AMERICA (MAYA) CIVILIZATION

I.Keywords:
- Mesoamerica & Andean World was located in southern Argentina,
Peru…along the Pacific Ocean, the delta of the amazon river which was
abandoned water and a good location. Mesoamerica existed in 5000 BC,
they domesticated certain plants: beans, peppers, avocados, squash,
and maize. Later innovations such as pottery took place around 2000 BC.
Permanent sedentary villages based on agriculture without much
hierarchy or social differentiation and a lack of craft.

- Inca: In Inca’s government structure, the emperor was the Inca god-
king, nobles ruled the provinces along with local chieftains. Below them,
officials carried out taxes and laws. It moved armies and news using relay
runners to carry messages that enhance power; and kept soldiers at
outposts to crush rebels. The government took possession of farming
harvests and divided them. They had their own language and religion
which tied to daily life. The Inca religion combined features of animism,
fetishism, and the worship of nature gods. The pantheon was headed by
Inti, the sun god, and included also Viracocha, a creator god and culture
hero, and Apu Illapu, the rain god. Moreover, they built a vast network of
roads throughout this empire with 12000 miles, bridges, and steps, which
was more impressive than Rome’s; developed the use of coca leaves as
medicine.

- Maya: had arisen in what is now the state of Guatemala and the
Yucatan peninsula, influenced by the Olmec. In farming, they cleared
rainforests and built raised fields and channels to drain excess water;
grew corn and other crops. Like some of the early religious beliefs in Asia
and the Mediterranean, the Mayan religion was polytheistic and used
sacrifices to gods. The Maya believed that human blood was needed to
sustain their gods. Sacrificial victims included enemy leaders and ball
players, as well as criminals, slaves, women, and children. The Mayan
cities were built around a ceremonial core dominated by a central
pyramid surmounted by a shrine to the gods. Regarding the social
classes, each city had its own ruling chief. The Mayan writing system,
developed during the mid-first millennium B.C.E., was based on
hieroglyphs and recorded by the class of scribes. the Maya also had a
sophisticated knowledge of astronomy with the 365-day calendar as well
as mathematics with a numbering system and understood the concept of
zero. However, it collapsed without any specific reasons.

- Aztecs: In 1200s, the band of nomadic people (the ancestors of the

Aztecs) migrated into the Valley of Mexico from the north and it linked to
the collapse of Toltecs civilization. They shifted from hunting to farming
and built Tenochtitlan (Mexico City); establishing their capital there, on
an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, they used military and
ideological force to bring the entire region under their domination. The
Aztec empire also was characterized by a complex sociopolitical
organization with a highly centralized, tribute state. People were divided
into social classes Kings and nobles the most important. The Aztec faith
shared many aspects with other Mesoamerican religions, like that of the
Maya, notably including the rite of human sacrifice. They drained the
swampy land, constructed artificial islands on which they could plant
gardens, and established the foundations of their capital city; built bridges
and canals, and had a complex writing system.1519 – Spanish reached
Tenochtitlan with Cortes, allies from conquered people, the empire was
defeated by Spanish.

- Human scarified rituals: Human sacrifice occupied a particularly

important place in Mesoamerica. Many of the region's cultures, including
the Maya and the Mexica (also Aztecs), believed that human sacrifice
nourished the gods. Without it, the sun would cease to rise and the world
would end. And sacrificial victims earned a special, honored place in the
afterlife. In Mayan civilization, People believed they had to please the
gods by offering human blood. The Maya believed that human blood was
needed to sustain their gods. Sacrificial victims included enemy leaders
and ball players, as well as criminals, slaves, women and children.
Besides, Aztecs believed that the world had passed through four previous
stages (“suns”) Each one was destroyed by catastrophe. To prevent the
destruction of the fifth “sun”, Huitzilopochtli had to be appeased By
feeding him human hearts Aztecs, therefore, sacrificed victims by ripping
out their hearts and holding them up for Huitzilopochtli to symbolically
eat.

- Mayan Calendar: is the dating system of the ancient Mayan civilization

and the basis for all other calendars used by Mesoamerican civilizations.
The Tzolkin, meaning “the distribution of the days,” is also called the
Divine Calendar and the Sacred Round. It is a 260-day calendar with 20
periods of 13 days, and it is used to determine the time of religious and
ceremonial events. The Long Count is an astronomical calendar that is
used to track longer periods of time. The Maya called it the “universal
cycle.” The Mayans believed that the universe is destroyed and then
recreated at the start of each universal cycle. This belief caused the 2012
phenomenon described above, and it still inspires a myriad of prophecies
about the end of the world. The Haab is a 365-day solar calendar which is
divided into 18 months of 20 days each and one month which is only 5
days long (Uayeb). The Haab calendar is very similar to the Gregorian
calendar that we use today
 II- Summary
1. MOST LIKELY THEORY

- First Americans originated in Gobi Desert

- Some migrated to Siberia around 15,000 years ago
- Crossed Bering Strait in Alaska Land bridge probably existed at the time -
- Gradually dispersed throughout North and South America

2. Mesoamerica

- In what is now southern Mexico and Central America

- Rain forests cover the region
- Fertile soil made this a good area for farming
- People first appeared in this area around 12,000 BC Maize (corn) being grown
around 3500 BC

3. The Olmec

- First urban civilization formed in Mesoamerica – around 1200 BC

- Built the first pyramids in the Americas
- Developed the first writing system in the Americas
- Traded with others from far away Civilization ended around 400 BC
- OLMEC ACHIEVEMENTS

+ Talented engineers and architects

+ Built sewer system Built pyramids and palaces from stone

+ Also carved giant stone heads Largest is 9 feet tall and weighs 15 tons

+ No one knows their exact function Writing system and a system to record
calendar dates

- OLMEC RELIGION
+ Polytheistic
+ Most important god portrayed as half man/half jaguar
+ Believed that certain people could turn into jaguars at will Variation of the
“were-wolf” myth

4. Mayan

- Located in Yucatan, Honduras, and Guatemala

- 300-900 AD
- Sophisticated agriculture
- Two to three harvests a year
- Supported population of 2 million people
- Divided into a number of small states, never a single United state
 4.1. Society
- There are 5 main social classes from the highest to the lowest:

(1) King or High Priest: Each city-state was ruled by a king

(2) Council (Priesthood) - often part of the Royal Family

(3) Nobles and elite warriors

(4) Merchants and artisans: They are actually commoners but rather than heading off
to the milpas, they would work creating beautiful items such as jewelry, textiles,
pottery and feather cloaks and headdresses.

(5) Commoners, Serfs and Slaves: Impoverished individuals sometimes sold

themselves or family members into slavery. Unwanted orphan children became
slaves and were sometimes sacrificed during religious rituals.

+ Slaves were usually sacrificed when their owners died so that they could
continue in their service after death.

=> The class figures out the life of the group involved in it. So, the rights, privileges,
opportunities, tasks, and jobs each society performed solely depend on the rank and
class of the Mayan society pyramids.

4.2. Family
* In COMMONER families, MEN served as the heads of families in Mayan society.
They were in charge of ensuring their families' needs. They mostly provided families
with food through farming and hunting, or working for the nobles (on the monumental
architecture). Boys at the age of 6 or 7 began taking tasks of outdoor jobs.

- WOMEN were primarily responsible for taking care of the household, looking after
the children, and working in the private kitchen garden next to their homes (growing
vegetables). They wove cloth for family members and educated household tasks the
female children.

- A part of the Mayan religion strengthened the belief that CHILDREN should be
taught to respect their parents, the elders and to be productive members of the family
from an early age.

Notes:

- Mayan family life required each member to live according to definite patterns (men
went out for hunting, farming, and women stayed at home, looked after the homes,
and took care of the children)

- Husband, wife, and children had different roles and all contribute to both families
and society as proactive individuals

* NOBLE families had a much more hierarchical society, with family members
holding specific roles and responsibilities. Women were often educated and trained in
weaving, while men were trained in warfare, administration, and other specialized
skills. Noble families often arranged marriages to strengthen political alliances, and
polygamy was common.
 Notes:

- Noble family did not have to work to earn a living but they still had different roles to
contribute to the Mayan society. Most noble family members were educated and
trained in various fields.

4.3. Agriculture
- The agricultural practices of the ancient Maya were heavily dependent on the
labor of the peasant class. The farmers did not have metal tools or beasts of
burden to help them farm. They used simple stone tools and did the work by
hand. In order to deal with rainforest, swampy areas and mountainous
hillsides, the Maya had to engineer a variety of Mayan farming methods.
- Corn, or maize, was the main staple crop: was grown together with beans
and squash as each of the three provide support to the others.
- Also grew chili peppers, sweet potatoes, avocados, tomatoes, papaya, onions
and garlic.
- Some families kept livestock like dogs, ducks and turkeys. Men also hunted
deer and a wild pig and fished.
- The Maya were among the first to discover cocoa beans, to cultivate them as
a crop, and to make chocolate from them. Cocoa beans also held religious
importance for the Maya and were associated with the Maya gods.

--> Agriculture played a leading role in the Maya Civilization. Without an agricultural
system adequate to insure the necessary food supply, it is certain that the Maya
could not have reached the heights to which they attained in two periods of their
history.

4.4. Trade and Transportation

- The ancient Maya civilization relied heavily on trade and transportation to
sustain its economy.
- The "White Road" which connected the ancient city of Tikal to the Caribbean
Sea. This route was used to transport exotic goods.
- the Maya were skilled traders exchanging raw materials and finished products
at the local and regional levels, but they also engaged in long-distance trade
with other regions in Mexico and Central America.
- Maya's trade routes allowed for the diffusion of ideas, technologies, and
cultural practices. To facilitate the exchange of goods, the Mayans used 2
main ways of transport.
- These roads were made of limestone with three layers: a layer of huge stones
was placed on the ground, then covered up with rubble.
- However, most merchants found it much easier to use a canoe or to commute
via sea or rivers.
- Boats were used as an early medium of transportation. Canoes were carved
out of enormous trees and were approximately 50 feet in length, never
traveling very far from land.

-> Trade played a vital role in the daily life of the Mayan people, allowing them to
access resources that were not readily available in their regions..

4.5. MAYAN RELIGION

- The Maya were polytheistic (đa thần).
 + The ancient Mayan worshiped a lot of gods, each of which could could take on
different local traits in different kingdoms.
+ In many cases, Maya gods were identified with natural phenomena.
+ The Maya had a bewildering number of gods, with at least 166 named deities.
+ For excample, some of the most prominent gods of the classic Maya pantheon
include the Creator God - Itzamna, Sun God - Kinich Ahau, the Rain god - Chaak, the
God of Lightning - K’awiil, the Maize God - Ixim.
- Maya religious practices included festivals and rituals to honor their gods. Such
festivals were led by priests. Animism is the belief that objects, places and creatures
all possess a distinct spiritual essence, or soul.
- every Maya had their own spiritual guide, a Wayob
- The Mayans sacrificed iguanas, turtles, crocodiles, dogs, jaguars, and turkeys in
large numbers. The supreme sacrifice, however, was that of human beings.
- The Maya believed that human blood was needed to sustain their gods. Sacrificial
victims included enemy leaders and ball players, as well as criminals, slaves, women
and children

4.6. Trade & Transportation

The ancient Maya civilization relied heavily on trade and transportation to sustain their
economy and way of life. They traded goods such as jade, obsidian, cacao beans, salt, and
textiles with neighboring regions and also had a complex system of bartering in place.

Ancient Mayan Roadways

The Mayan roads were very crucial for the existence of the Mayas. The roads not only
connected the towns and cities but also connected all the ceremonial and religious centers.

They built a network of roads and causeways to connect various cities and trade centers.
These roads were made of limestone and were often traveled by traders carrying goods on
their backs.

The Mayans had no beasts of burden or wheels to carry their heavy loads. Instead, trade
goods were transported on the backs of slaves who traveled along well established routes.

However, most merchants found it much easier to use a canoe.

Ancient Mayan Waterways

Coastal Mayan groups used canoes to supply inland groups with salt, dried fish, shells, and
pearls.

Waterways like rivers and seas were also used as a mode of transportation around the Late
preClassic period. Boats were used as an early medium of transportation. Mayans also used
boats to commute via sea or river.

The Mayan boats were different from the ones that were later on developed. Mayan people
used small paddling canoes as boats to transport their goods.
Canoes were carved out of enormous trees, and were approximately 50 feet in length.
Canoes transported goods to towns along the coast, never traveling very far from land. From
the coastal towns the goods would be transported to the inland towns.

One notable trade route was the "White Road" which connected the ancient city of Tikal in
present-day Guatemala to the Caribbean Sea. This route was used to transport exotic goods
such as shells and feathers from coastal areas to the inland cities.

From archaeological research, we know that the Maya were skilled traders exchanging raw
materials and finished products at the local and regional levels, but they also engaged in
long-distance trade with other regions in Mexico and central America. Many of the materials
and goods imported were considered high value items that were used by the Maya elite as
displays of power and wealth. For example, stunning earrings were made of turquoise and
gold. These materials would have come from north central Mexico and they were most likely
exported to Maya as finished products. Shell was another common item to be imported to
Maya cities. The lowland Maya also exported goods to other regions.

Overall, trade and transportation were essential for the growth and prosperity of the Maya
civilization.

4.7. Culture
Culture
The height of the Maya Civilization in the Classic Period produced the incredible cultural
advances for which they are well known. The Maya believed deeply in the cyclical nature of
life – nothing was ever `born' and nothing ever `died' – and this belief inspired their view of
the gods and the cosmos. Their cosmological views, in turn, encouraged their imaginative
efforts in architecture,...
Architecture
A Maya city can be recognized from the stepped pyramids, huge plazas and expansive
palaces built for kings and nobles. One religious ritual common to many Mesoamerican
cultures was the sacred ball game, with a ball court built close to temples. Carved stone
monuments called stelae are found all over the Mayan areas. Stelae were carved in bas
relief to celebrate the life and deeds of Maya rulers and nobles and can still be seen today.
With the invention of the corbelled arch, Maya builders created light and airy rooms that lent
their temples and palaces a decided gracefulness.
Writing System
The Maya developed a complex writing system that represented their spoken language, the
only fully developed writing system from a Stone Age culture. Maya script relied on over a
thousand glyphs or symbol which could represent either a syllable or a word. The Maya
wrote books called codices made of bark paper and folded like an accordion.
ART IS A WINDOW TO THE WORLD OF THE MAYA
Because so little original Maya writing exists in book-form, one of the best places to look for
information about the daily life of the Maya people is in their artworks.

POTTERY
Maya pottery is one art form that gives us a good look at the daily life of the Maya. Because
the Maya did not have a potter's wheel, all of their pottery was shaped using coils of clay
stacked one on top of another and then smoothed by hand. The main ingredient of their
pottery was clay gathered from the banks of the rivers that crisscrossed their land. The
pottery was kept in the sun for drying and hardening. Maya pottery was so highly valued that
the artists signed their work.
 Common pottery included great water jugs, plates, pots, and planters. Even the simplest
pottery was decorated. True works of beauty, it’s not uncommon to find even everyday Maya
pottery encircled by decorative panels or by hieroglyphs. (See below)*.
Inspired by their natural surroundings, Maya artisans also created a variety of ceremonial and
whimsical pieces. The animal figures they made included serpents, monkeys, birds, jaguar,
grotesque beings and humans. The human figures include a bearded man on a throne, a person
wearing a wide hat, a ball player wearing heavily padded clothing, and a musician shaking a
rattle
MURALS
Essentially, murals are wall paintings. Humans have been leaving behind murals as a record of
their daily lives for over 40,000 years. Most ancient murals are of a religious or political nature.
Religious murals are displayed to showcase how powerful the gods are, as well as to depict a
people's ritual practices.
4.7. MAYAN WORLD
- To the Maya, the world was flat. The Maya world, however, was anything but one-
dimensional. The Maya believed that their flat world was watched over by four strong gods,
one each at the corners representing 4 directions: the north, the south, the east and the
west.
-Above the earth was heaven with its 13 layers. Each layer was represented by its
own god. Among 13 layers of heaven, the last two were the most important, which
constituted Omeyocan, the dwelling place of the dual supreme deity, generator, and founder
of the universe.
- Below was Xibalba, or the underworld. Xibalba was a cold, unhappy place that was
divided into nine layers, each with its own Death Lord
=> Heaven was the home of the gods,
- . Nobles were buried in tombs. Commoners buried their dead inside their homes,
under the floor.
- The Maya believed in compensation after death.
- MAYAN ACHIEVEMENTS:
+ Sophisticated mathematics
+ Understood the concept of zero
+ Developed a “place-value” system
+ Developed elaborate but accurate calendar
+ Literate but little of their writing survives

III- QUESTIONS
1. : Who were the first Americans, and when and how did they come?
human beings were living in the Americas at least fifteen thousand years ago. They
gradually spread throughout the North American continent and had penetrated almost to the
southern tip of South America by about 11,000 B.C.E. These first Americans were hunters
and food gatherers who lived in small nomadic communities close to the sources of their
food supply. Although it is not known when agriculture was first practiced, beans and squash
seeds have been found at sites that date back at least ten thousand years, implying that
farming arose in America almost as early as in the Middle East. The cultivation of maize
(corn), and perhaps other crops as well, appears to have been under way as early as 5000
B.C.E. in the Tehuaca´n valley in central Mexico. A similar process may have occurred in the
lowland regions near the modern city of Veracruz and in the Yucata´n peninsula farther to
the east. There, in the region that archaeologists call Mesoamerica, one of the first
civilizations in the Americas began to appear.
2. what core features characterized Aztec life and rule? How did they build on
earlier Mesoamerican civilization?
The Aztecs went to war with everyone cause like ive said before their religion consisted of
killing people on top of an alter and letting sacrificed peoples (mainly war prisoners) flow
down their temple but the rise of the Aztec empire really began in 1150 with the fall of the
Toltec empire
3. What core features characterized Inca life and rule?
Incas were one of the most socially and economically advanced society's in the
Americas. They traded a lot and it is theorized that they maybe had a form of written
language made through a series of knots
4. What factors enabled the Spanish to conquer the Aztec and Inca Empires
steel and gunpowder
5. compare and contrast the processes of state-building and empire-building
• the Russian empire- well the golden horde (aka the mongles) fell apart and russia
just kinda stepped in

• china under the Ming & Qing Dynasties- idk about the ming but the qing (aka the
manchues) were very militaristic and just conquered a lot of people

• japan and Southeast Asian polities- I honestly don't know

• The Ottoman Empire I explained this early just scroll up

• absolutism in France & Europe- Absolutism within France was a political system
associated with kings such as Louis XIII and, more particularly, Louis XIV.
Absolutism or absolute monarchical rule was developing across Europe during the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

Focus ques: What were the main characteristics of religious belief in early
Mesoamerica?

religious belief in early Mesoamerica was characterized by a complex and diverse pantheon
of deities, with each deity representing different aspects of nature and human experience.
The Mesoamerican gods were often associated with the sun, the moon, the rain, agriculture,
hunting, war, and other important aspects of life.

Another major characteristic of early Mesoamerican religious belief was the practice of
human sacrifice. It was believed that sacrificing humans to the gods would ensure their favor
and protection. Sacrificial offerings were also made in the form of food, animals, and other
objects.

Mesoamerican religious beliefs were also closely tied to the calendar and the seasons. The
Mesoamericans believed that time was cyclical and that the gods controlled the passage of
time. They developed complex calendars to mark the passage of days, months, and years,
and many religious ceremonies were timed to coincide with specific dates in the calendar.

Overall, religious belief in early Mesoamerica was deeply rooted in the natural world and the
cycles of life and death, with human sacrifice playing a central role in appeasing the gods
and ensuring their continued protection
Ques: What role did the environment play in the evolution of societies in the
Americas?

The environment played a significant role in shaping the development and

evolution of societies in the Americas. The different regions of the Americas,
such as the Amazon rainforest, the Andes mountains, and the Great Plains, each
had their unique environmental challenges and opportunities, which influenced
the way societies developed.

For example, in the Amazon rainforest, societies developed complex agricultural

systems that relied on the fertile soil of the forest floor. In the Andes mountains,
societies built terraced farms that were able to support large populations at high
altitudes. In the Great Plains, societies relied on hunting large game and nomadic
lifestyles due to the lack of resources for agriculture.

Additionally, the environment also played a role in the cultural and spiritual
beliefs of societies in the Americas. For example, many Native American cultures
believed in the importance of respecting and living in harmony with nature.

Overall, the environment had a significant impact on the development and

evolution of societies in the Americas, from their economic systems to their
cultural and spiritual beliefs.

Ques: What were the main characteristics of stateless societies in the Americas, and
how did they resemble and differ from the civilizations that arose there?

Stateless societies in the Americas were characterized by a lack of centralized

government, with power and authority typically vested in kinship networks and
local leaders. These societies were often organized around extended family or
clan-based groups, with decisions made through consensus and negotiation
rather than through a formal political structure.

In contrast, the civilizations that arose in the Americas - such as the Maya, Aztec,
and Inca - were highly centralized and hierarchical, with strong monarchies or
ruling classes controlling much of the political, economic, and social life of the
society.

Despite these differences, there were also similarities between stateless

societies and civilizations in the Americas. Both tended to be highly agricultural,
with farming and hunting as the predominant means of subsistence. Religious
beliefs and practices also played an important role in both types of societies,
with a focus on ancestor worship and the veneration of natural forces.

Overall, while stateless societies and civilizations in the Americas differed in

terms of their political organization and levels of social complexity, they were
united by shared cultural and economic practices.

Ques: In what ways were the early civilizations in the Americas similar to those in Part
I, and in what ways were they unique?

The early civilizations in the Americas were similar to those in Part I in some
ways, such as having complex social and political structures, advanced
agricultural techniques, and religious beliefs that were integrated into daily life.
However, they were also unique in many ways. For example, the civilizations in
Mesoamerica (such as the Maya and Aztec) developed complex writing systems
and advanced astronomical knowledge, while the civilizations in the Andes (such
as the Inca) had an extensive road system and a centralized government. The
civilizations in North America (such as the Mississippian culture) developed large
urban centers and elaborate art styles. Additionally, the early civilizations in the
Americas did not have contact with the civilizations in Part I until the arrival of
European explorers, which had a significant impact on their history and culture .