytical study is primarily
concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. It employs
advanced statistical techniques like correlation and multivariate analysis.
6. Diagnostic Research
A diagnostic study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain
variable are associated. This is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is
directed towards discovering what is happening, why is it happening and what can be done
about. It aims at identifying the cases of a problem and the possible solutions for it.
7. Evaluation Research
Evaluation study is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
social or economic programmes implemented (e.g. Swachh Bharat Mission, MGNREGA) or
for assessing impact of developmental projects (e.g. irrigation project) on the development of
the project area.
There are three types of evaluation study:
1 Concurrent evaluation : This is a continuous process and partakes the nature of an
inspection or social audit of an on going programme. It aims at the evaluation of the quality
implementation and services as a feed back for improving the performance.
2 Periodic evaluation : This is made after each distinct phase or state of a project has been
completed. In the case a medium period time bound programme like five year plan, this
evaluation may be done in the middle of the period and it may be called midterm/interim
evaluation.
3 Terminal evaluation: This is done after the completion of a programme or project (e.g. an
irrigation project). This is designed to assess the extent of the achievement of its goals or
objectives. It may also involve a benefit-cost analysis. In the case of a project with long-
gestation period (e.g. an irrigation project), the appropriate methodology for terminal
evaluation will consist of a survey cum experimental design.
8. Action research
Action research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action
programme launched for solving a problem/for improving an existing situation.
Prospero R. Covar categorizes action research in to five types:
Type I - Classical design:- Research and action are separate and independent. No
interdependence
Type II - Interdependence of action and research- Action is carried out by an agency not
connected with a research institution. Research on action may be entrusted to an independent
research body. Some sort of interdependence between them
Type III – Evaluate research built into an action programme- Here, research is dependent
upon action, and the action people define the scope of the research.
Type IV – Action for research- Here the activities of the action programme are designed and
modified to carry out tests of hypotheses of research.
Type V – Research-cum-action- Action and research go together as a joint endeavour.
Researcher and decision makers jointly design and launch the action programme and research
on it.
9. Experimental research:
Experimental research assesses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon by
keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what
manner variables are related to each other. The variable, which is influenced by other factors,
is called a dependent variable (DV) and the other variables, which influence the depended
variable, are known as independent variables (IDV). .
10. Case study
A case study is an in-depth and comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode,
a process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or any other social unit. It is
a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the
full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. The case
study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship.
Following are the characteristics of this method,
1. The number of unit to be studied is small.
2. It studies a social unit deeply and thoroughly.
 3. It is qualitative as well as quantitative.
4. It covers sufficient wide cycle of time.
5. It has continuity in nature.
Because of its aid in studying behaviour in specific, precise detail, Burgess termed the case
study methods as ‘the social microscope.’ Now a day’s case study method is widely used in
business research.

Research Design
According to Kerlinger, ‘ a research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so
conceived as to obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete
scheme or programme of the research.
Thus, a research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research
study. It specifies the objectives of the study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted
for achieving the objectives. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. It is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to
obtain answer to research question.
A research design is a procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to answer questions
validly, objectively, accurately and economically.
A research design has two main functions. The first relates to the identification and/or
development of procedures and logistical arrangements required to undertake a study. For this
the research design highlights decisions regarding;
1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
The second function of research design emphasises the importance of quality in these
procedures to ensure their validity, objectivity and accuracy.
2.2 TYPES OF REASERCH DESIGN
 On the basis of objectives of the research, the research can be classified into (a) Exploratory
Research Design and (b) conclusive Research Design. The conclusive Research Design can
be sub divided into (i) Descriptive Research and (ii) casual or experimental research design.
Descriptive Research further divided into cross sectional design and longitudinal design. The
cross sectional design classified into single cross sectional design and multiple cross sectional
design.
Exploratory research design
According Burns and Bush exploratory research design is referred as gathering information
in an informal and unstructured manner. The exploratory research design is proper when the
researchers knows small about the opportunity or issue. Exploratory research design is not
limited to one specific paradigm but may use either qualitative or quantitative approaches.
Characteristics of Exploratory Research
1. Exploratory research is inexpensive, interactive, unrestricted, and open-ended in
nature.
2. It is an unstructured type of research.
3. No pre-research is conducted to support exploratory research and even there is no
prior information available on the problem from the past research
4. It enables a researcher to answer all questions like why, how, and what. Therefore, it
helps a researcher to know about the purpose of the research.
5. All the available material should be studied in detail.
6. It consumes a lot of time to conduct exploratory research and it might sometimes lead
to disappointments.
7. There is no standard format to carry out exploratory research. It is flexible, scattered,
and broad in nature.
8. There must a few theories which can verify your outcome.
9. Make sure the problem you are going to conduct research about should have
importance and value.
10. Most of the time you will get qualitative data as an outcome of this research.
Exploratory research method includes secondary data sources, expert’s opinion, surveys, in
depth discussions, case studies and observation.
i) Secondary data sources: Exploratory Research using secondary sources of information
many companies who regularly conduct market research studies have maintained a record of
research finding over the years., the access to which is both quick and economical for a
market researcher.
ii) Exploratory Research using expert opinions and ideas : Experts can give valuable
insights into a marketing problem because of their expensive with the problem hand, ability
to act as an observer and an ability to express ideas unlike any other individual. Despite the
desire to find individuals with ideas, it is important not to concentrate the investigation only
among the better educated or more articulate person.
iii) Depth Interviews :
There are one-to-one interviews because most people do not have clear ideas why they make
particular purchase decisions. Individuals normally do not report decisions. They normally do
not report socially unacceptable motives. So market researcher indepth interviews attempt to
influence respondents to talk freely about their subject of interest.
iv) Group Interviews :
When the management wants to get a first person feel of consumer reactions an its marketing
mix variables, a marketer researcher can convert a focus group with him acting as a
moderator.
v) Projective Techniques :
Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have
been developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring about
underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure through direct questioning as
the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself.
Conclusive research design
Conclusive research design provides a way to verify and quantify findings of exploratory
studies and is generally more formal and structured as compared to exploratory research.
Conclusive research design is applied to generate findings that are practically useful in
reaching conclusions. In this type of studies research objectives and data requirements need
to be clearly defined. Conclusive research can be classified into descriptive research and
casual or experimental research.
Descriptive Research design
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, organisation or situation. Descriptive research
design answers the question, ‘what it is about?’ and it does not probe into the reasons behind
the population scenario towards defined variables. The research objectives in this types of
research is generally describing the characteristics of consumer segment viz, demographic
and benefits sought. Descriptive studies can also portray buyer perceptions of brands,
audience profiles for media types viz. TV, radio, newspaper, availability of distributors,
product consumption patterns, price sensitivity of consumers, market share, etc.
The Descriptive Research design has the following steps;
1. Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being
made?)
2. Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
3. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
 4. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
5. Processing and analysing the data.
6. Reporting the findings
Descriptive studies are again classified into two types:
(a) Longitudinal
(b) Cross sectional
(a) Longitudinal research relies on panel data and panel methods. It involves fixing a panel
consisting of fixed sample of subjects that are measured repeatedly. The panel members are
those who have agreed to provide information at specific intervals over an extended period.
(b) Cross-sectional research is the most predominantly and frequently used descriptive
research design in marketing. It involves a sample of elements from the population of
interest. The sample elements are measured on a number of characteristics. There are two
types of cross-sectional studies: Field studies and Surveys
Experimental Research Design
Experimental research designs are the primary approach used to investigate causal
(cause/effect) relationships and to study the relationship between one variable and another.
This is a traditional type of research that is quantitative in nature. In short, researchers use
experimental research to compare two or more groups on one or more measures.
Dependent And Independent Variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable.
The concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income etc.
Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term. However, the
qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the
attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in
decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous.
Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In
statistical terms, they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous
variable, whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one
variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or
endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are
known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand
depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent
variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income and price of the substitute
commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the price of original
commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the
independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and price of substitutes.
Extraneous Variables: The independent variables which are not directly related to the
purpose of the study but affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables.
For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s school performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is
an independent variable and the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence
may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the
purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous
variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is
technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research study should always be
framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on the dependent
variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of independent variable/s is clearly
evident.
Experimental and Control Groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an
experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand,
when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an
‘experimental group’. In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be called as control
group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed to some
special feature, then both the groups may be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research
design may include only the experimental group or both the experimental and control groups
together.

Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the sampling
population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting a fact, situation or outcome
regarding the bigger group. The theory of sampling is guided by three principles:
Principle one: In a majority of cases where sampling is done there will be a difference
between the sample statics and the true population mean, which is attributable to the selection
of the units in the sample.
Principle two: The greater the sample size, the more accurate will be the estimate of the true
population mean.
Principle three: The greater the difference in the variable under study in a population, for a
given sample size, the greater will be the difference between the sample statistics and the true
population mean.
Sampling is used in practice for a variety of reasons such as:
1. Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than a
census study and produces results at a relatively faster speed.
2. Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is generally
conducted by trained and experienced investigators.
3. Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members.
4. Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item
under study.
5. Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in
obtaining information concerning some characteristic of the population

Concepts in sampling
 Universe/Population: From a statistical point of view, the term ‘Universe’ refers to the
total of the items or units in any field of inquiry, whereas the term ‘population’ refers to the
total of items about which information is desired. The attributes that are the object of study
are referred to as characteristics and the units possessing them are called as elementary units.
The aggregate of such units is generally described as population. Thus, all units in any field
of inquiry constitute universe and all elementary units (on the basis of one characteristic or
more) constitute population.

The population or universe can be finite or infinite. The population is said to be finite if it
consists of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality. For
instance, the number of car owners in a city, the number of students in a college is examples
of finite populations. The symbol ‘N’ is generally used to represent a finite population.
An infinite population is that population in which it is impossible to list all the elements with
in a reasonable period of time.. Eg. the number of stars in a sky. Practically, we use the
theoretical concept of infinite population as an approximation of a very large finite
population.
Sampling frame: The elementary units or the group or cluster of such units may form the
basis of sampling process are called sampling units. A list containing all such sampling units
is known as sampling frame. Thus sampling frame consists of a list of items from which
the sample is to be drawn.
Sampling design: A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the
sampling frame. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in
selecting some sample units from which inferences about the population is to be drawn.
Statisitc(s) and parameter(s): A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas a
parameter is a characteristic of a population. Thus, when we work out certain measures such
as mean, median, mode or the like ones from samples, then they are called statistic(s) for they
describe the characteristics of a sample. But when such measures describe the characteristics
of a population, they are known as parameter(s).
The prime objective of sampling is to obtain the estimate of a parameter from a statistic.

Sampling error: As sample study follows the study of a small portion of the population,
there would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy. This inaccuracy may be termed as
sampling error or error variance. In other words, sampling errors are those errors which
arise on account of sampling and they generally happen to be random variations (in case of
random sampling) in the sample estimates around the true population values. The meaning of
sampling error can be easily understood from the following diagram:
Sampling error = Frame error + Chance error + Response error

Sampling errors occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction. The
magnitude of the sampling error depends upon the nature of the universe; the more
homogeneous the universe, the smaller the sampling error. Sampling error is inversely related
to the size of the sample i.e., sampling error decreases as the sample size increases and vice-
versa.
A measure of the random sampling error can be calculated for a given sample design and size
and this measure is often called the precision of the sampling plan. Sampling error is usually
worked out as the product of the critical value at a certain level of significance and the
standard error.
Non-sampling error
Non-sampling errors are those errors creep in during the process of collecting actual data and
such errors occur in all surveys whether census or sample. These are also known as
measurement error.
Precision: Precision is the range within which the population average (or other parameter)
will lie in accordance with the reliability specified in the confidence level as a percentage of
the estimate ± or as a numerical quantity. For instance, if the estimate is Rs 4000 and the
precision desired is ± 4%, then the true value will be no less than Rs 3840 and no more than
Rs 4160. This is the range (Rs 3840 to Rs 4160) within which the true answer should lie. But
if we desire that the estimate should not deviate from the actual value by more than Rs 200 in
either direction, in that case the range would be Rs 3800 to Rs 4200.
Confidence level and significance level: The confidence level or reliability is the expected
percentage of times that the actual value will fall within the stated precision limits. Thus, if
we take a confidence level of 95%, then we mean that there are 95 chances in 100 that the
sample results represent the true condition of the population within a specified precision
range against 5 chances in 100 that it does not. Precision is the range within which the
answer may vary and still be acceptable; confidence level indicates the likelihood that the
answer will fall within that range, and the significance level( or alpha level) indicates the
likelihood that the answer will fall outside that range.
Sampling distribution: We are often concerned with sampling distribution in sampling
analysis. If we take certain number of samples and for each sample compute various
statistical measures such as mean, standard deviation, etc., then we can find that each sample
may give its own value for the statistic under consideration. All such values of a particular
statistic, say mean, together with their relative frequencies will constitute the sampling
distribution of the particular statistic, say mean. Accordingly, we can have sampling
distribution of mean, or the sampling distribution of standard deviation or the sampling
distribution of any other statistical measure. It may be noted that each item in a sampling
distribution is a particular statistic of a sample. The sampling distribution tends quite closer to
the normal distribution if the number of samples is large. The significance of sampling
distribution follows from the fact that the mean of a sampling distribution is the same as the
mean of the universe. Thus, the mean of the sampling distribution can be taken as the mean of
the universe.
Sample Size
Sample size refers to the number of units to be included in the sample. It is important that the
sample size should be adequate enough to make meaningful inferences. In other words, it is
the minimum sample size that is needed to estimate the true population proportion with the
required margin of error and confidence level.
Size of the sample should be determined by a researcher keeping in view the following
points:
 1. Nature of universe: Universe may be either homogenous or heterogenous in nature. If
the items of the universe are homogenous, a small sample can serve the purpose. But
if the items are heteogenous, a large sample would be required. Technically, this can
be termed as the dispersion factor.
2. Number of classes proposed: If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups) are to be
formed, a large sample would be required because a small sample might not be able to
give a reasonable number of items in each class-group.
3. Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the sample
should be small. For a general survey the size of the sample should be large, but a
small sample is considered appropriate in technical surveys.
4. Type of sampling: Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the size
of the sample. A small random sample is apt to be much superior to a larger but badly
selected sample.
5. Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level: If the standard of acuracy or
the level of precision is to be kept high, we shall require relatively larger sample. For
doubling the accuracy for a fixed significance level, the sample size has to be
increased fourfold.
6. Other considerations: Nature of units, size of the population, size of questionnaire,
availability of trained investigators, the conditions under which the sample is being
conducted, the time available for completion of the study are a few other
considerations to which a researcher must pay attention while selecting the size of the
sample.

Sampling Designs
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to
the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample designs from
which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply
than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and
appropriate for his research study.
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must consider to the following points:
1. Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define
the set of objects ie, Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite.
2. Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district,
village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit
such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual.
3. Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source
list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive,
 correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.
4. Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the
desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
5. Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest.
6. Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will
use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the
sample. One must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given
cost, has a smaller sampling error.

Types of sampling design

Mainly, there are two types of sample designs, probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, whereas non-
probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance
sampling’. This is a sampling which permits every single item from the universe to have an
equal chance of presence in the sample. Under this sampling design, every item of the
universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. For example by adopting a lottery
method, sample units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but randomly. Here
it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The results
obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability 2.7
Types of Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling required number of samples are drawn either by lottery method or
with the help of random tables after assigning numbers to each items in the population. For
example, if a simple random sample of 100 individuals is required from a sample frame of
8,500 individuals (listed from 1- 8,500) , a straight forward selection could be made using a
computer table of random numbers or some other generator of random numbers to produce a
100 different numbers within the same range. Despite this being a simple process, simple
random sampling is not commonly used by researchers. There are also concerns about its
accuracy. A major risk of random sampling is when some individuals with important
characteristics to the study are left out. Such a situation could arise as a result of under
sampling or because certain individuals will not be available during sample selection and will
therefore, be excluded.
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling in which every unit or individual is
selected according to a predetermined sequence from a list. The researcher first determines
the number of entries on a list and the desired sample size before computing the sampling
interval (k) by dividing the size of the population by the desired sample size (5). If the
researcher wishes to select a sample of 100 individuals from a list of 8,500 individuals, he or
she will divide 8,500 by 100 to generate the sampling interval which equals 85 . The first unit
is typically selected at random anywhere between 1 and 85 to ensure a chance selection
process. Commencing from the randomly selected number between 1 and 85, a sample of 100
individuals is then selected. The attraction of systematic sampling is that the researcher does
not need to have a complete list of all the sampling units. Yet, caution is needed when using
systematic sampling. Although systematic sampling is considered a functional equivalent of
simple random sampling and is usually easier to use, researchers need to pay special attention
to ordering of the sample frame by any characteristic or some recurring pattern that will affect
the sample.
Stratified sampling
In stratified sampling the universe is divided into several sub group of population that are
individually more homogeneous than the total population (the sub-populations differences
are called strata) and select items will be selected from each stratum to generate a sample in
this case each of the stratum will be more homogeneous with the population, more precise
estimate will be generated from each for stratum. We get the estimate of the population from
each stratum when there is better accuracy from each of the component; we get a better
estimate of the whole. The stratified sampling gives more reliable and detailed information
about the sample. The forming of strata is informed of purposive system from a well
experience and special judgment of a researcher. The strata are defined by the population
characteristics of the estimate.
Here, within the strata, there is homogeneity and heterogeneity among the strata. The
samples can be drawn proportionally or disproportionally.
Cluster sampling
When the total area of the research is too large a better way for the researcher is to divide the
area in to smaller part of the same or equal and then select randomly from the smaller units. it
is expected that that the total population is to be divided in to relatively a smaller number
which are still from the clusters of smaller units and then some of this cluster unit will be
selected randomly so that it will be included in the general sampling. One of the advantages
of using the cluster sampling is economical in reducing cost by concentrating on the selected
clusters it gives less precision than the simple random sampling.
Multi-stage sampling
This is an additional progress of the belief that cluster sampling have. Normally in multi-
stage sampling design is applicable in a big inquires of geographical area, for the entire
country. Multistage sampling has to with the combination of the various methods of
probability sampling in most effective and efficient approach.
Area sampling
This s a design sampling that deals with subdivision of environment that represents clusters
of unit’s that centred on terrestrial location

Non-probability sampling designs

 Non-probability sampling is also known as deliberate sampling, judgment sampling and
purposive sampling. Non probability samplings do not follow the theory of probability in the
choice of elements from the sampling population. Non-probability sampling designs are used
when the number of elements in a population is either unknown or cannot be individually
identified. In such situations the selection of elements is dependent upon other considerations.
In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of the
sample.
There are five commonly used non-random designs, They are:
1. Quota sampling;
2. Accidental sampling;
3. Judgemental sampling or purposive sampling;
4. Expert sampling;
5. Snowball sampling.
Quota Sampling
Under this sampling, the researchers simply assume quotas to be filled from different strata,
with certain restrictions imposed on how they should be selected. In other words, the actual
selection of the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion. This type of
sampling is very convenient and is relatively less expensive. They are essentially judgment
samples and inferences drawn based on that, would not be amenable to statistical treatment in
a formal way.
Accidental sampling
Accidental sampling is also called convenience sampling. It is based upon convenience in
accessing the sampling population. Here, we stop collecting data when we reach the required
number of respondents decided to have in the sample.

Judgemental sampling or purposive sampling

This sampling design is based on the judgement of the researcher as to who will provide the
best information to succeed for the objectives study. Here the researcher only go to those
people who in his opinion are likely to have the required information and be willing to share
it.
Expert sampling
The researcher here seeks for the consent of those that are expert or known expert in the area
of study, and begin the process of collecting his information directly from individual or group
of respondent. It also involves sample assembling of group of people that can demonstrate
using their experience or those that specialised in part of the areas. The reasons for using
expert sampling are to have a better way of constructing the views of individuals that are
expert in a definite area.
Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is the process of selecting a sample using networks. To start with, a few
individuals in a group or organisation are selected and the required information is collected
from them. They are then asked to identify other people in the group or organisation, and the
people selected by them become a part of the sample. Information is collected from them, and
then these people are asked to identify other members of the group and, in turn, those
identified become the basis of further data collection. This sampling technique is useful if the
researcher know little about the group or organisation he wishes to study. Here, you need only
to make contact with a few individuals and they can then direct you to the other members of
the group.