Physical & Dynamical Oceanography (NA60021)

Physical properties of seawater: properties of seawater, salinity and

conductivity, temperature, density effects, effects of density on other
physical properties of seawater, sound in the sea, light in the sea,
colour of seawater.
Water  Two positively charged hydrogen ions, one
negatively charged oxygen ion.

Water  Polar molecule  positive and negative sides.

Molecular polarity  high dielectric constant (ability to

withstand or balance electric field).

Polar nature of water molecule  polymer chain up to

eight molecules.

Water  High heat capacity of all liquids except

ammonia.
Seawater heating  molecular activity increases and
thermal expansion occurs  reducing density.

Water  very high heat of evaporation (or heat of

vaporization) and very high heat of fusion.

Chain like molecular structure of water  high surface

tension  resists shear  permits formation of surface
capillary waves.

Freezing point of seawater  -1.7° C (depending on

salinity).
Physical Properties of Seawater
• Salinity
• Temperature
• Density
• Sound in Seawater
• Light in the Sea
Visual illustration of latitudinal gradient of insolation
Major zonal displacements
of surface air currents:
Convection currents drive
Hadley cells, pulling air at
surface into Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone, ITCZ)
Ferrel Cells driven by low
pressure zone at 20°-30°
latitudinal belt.
Mid-latitude westerlies
converge into jet stream.
Polar cells driven by high
pressure (cold) flows out of
polar region along Earth’s
surface towards south.
Variations in temperature from North to South due to
Solar radiation
Variations in Solar radiation as function of
latitude
Classification of vegetation
types partially based on
kinds of plants, which
tolerate different climatic
conditions.
Temperature variations in the Ocean basin
Mercury thermometers  late 1700s through 1980s

Reversing thermometer (mercury)  invented by Negretti

& Zamba (1874)  used with water sampling bottles 
mid 1980s.

Accuracy and precision of reversing thermometers is 0.004

and 0.002° C.

Latest one-use thermistors for in situ measurements 

accuracy of 0.002° C and precision of 0.0005-0.001° C.

Specific heat  thermodynamic property of seawater 

heat content  depends on temperature, pressure, and
salinity.
Heat content/unit volume (Q) computed
from measured temperature (T)

𝑄𝑄 = 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇 (𝑇𝑇= temperature in °K; 𝜌𝜌 =

seawater density; 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 is the specific heat
of seawater.

Specific heat capacity (𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ) = 4.2 J/gm/°C

Instruments to measure vertical temperature
profile with depth

(i) Reversing thermometers

(ii) Mechanical Bathy thermograph (MBT)

(iii) Expendable Bathy thermograph (XBT)

(iv) CTD
Temperature Measurements
Reversing Thermometer

Unlike most conventional mercury

thermometers, a reversing thermometer
is able to record a given temperature to
be viewed at a later time. If the
thermometer is flipped upside down, the
current temperature will be shown until
it is turned upright again. This was the
primary device used by oceanographers
to determine water temperatures below
the surface of the ocean from around
1900 to 1970.
CTD  Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth

Incorporated into array of Niskin/Nansen bottles

(referred as Rosette). Sampling bottles close at
pre-defined depths triggered manually/computer
 used to analyse biological/chemical properties.

Sensors scan at rate of 24 Hz (almost 25/sec)

Depth measurements  hydrostatic pressure

Salinity  electrical conductivity
Sensors are inside metal housing  Titanium housing
allows up to 10,000 m water depth

Other sensors  biological parameters: dissolved oxygen,

chlorophyll fluorescence, concentration of plankton
biomass

Deployment  research vessel  downcast at rate of 0.5

m/s  conducting wire cable attached to CTD  on board
computer  real time visualization of collected data

Development of CTD  Neil Brown  WHOI, USA

(Sea Bird electronics)  dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity,
fluorometer etc.
CTD Types:
(i) SBE 911 plus CTD  8 channels for auxiliary sensors, 24 Hz sampling
(ii) SBE 25 plus Sealogger CTD  10 auxiliary sensors, 16 Hz sampling with internal
memory and batteries.
(iii) SBE 19 plus V2 SEACAT profiler CTD  7 auxiliary sensors, 4 Hz sampling with internal
memory and batteries.
(iv) SBE 49 FastCAT CTD sensor  16 Hz, No memory or internal power. Intended for use on
vehicles that can supply power and acquire data.
(v) SBE 52 MP Moored CTD with Optical dissolved Oxygen sensor  1 sample/sec (1 Hz),
No batteries, small memory  for use on moored profiling vehicles that supply power
and acquire data.
(vi) Glider payload CTD (GPCTD)  measures conductivity, temperature, pressure, and
optional dissolved oxygen, modular low-powered profiling instrument for autonomous
gliders.
(vii) Slocum Glider payload CTD  low profiling CTD for installation in Slocum gliders.
(viii) SBE 41/ 41 CP CTD module for autonomous profiling floats (ARGO)  90% of annual
ARGO floats

Most widely used  SBE 911 plus CTD.

Accuracy:
Conductivity  ± 0.0003 S/m
Temperature  ± 0.001° C
Pressure  ± 0.015% of full-scale range

Resolution (at 24 Hz):

Conductivity  0.00004 S/m

Temperature  0.0002° C
Pressure  0.001% of full-scale range

Other Parameters:
Sampling Speed  24 Hz (24 samples/sec)
Time response  conductivity and temperature (0.065 sec), pressure (0.015 sec)
Modem baud rate  300 baud (30 characters/sec full duplex)
Housing  Aluminium (6800 m) in air 25 Kg, Water (16Kg); Titanium (10,500 m)
in air (29 Kg) and water (20 Kg)
CTD SBE 25 plus Sea-
logger CTD
SBE 19 plus V2 SEACAT
profiler CTD
 Temperature Measurements
CTD (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth)
Temperature Measurements
XBT
https://youtu.be/P5Q0ZiJpJIk
Ocean Gliders

https://youtu.be/mhYVcmT06X0
ARGO (Array for Real-time Geostrophic
Oceanography)
Sub-systems

(i) Hydraulics  controls buoyancy  inflatable external

bladder  float surface and dive
(ii)Microprocessor  functions control and scheduling
(iii)Data transmission system  controls communication
with satellite

Approx. 25 Kgs, Max. Operating Depth  2000 m;

Crushing depth  2600 m
Many float models are available in ARGO array

(i) PROVOR (France)  IFREMER partnership with

KANNAD  MARVOR technology  PROVOR NKE
Instrumentation
(ii)APEX  Teledyne Webb Res. Corp., USA
(iii)SOLO float  Scripps Institute of Oceanography, USA
(iv)SOLO-II float  MRV System, USA

Neutrally buoyant  parking depth

10 days interval  6 h surface (T/S)
Design life  150 cycles  4 years
Rate of ascent  ≈ 10 cm/s (≈ 6 h)
Many floats use  Manganese/Alkali batteries (some
use high-powered Lithium batteries)
Accuracy
Temperature: ± 0.005° C
Depth: ± 5 m
Salinity: ± 0.1 psu  drift correction  delayed mode
Cost of each float  $15,000 USD

Array of 3000 floats  800 floats are added each year

Approx. cost of the project  $24 million/year
Cost of each profile  $200
28 countries contributed to the float program. USA about
half of the total floats
Temperature Measurements
NOAA AHVRR
SST
Applications to
Potential Fishing Zones
Z
Sea Surface Temperature

Winter data from Levitus and Boyer (1994)

Temperature (°C) profiles X X
(North Pacific)
Temperature profiles: definitions
Atlantic temperature section
Atlantic potential temperature
section
Atlantic temperature and potential
temperature sections for contrast

Temperature Potential
temperature
https://www.jcommops.org/board
 Seawater properties affected by Radiation, Flux
and Diffusion
Radiation, Advection & Diffusion → three processes which change
things physically inside the ocean.

Radiation → how heat and light (electro-magnetic waves) radiates.

– more important to atmosphere than oceans.

– penetration effects seen till euphotic zone.
– Ocean also radiates back heat to the atmosphere.

Advection → movement of parcel carrying heat and salt with it.

– Volume transport = V.A (where, V=velocity; A=area of surface)

– Mass transport = ρVA (where, ρ = water density)
– Transport of dissolved materials = CρVA (where, C = concentration of mass (or)
molecules of matter unit mass).
Flux → directly related to transport (transport per unit
area).

• Heat flux (Watts/m2).

• Change in flux is related to change in properties within a closed
box.

An Example → Let us consider there is a large flux

of heat INTO a box that OUT of the box.

• This implies water coming out of box is cooler and must have
cooled inside the box.
• Where has this heat lost and by what process??
• Loss of heat out of sea-surface if one face of box is at sea-
surface.
Another Example → Let us consider there is higher flux of oxygen into a box that
outside the box.

– This implies oxygen is consumed within the box by bacteria.

Change of flux through box → flux divergence (more comes out than goes in)

Flux convergence → less comes out than goes in.

Advection → is similar to flux → refers to what happens at a point rather than

side of a volume.

Fluid Mechanics → Advective terms → explains how convergence or divergence

of flux occurs at that point.

Diffusion → similar to flux convergence/divergence → at extremely small spatial

scales.
 Ficks Law of Diffusion
 ∆C 
N x = AD 
 ∆X 
where, Nx = mass flux ; A = area of plane of diffusion (m2)
D = diffusion coefficient (molecular/turbulent) in m2/min
∆C = concentration difference (mg m-3)
∆X = distance over which concentration gradient exists (L)
∆C/∆X = concentration gradient
Surface heat flux (W/m2) into ocean
 Physical Properties of Seawater
• Salinity
• Temperature
• Density
• Sound in Seawater
• Light in the Sea
Salinity
Salinity is the total amount of dissolved material in
grams contained in one kilogram of seawater. The
International Council for the Exploration of Sea
(Commission setup in 1889) recommended salinity
can be defined as ‘total amount of solid materials
in grams dissolved in one kilogram of seawater
when all carbonates has been converted to oxide,
bromine and iodine replaced by chlorine and all
organic material completely oxidised’.
Salinity of sea-water
Consider various constituents of salt in 1 m3 of sea-water having (T,S) = (20,35)

Constituent Mass, kg Running Total, kg

NaCl 28.014 28.014
MgCl2 3.812 31.826
MgSO4 1.752 33.578
CaSO4 1.283 34.861
K2SO4 0.816 35.677
CaCO3 0.122 35.799
KBr 0.101 35.900
SrSO4 0.028 35.928
H2BO3 0.028 35.956

Based on Equation of State (EOS-1980) the density of sea-water having the above
specified value of (T,S) should be 1024.8 Kgm-3. Hence, the mass of salts divided by
mass of water should be:
35.956 ÷ 1024.8 = 35.085870
Salinity based on chlorinity: Since chlorine can be measured accurately with simple
laboratory test and chemical analysis, salinity (S) can be defined as:

𝑆𝑆 = 0.03 + 1.805 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Chlorinity (Cl)  mass of silver required o precipitate completely halogens in 0.328

Kg of seawater.

Salinity based on Conductivity:

The Joint Panel on Oceanography recommended salinity based on conductivity:

2 3 4 5
𝑆𝑆 = −0.08996 + 28.29729𝑅𝑅15 + 12.808𝑅𝑅15 − 10.678𝑅𝑅15 + 5.986𝑅𝑅15 − 1.323𝑅𝑅15

𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆,15,0
𝑅𝑅15 = S=35 ppt.
𝐶𝐶 35,15,0

𝐶𝐶(35.15.0)  standard conductivity  Copenhagen seawater. Most of the

calculations are based on Knudsen’s table.
Distribution of Sea Surface Salinity  Zonal

High saline waters  mid-latitudes (evaporation

is high)
Less saline waters  near equator (rain)
High latitudes  sea-ice freshens water

Zonal (east-West) average salinity  show close

correlation between salinity and evaporation
minus precipitation plus river input.

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑓𝑓(𝐸𝐸 − 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑅𝑅)
Mean temperature and Salinity of the Oceans

Mean temperature of ocean water  3.5° C

Mean Salinity  34.7 ppt

Distribution about the mean is small

50% of ocean water has the range:

1.3° C < T < 3.8° C

34.6 < S < 34.8 ppt
Density, Potential Temperature and Neutral Density

Density is calculated from in situ measurements of pressure,

temperature and conductivity using equation of state for seawater.

Normally one refers to density anomaly (or) 𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆, 𝑇𝑇, 𝑃𝑃 =

𝜌𝜌 𝑆𝑆, 𝑇𝑇, 𝑃𝑃 − 1000 Kg/m3

For studies related to surface processes, one can ignore the

compressibility effects and use a quantity called sigma-t (𝜎𝜎(𝑡𝑡))
𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 = 𝜎𝜎(𝑆𝑆, 𝑇𝑇, 0)

𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 refers to the density anomaly of seawater when the total

pressure on it has been reduced to atmospheric pressure
(temperature and salinity are the in-situ values).
Specific Volume and Anomaly

Specific volume anomaly (α) is the reciprocal of density

Useful application of specific volume  calculation of currents from

distribution of mass by geostrophic method.

In situ Specific volume  𝛼𝛼𝑆𝑆,𝑇𝑇,𝑃𝑃

Specific volume anomaly  𝛿𝛿 = 𝛼𝛼𝑆𝑆,𝑇𝑇,𝑃𝑃 − 𝛼𝛼35,0,𝑃𝑃

Specific volume anomaly can be expressed as function of salinity,

temperature, pressure (Bjerknes and Sandstrom, 1910)

𝛿𝛿 = 𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠 + 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠,𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝 + 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡,𝑝𝑝 + 𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠,𝑡𝑡,𝑝𝑝

𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠 refers to main effect of salinity.

𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠,𝑡𝑡 refers to the interacting effects of salinity and

temperature.

In practice, the term 𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠,𝑡𝑡,𝑝𝑝 is very small (ignored) and the

terms 𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝 and 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡,𝑝𝑝 are small compared to the first three
terms (𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠 , 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠,𝑡𝑡 ).

Montgomery and Wooster pointed out that in actual

oceans the sum of the first three terms i.e; (𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠 +𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝑠𝑠,𝑡𝑡 =
∆𝑠𝑠,𝑡𝑡 ) is adequate for practical applications. It is also called
as ‘thermosteric anomaly’.
Potential Temperature
A parcel moved down from surface  compressed 
compression does work on water  heating

At depths of about 8 Km  increase in temperature is almost

0.9° C

To remove the influence of compressibility from temperature

measurement  concept of potential temperature.

Definition: Potential temperature is defined as temperature of

water parcel at the sea surface after it has been raised
adiabatically from some depth in the ocean.

Potential temperature  calculated from in situ temperature

Neural Surfaces and Density
Tendency for water parcel to move along lines of constant density.
Precisely it moves along the lines of constant potential density (σr ;
‘r’ refers to the local water depth). Such a path is referred as the
‘neutral path’. Neutral surface is the surface tangent to the neutral
path.

No work is required to move a parcel on this surface, as no

buoyancy force acts on the parcel (ignoring friction).
Solid material dissolved in seawater
A Simple Definition:

Originally salinity was defined to be the "Total amount of dissolved

material in grams in one kilogram of sea water." This is not useful
because the dissolved material is almost impossible to measure in
practice. For example, how do we measure volatile material like
gasses? Nor can we evaporate sea-water to dryness because chlorides
are lost in the last stages of drying (Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming,
1942: 50).

A More Complete Definition:

The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea set up a

commission in 1889 which recommended that salinity be defined as
the "Total amount of solid materials in grams dissolved in one
kilogram of sea water when all the carbonate has been converted to
oxide, the bromine and iodine replaced by chlorine and all organic
matter completely oxidized." The definition was published in 1902.
• Heat fluxes, evaporation, rain, river in flow, and freezing and melting of sea ice all
influence the distribution of temperature and salinity at the ocean's surface.

• Changes in temperature and salinity can increase or decrease the density of

water at the surface, which can lead to convection.

• If water from the surface sinks into the deeper ocean, it retains a distinctive
relationship between temperature and salinity which helps oceanographers track
the movement of deep water.

• Temperature, salinity, and pressure are used to calculate density.

• The distribution of density inside the ocean is directly related to the distribution
of horizontal pressure gradients and ocean currents.

• For all these reasons, we need to know the distribution of temperature, salinity,
and density in the ocean.
Factors affecting Salinity
Global distribution of Salinity
 The Global Salinity Budget

• There is a riverine source …BUT…

salinity of the ocean is nearly constant.
• Salinity is altered by air-sea exchanges and
sea ice formation.
• Useful for budgeting water mass.
 The Global Salinity Budget
• 3.6x1012 kg salts are added to ocean each year
from rivers.
• Mass of the oceans is 1.4x1021 kg
• IF only riverine inputs, increase in salinity is ∆S ~
1000 * 3.6x1012 kg/y divided by 1.4x1021 kg
 2.6x10-6 ppt per year
• Undetectable, but not geologically…
• Salinity is therefore constant (at least on
oceanographic time scales)
Global Salinity Distribution
 The Global Salinity Budget
• Salinity follows (E-P) to high degree
through tropics and sub-tropics.
• Degree of correspondence falls off
towards the poles (sea ice…).
• Atlantic salinities are much higher than
Pacific or Indian Oceans.
Global Salinity Distribution
Surface salinity
 Why is the Atlantic so salty?

1 Sverdrup = 106 m3 s-1

Salinity Measurements – ARGO Floats
Salinity Measurements – CTD Assembly
 Salinity Measurements

Salinometer

AUTOSAL
 Salinity Measurements
The Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS)
mission will provide global maps of soil moisture
and ocean salinity. Soil moisture data are
urgently required for hydrological studies and
data on ocean salinity are vital for improving our
understanding of ocean circulation patterns
which will contribute to furthering our knowledge
of the Earth's water cycle, and will improve
climate, weather and extreme-event forecasting.

SMOS will demonstrate a new measuring

technique by adopting a completely different
approach in the field of observing the Earth from
space. A novel instrument has been developed
that is capable of deriving both soil moisture and
ocean salinity by capturing images of emitted
microwave radiation around the frequency of 1.4
GHz (L-band). SMOS will carry the first-ever,
polar-orbiting, space-borne, 2-D interferometric
radiometer.
Salinity Measurements – SMOS satellites
Material Budgets
 Water Mass Budgeting
• Volume fluxes, V1 => determined from mean
velocities (u1) and cross-sectional area (A1).
V1 = u1 A1
• Mass fluxes, M1 => determined from mean
velocities (u1) and cross-sectional area (A1).
M1 = r1 u1 A1
• Provides way of solving for flows/exchanges
knowing water properties.
 Conservation of Volume

• The principle: the compressibility of

water is small.
• If water is flowing into a closed, full
container at a certain rate it must be
flowing out somewhere else at the
same rate or the level in the container
must increase.
• The conservation of volume ~ the
conservation of mass, and for
macroscopic applications we consider
the ocean as incompressible.
 Volume Budgets
• Volume conservation (V1 in m3/s or Sverdrup)
Volume Flow @ 1 + Input = Volume Flow 2
V1 F = V2
• F = River + air/sea exchange
 Salinity Budgets
• Salt conservation (in kg/sec)
Salt Flow @ 1 = Salt Flow @ 2
S1 V1 = S2 V2

• No exchanges of
salinity, only
freshwater
 Key Concepts
• Conservation of Volume

• Conservation of Salt

• Heat Budget
Conservation of Volume
Equation of Continuity → compressibility effects are small.
Applicable to Bays, Fjords → MSL remains constant (after
averaging out waves and tides).
Outflow from Bays to Sea → currents indicate net outflow of
surface layer waters.

Precipitation → IN
Evaporation → OUT
River Runoff → IN

V → Volume transport (m3s-1)

Vo, Vi → Volume transport OUT and IN ; R → River Runoff
P & E → Precipitation & Evaporation (cm yr-1)
A → area over which precipitation and evaporation occurs (area might not be same)
 Vi + R + AP = Vo + AE
(Vo − Vi ) = (R + AP) − AE ≡ F
Steady State Case

In reality, above equations should include density

of water → mass conservation rather than volume
conservation.
Generalizing the above equation:

(Vo − Vi ) = (R + P) − E ≡ X
 Open Ocean Continuity
Extend flow IN and OUT →
CLOSED box with SIDES,
TOP & BOTTOM
If none of sides are close to
the coastline → River
Runoff is zero (R =0)

If TOP of Box is not at the sea-surface → Precipitation

(P) and Evaporation (E) are zero.
macro version of
This turns out to be: (V0 – Vi) = 0 continuity equation

In reality, volume transports IN and OUT of open box is much

larger compared to precipitation and evaporation over sea-
surface → hence above formula can be generalized to sea-surface
Precipitation minus evaporation
(cm/yr)

NCEP climatology
Physical Properties of Seawater
• Salinity
• Temperature
• Density
• Sound in Seawater
• Light in the Sea
 Density of Seawater
• Density of pure water is 1000 kg/m3.

• Ocean water is more dense because of the presence

of salt. Density of ocean water at the sea-surface is
about 1027 kg/m3.

• Two main factors that make ocean water more or

less dense than 1027 kg/m3 → the temperature of
sea-water and its salinity.

• Ocean water gets denser as temperature goes

down. Hence, cold water are more denser.

• Increasing salinity also increases the density of sea

water.
 Density of Seawater
Less dense water floats on top of more dense water. Given two
layers of water with the same salinity, the warmer water will
float on top of the colder water.

Temperature has a greater effect on the density of water than

salinity does → Layer of water with higher salinity can actual
float on top of water with lower salinity if the layer with higher
salinity is quite a bit warmer than the lower salinity layer.

The temperature of the ocean decreases as one go down

vertically. Hence, the density of ocean water increases as one
go to the bottom of the ocean → The deep ocean is layered
with the densest water on bottom and the lightest water on
top → Circulation in the depths of the ocean is horizontal.
This means that water moves along the layers with the same
density.
 Density of Seawater
• The density of ocean water is rarely measured
directly. If one want to measure the density of
ocean water, one need to collect the sample of
sea water and bring it back to the laboratory
to be measured.

• Density is usually calculated using an

equation. One need to measure the salinity,
temperature and pressure to be able to
find density. These measurements are
often made with a CTD instrument, where the
instrument is placed in the ocean water from
a ship or a platform.
A typical density profile
A CTD recorder, which stands for Conductivity-
Temperature-Depth recorder, measures the
physical properties of seawater.
As the CTD instrument is lowered through the
water measurements of conductivity, temperature
and depth are recorded continuously. General
data acquisition for a CTD profiler is up to 24 Hz,
which means that each parameter could be
measured up to 24 times each second. This
provides a very high resolution description of the
water being tested.
CTD instruments measure three important
parameters directly - conductivity, temperature
and pressure. By measuring conductivity
scientists can get a measurement of that water
sample's salinity. This is because electric current
passes much more easily through water with a
higher salt content. So if we know the
conductivity of the water, we know how much salt
is in the water. Accuracy of the measurement is
generally better than 0.005 psu for a standard
CTD profiler.
 CTD
CTD instrument usually uses a thermistor, a platinum
thermometer, or a combination of these to measure the
temperature of the water. Temperature as measured by a CTD
instrument has an accuracy of greater than 0.005 degrees
Celsius.

Finally, a CTD instrument measures pressure using either a

strain gauge pressure monitor or a quartz crystal-based digital
pressure gauge. Pressure is recorded in decibars, and since
depth and pressure are directly related, a measurement in
decibars can be converted to depth in meters.

For example the pressure in "X" decibars is almost exactly

equal to the pressure found at "X" meters of depth. For
instance, at about 500 meters below the surface, the pressure
is almost around 500 dbars. The CTD instrument can measure
pressure to within an error margin of about 1%.
 CTD
Density of water is calculated from in situ measurements of
conductivity (salinity), temperature and pressure. An
equation called the equation of state of water relates the
measurements so that density can be found if these other
three values are known.

The conductivity, temperature and pressure measurements

are recorded in digital form. They can be stored by the
actual CTD instrument and transferred to a personal
computer after the CTD has been brought out of the water or
the transfer of data can happen continuously through a cord
connected from the CTD instrument to a personal computer
on ship or on dock. Often, other sensors are placed on CTD
instruments so that dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity and
flourescence of the water can be measured.
Density σt as a function of temperature and salinity for the salinity range
from freshwater to extreme oceanic salinities. The temperature of the
density maximum is shown as a red line, the freezing point is shown as a
light blue line
T-S Diagram
Water Mass – T/S diagram
 Water Masses in Persian Gulf

(Salinity - Depth) graph for month of

January (Near the Strait of Hormuz)

(Salinity - Temperature) graph for

month of January
(Near the Strait of Hormuz)
 Water Masses in Persian Gulf

(Salinity - Temperature) graph for

month of January (1000Km away
from the Strait of Hormuz)

(Salinity - Depth) graph for month

of January (1000Km away from
the Strait of Hormuz)
Water-mass for the month of February (1000Km
away from the Strait of Hormuz)
Water-mass for the month of March (1000Km away
from the Strait of Hormuz)
Water-mass for the month of May (1000Km away
from the Strait of Hormuz)
Water-mass for the month of July (1000Km away
from the Strait of Hormuz)
Sound in the Sea

Ratio of sound speed in air to water  1 : 4.5

Sound speed (c), frequency (n), and wavelength (λ) are
connected by: 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

Frequencies of sound ranges from 1 Hz to 1000’s of KHz

Wavelength of sound in the sea covers a vast range about

1500 m (for n=1) to 7 cm (for n=200 KHz)

Most underwater instruments use restricted range from

10 to 100 KHz  λ vary from 14 t0 1.4 cm
Sources of Underwater Sound

• Microseisms  (10 – 100 Hz)

• Ships  (50 – 1500 Hz)
• Action of wind, waves, and rain  (1 –
20 KHz)
• Cavitation of air bubbles and animal
noises  (10 – 400 Hz)
• Fish & Crustcaens  (1 – 10 KHz)
Speed (c) of sound waves in the sea is given by:

−1/2 −1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑐𝑐 = 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 where, 𝛽𝛽 = 𝜌𝜌
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜃𝜃,𝑆𝑆
𝛽𝛽  adiabatic compressibility of seawater (with potential
temperature and salinity constant)
𝜌𝜌  density; 𝑃𝑃  pressure; 𝜃𝜃  potential temperature; 𝑆𝑆 
salinity

𝛽𝛽 and 𝜌𝜌 depends nonlinearly on temperature and pressure and

lesser extent on salinity

Most accepted sound speed relation are by Del Grosso (1974); Chen
and Millero (1977)

Del Grosso’s relation is more accurate  acoustic tomography

measurements
A simplified formula by MacKenzie (1981) 
similar to Del Grosso (1974)

C = 1448.96 + 4.59𝑇𝑇 − 0.053𝑇𝑇 2 + 1.34(𝑆𝑆 −

35) + 0.016𝑃𝑃

Sound speed is 1449 m/s at T = 0° C; S = 35 ppt;

and P = 0
Waveguides
Sound in the Oceans
SOFAR Channel
Gradients – Sound Propagation
Shadow Zones
Light in the Ocean:
Light in the ocean travels at a velocity equal to velocity of light in
vacuum divided by the refractive index (n) which is typically 𝑛𝑛 =
1.33

Velocity of light in water  2.25 × 108 m/s

For seawater reflectivity  ≈ 2%

Sunlight reaching sea surface  part is reflected and part is

transmitted down to oceanic layers.

Sunlight with wide range of wavelengths enters the sea after

passing through the atmosphere  up to 100 m depth visible light
interacts with water molecules and dissolved substances or
dissolved suspended matter.
Light provides the energy for photosynthesis and heats the upper layer of the
oceans.

Sun irradiates earth with peak in the visible spectrum (wavelengths from 400 to
700 nm (violet to red))
1 nm = 10-9 m

Sunlight behaves differently in the atmosphere and oceans

Oceans absorbs light in much shorter distance than atmosphere

Short wavelength penetrating into the sea  some gets scattered, and much is
absorbed within the top 100 m.

Energy attenuation is exponential in nature  euphotic zone  where

photosynthesis occurs.

𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝐼0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝐼𝐼0 is the radiation intensity, 𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 is the intensity at ‘z’ m below;
‘k’ is the vertical attenuation coefficient; ‘z’ is the e-folding depth.
Photic zone: where light penetrates upper 200 m
Optical properties of seawater
Secchi Disk – Transparency of
seawater
MicroSAS
How much of time does it
take for water in an
enclosed basin to be
completely flushed out
(or)
Residence time ??
From Principle for Conservation of Salt → The Total
amount of dissolved salts in the ocean is constant.
Symbolically: Vi Si = Vo S o
Difference in densities will be about 3% in practice.
Hence, under this assumption (ρi ~ ρo)
Vi ρ i Si = Vo ρ o S o
From conservation principles of volume:
Vo − Vi = (R + P) − E ≡ X
Vi + X = Vo
VoS0 (Vi + X)S0
Vi = =
Si Si
ViSi = ViSo + XSo
 XSo   XSi 
Hence, Vi =   and Vo =  
 i
S − S 0  i
S − S 0
 If So and Si are large ⇒ (Si − So ) is small.
S0 Si
Hence, and also must be large.
(Si − So ) (Si − So )
Hence, Vi and Vo must be large compared with ' X'
Signifies " Less Stagnant Waters"

For Mediterranean Sea → Evaporation (E) is very high

compared to the Precipitation (P) and River Runoff (R).
E >(R+P) hence “X” is negative (very salty)
This implies net loss of freshwater volume which must be
compensated by inflow of saline water from Atlantic.
Conservation Principles:
Example-1

Inflow of less
saline water

Outflow of more
saline water

Evaporative basin
 So Si
Ratios of salinity, and ≈ 25
Si − So Si − So
Direct mesurement of upper layer currents show that
Vi = 1.75 × 106 m 3s -1 = 1.75 Sv
Using conservation equation, V0 = 1.6805 × 106 m 3s -1 = 1.68 Sv
Hence, X = (R + P) - E = - 7 × 104 m 3s -1
Volume of Mediterranean 
 = 3 . 8 × 1015
m 3

basin = 3.8 × 10 Km
6 3

Hence Flushing/R esidence  3.8 × 1015 m 3
 = = 2 . 2 × 10 9
s
 1.75 × 10 m s
6 3 -1
Time
= 69.84 yr ≈ 70 years
Conservation Principles:
Example-2

Precipitation/Runoff
Ratios of salinity approximately, 1 : 2
Direct mesurement of upper layer currents show that
Vi = 6 × 10 3 m 3s -1
Using conservation equation, V0 ≈ 13 × 10 3 m 3s -1 = 1.68 Sv
Hence, X = (R + P) - E = 6.35 × 10 3 m 3s -1
⇒ There is net inflow of freshwater to the sea.
Volume of Black Sea 
 = 0 .6 × 1015
m 3

basin = 0.6 × 106 Km 3 

Hence Flushing/R esidence  0.6 × 1015 m 3
 = = × 12
0 . 1 10 s
 6 × 10 m s
3 3 -1
Time
= 1011 s ≈ 3170 years
Bulk of Mediterranean waters → Oxygen content > 4 ml lt-1
Black Sea below 200 m has no dissolved oxygen but much of
hydrogen sulphide (6 ml lt-1)