Chapter 4 : Intermediate SQL

Database System Concepts, 7th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
 Outline

§ Join Expressions
§ Views
§ Transactions
§ Integrity Constraints
§ SQL Data Types and Schemas
§ Index Definition in SQL
§ Authorization

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations

§ Join operations take two relations and return as a result another

relation.
§ A join operation is a Cartesian product which requires that tuples in the
two relations match (under some condition). It also specifies the
attributes that are present in the result of the join
§ The join operations are typically used as subquery expressions in the
from clause
§ Three types of joins:
• Natural join
• Inner join
• Outer join

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural Join in SQL
§ Natural join matches tuples with the same values for all common
attributes, and retains only one copy of each common column.
§ List the names of instructors along with the course ID of the courses that
they taught
• select name, course_id
from students, takes
where student.ID = takes.ID;
§ Same query in SQL with “natural join” construct
• select name, course_id
from student natural join takes;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural Join in SQL (Cont.)

§ The from clause can have multiple relations combined using natural join:
select A1, A2, … An
from r1 natural join r2 natural join .. natural join rn
where P ;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Student Relation

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Takes Relation

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 student natural join takes

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Dangerous in Natural Join

§ Beware of unrelated attributes with same name which get equated

incorrectly
§ Example -- List the names of students along with the titles of courses that
they have taken
• Correct version
select name, title
from student natural join takes, course
where takes.course_id = course.course_id;
• Incorrect version
select name, title
from student natural join takes natural join course;

§ This query omits all (name, title) pairs where the student takes a
course in a department other than the student's own department.
§ The correct version (above), correctly outputs such pairs.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Dangerous in Natural Join

• Incorrect version
select name, title
from student natural join takes natural join course;
§ This query omits all (name, title) pairs where the student takes a
course in a department other than the student's own department.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural Join with Using Clause

§ To avoid the danger of equating attributes erroneously, we can use the

“using” construct that allows us to specify exactly which columns should
be equated.
§ Query example
select name, title
from (student natural join takes) join course using (course_id)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Join Condition

§ The on condition allows a general predicate over the relations being joined
§ This predicate is written like a where clause predicate except for the use of
the keyword on
§ Query example
select *
from student join takes on student_ID = takes_ID
• The on condition above specifies that a tuple from student matches a
tuple from takes if their ID values are equal.
§ Equivalent to:
select *
from student , takes
where student_ID = takes_ID

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join

§ An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.

§ Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not
match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.
§ Uses null values.
§ Three forms of outer join:
• left outer join
• right outer join
• full outer join

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join Examples

§ Relation course

§ Relation prereq

§ Observe that
course information is missing CS-347
prereq information is missing CS-315

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Left Outer Join

§ course natural left outer join prereq

§ In relational algebra: course ⟕ prereq

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Right Outer Join

§ course natural right outer join prereq

§ In relational algebra: course ⟖ prereq

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Full Outer Join

§ course natural full outer join prereq

§ In relational algebra: course ⟗ prereq

§ MySQL does not explicitly support full outer join. One has to use union.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Types and Conditions

§ Join operations take two relations and return as a result another

relation.
§ These additional operations are typically used as subquery expressions
in the from clause
§ Join condition – defines which tuples in the two relations match.
§ Join type – defines how tuples in each relation that do not match any
tuple in the other relation (based on the join condition) are treated.

• A left outer join B preserves tuples in A.

• A right outer join B preserves tuples in B.
• A full outer join B preserves tuples in both A and B.
• A inner join B does not preserve non-matched tuples.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Examples

§ course natural right outer join prereq

§ course full outer join prereq using (course_id)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Examples

§ course inner join prereq on

course.course_id = prereq.course_id

§ course left outer join prereq on

course.course_id = prereq.course_id

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Examples

§ course natural right outer join prereq

§ course full outer join prereq using (course_id)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Views

§ In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see the entire logical
model (that is, all the actual relations stored in the database.)
§ Consider a person who needs to know an instructors name and
department, but not the salary. This person should see a relation
described, in SQL, by

select ID, name, dept_name

from instructor

§ A view provides a mechanism to hide certain data from the view of

certain users.
§ Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made visible to a
user as a “virtual relation” is called a view.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View Definition

§ A view is defined using the create view statement which has the form
create view v as < query expression >

where <query expression> is any legal SQL expression. The view name
is represented by v.
§ Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to refer to the virtual
relation that the view generates.
§ View definition is not the same as creating a new relation by evaluating
the query expression
• Rather, a view definition causes the saving of an expression; the
expression is substituted into queries using the view.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View Definition and Use

§ A view of instructors without their salary

create view faculty as
select ID, name, dept_name
from instructor
§ Find all instructors in the Biology department
select name
from faculty
where dept_name = 'Biology'
§ Create a view of department salary totals
create view departments_total_salary(dept_name, total_salary) as
select dept_name, sum (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Views Defined Using Other Views

§ One view may be used in the expression defining another view

§ A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation v2 if v2 is
used in the expression defining v1
§ A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either v1 depends
directly to v2 or there is a path of dependencies from v1 to v2
§ A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Views Defined Using Other Views

§ create view physics_fall_2017 as

select course.course_id, sec_id, building, room_number
from course, section
where course.course_id = section.course_id
and course.dept_name = 'Physics'
and section.semester = 'Fall'
and section.year = '2017’;

§ create view physics_fall_2017_watson as

select course_id, room_number
from physics_fall_2017
where building= 'Watson';

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View Expansion

§ Expand the view :

create view physics_fall_2017_watson as
select course_id, room_number
from physics_fall_2017
where building= 'Watson'
§ To:
create view physics_fall_2017_watson as
select course_id, room_number
from (select course.course_id, building, room_number
from course, section
where course.course_id = section.course_id
and course.dept_name = 'Physics'
and section.semester = 'Fall'
and section.year = '2017')
where building= 'Watson';

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View Expansion (Cont.)

§ A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of other views.

§ Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself contain uses of
view relations.
§ View expansion of an expression repeats the following replacement step:
repeat
Find any view relation vi in e1
Replace the view relation vi by the expression defining vi
until no more view relations are present in e1
§ As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will terminate

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Materialized Views

§ Certain database systems allow view relations to be physically stored.

• Physical copy created when the view is defined.
• Such views are called Materialized view:
§ If relations used in the query are updated, the materialized view result
becomes out of date
• Need to maintain the view, by updating the view whenever the
underlying relations are updated.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Update of a View

§ Add a new tuple to faculty view which we defined earlier

insert into faculty
values ('30765', 'Green', 'Music');
§ This insertion must be represented by the insertion into the instructor
relation
• Must have a value for salary.
§ Two approaches
• Reject the insert
• Insert the tuple
('30765', 'Green', 'Music', null)
into the instructor relation

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Some Updates Cannot be Translated Uniquely

§ create view instructor_info as

select ID, name, building
from instructor, department
where instructor.dept_name = department.dept_name;
§ insert into instructor_info
values ('69987', 'White', 'Taylor');
§ Issues
• Which department, if multiple departments in Taylor?
• What if no department is in Taylor?

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 And Some Not at All

§ create view history_instructors as

select *
from instructor
where dept_name= 'History';
§ What happens if we insert
('25566', 'Brown', 'Biology', 100000)
into history_instructors?

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 And Some Not at All (Cont.)
§ create view history_instructors as
select *
from instructor
where dept_name= 'History';
§ What happens if we insert
('25566', 'Brown', 'Biology', 100000) If WITH CHECK
OPTION is specified,
into history_instructors?
every row that is
inserted or updated
through the view
must conform to the
definition of the view.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View Updates in SQL

§ Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple views

• The from clause has only one database relation.
• The select clause contains only attribute names of the relation, and
does not have any expressions, aggregates, or distinct
specification.
• Any attribute not listed in the select clause can be set to null
• The query does not have a group by or having clause.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Transactions

§ A transaction consists of a sequence of query and/or update

statements and is a “unit” of work
§ The SQL standard specifies that a transaction begins implicitly when an
SQL statement is executed.
§ The transaction must end with one of the following statements:
• Commit work. The updates performed by the transaction become
permanent in the database.
• Rollback work. All the updates performed by the SQL statements
in the transaction are undone.
§ Atomic transaction
• either fully executed or rolled back as if it never occurred
§ Isolation from concurrent transactions

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Error message if you remove the prefix @

Transactions
§ By default, MySQL runs with autocommit mode enabled. This means that, when not otherwise inside a
transaction, each statement is atomic, as if it were surrounded by START TRANSACTION and COMMIT.
With START TRANSACTION, autocommit remains disabled until you end the transaction
with COMMIT or ROLLBACK.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Variables in MySQL

§ There are three types of variables in MySQL: user-defined, local, and system.
• User-defined variables (@var) are loosely typed variables that may be
initialized somewhere in a session and keep their value until the session
ends.
You can initialize them by one of the following 2 ways
§ set @var = 5;

§ select @var := 5;
Note that “ @var=5 ” is a proposition that is either true or false. That is
why we either need a “set” or a “:” in the above two ways.

• Local variables (var) can be used in a stored procedure only (see the
“price” in the next slide).
• System variables (@@var) are already predefined by MySQL.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Transactions
https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/9.0/en/declare-handler.html
3819 appears on Page 36 of the slides

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Integrity Constraints

§ Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the database,

by ensuring that authorized changes to the database do not result in a
loss of data consistency.
• A checking account must have a balance greater than $10,000.00
• A salary of a bank employee must be at least $4.00 an hour
• A customer must have a (non-null) phone number

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Constraints on a Single Relation

§ not null
§ primary key
§ unique
§ check (P), where P is a predicate

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Not Null Constraints

§ not null
• Declare name and budget to be not null
name varchar(20) not null
budget numeric(12,2) not null

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Unique Constraints

§ unique ( A1, A2, …, Am)

• The unique specification states that the attributes A1, A2, …, Am
form a candidate key.
• Candidate keys are permitted to be null (in contrast to primary
keys).

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The check clause

§ The check (P) clause specifies a predicate P that must be satisfied by

every tuple in a relation.
§ Example: ensure that semester is one of fall, winter, spring or summer

create table section

(course_id varchar (8),
sec_id varchar (8),
semester varchar (6),
year numeric (4,0),
building varchar (15),
room_number varchar (7),
time slot id varchar (4),
primary key (course_id, sec_id, semester, year),
check (semester in ('Fall', 'Winter', 'Spring', 'Summer')))

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Referential Integrity
§ Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of
attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation.
• Example: If “Biology” is a department name appearing in one of the
tuples in the instructor relation, then there exists a tuple in the
department relation for “Biology”.
§ Let A be a set of attributes. Let R and S be two relations that contain
attributes A and where A is the primary key of S. A is said to be a
foreign key of R if for any values of A appearing in R these values also
appear in S.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Referential Integrity (Cont.)

§ Foreign keys can be specified as part of the SQL create table

statement
foreign key (dept_name) references department
§ By default, a foreign key references the primary-key attributes of the
referenced table.
§ SQL allows a list of attributes of the referenced relation to be specified
explicitly.
foreign key (dept_name) references department (dept_name)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cascading Actions in Referential Integrity
§ When a referential-integrity constraint is violated, the normal procedure is to
reject the action that caused the violation.
§ An alternative, in case of delete or update is to cascade
create table course (
(…
dept_name varchar(20),
foreign key (dept_name) references department
on delete cascade
on update cascade,
. . .)
§ Instead of cascade we can use :
• set null,
• set default

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cascading Actions in Referential Integrity
on update cascade

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Integrity Constraint Violation During Transactions

§ Consider:
create table person (
ID char(10),
name char(40),
mother char(10),
father char(10),
primary key ID,
foreign key father references person,
foreign key mother references person)
§ How to insert a tuple without causing constraint violation?
• Insert father and mother of a person before inserting person
• OR, set father and mother to null initially, update after inserting all
persons (not possible if father and mother attributes declared to be not
null)
• OR defer constraint checking

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.49 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Integrity Constraint Violation During Transactions
(defer constraint checking)

In PostgreSQL,
If a constraint is INITIALLY IMMEDIATE, it is checked after each statement. This is the default.
If a constraint is INITIALLY DEFERRED, it is checked only at the end of the transaction.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.50 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Integrity Constraint Violation During Transactions
(set to null initially)

Deferred constraint checking is not supported by MySQL.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Built-in Data Types in SQL

§ date: Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date

• Example: date '2005-7-27'
§ time: Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.
• Example: time '09:00:30' time '09:00:30.75'
§ timestamp: date plus time of day
• Example: timestamp '2005-7-27 09:00:30.75'
§ interval: period of time
• Example: interval '1' day
• Subtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another gives an
interval value
• Interval values can be added to date/time/timestamp values

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Large-Object Types

§ Large objects (photos, videos, CAD files, etc.) are stored as a large
object:
• blob: binary large object -- object is a large collection of uninterpreted
binary data (whose interpretation is left to an application outside of
the database system)
• clob: character large object -- object is a large collection of character
data. It is called text in MySQL / PostgreSQL (but of different sizes),
clob in Oracle.
§ When a query returns a large object, a pointer is returned rather than the
large object itself.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 User-Defined Types
§ create type construct in SQL creates user-defined type

create type Dollars as numeric (12,2) final;

§ Example:
create table department
(dept_name varchar (20),
building varchar (15),
budget Dollars);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Domains
§ create domain construct in SQL-92 creates user-defined domain
types

create domain person_name char(20) not null

§ Domains can have constraints, such as not null, specified on them.

§ Example:
create domain degree_level varchar(10)
constraint degree_level_test
check (value in ('Bachelors', 'Masters', 'Doctorate'));

PostgreSQL

not supported in
MySQL

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.55 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Index Creation

§ Many queries reference only a small proportion of the records in a table.

§ It is inefficient for the system to read every record to find a record with
particular value
§ An index on an attribute of a relation is a data structure that allows the
database system to find those tuples in the relation that have a specified
value for that attribute efficiently, without scanning through all the tuples of
the relation.
§ We create an index with the create index command
create index <name> on <relation-name> (attribute);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.56 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Index Creation Example

§ create table student

(ID varchar (5), In MySQL, indexes are generated
name varchar (20) not null, for primary key and foreign keys
dept_name varchar (20), automatically. But PostgreSQL does
not automatically index foreign keys.
tot_cred numeric (3,0) default 0,
primary key (ID),
foreign key (dept_name) references department (dept_name) on delete set null)
§ create index studentID_index on student(ID)

§ The query:
select *
from student
where ID = '12345'
can be executed by using the index
to find the required record, without
looking at all records of student

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.57 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Index Creation Example

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example of B+-Tree Index
(a slide from chapter 14)

Mozart Root node

Einstein Gold Srinivasan Internal nodes

Leaf nodes

Brandt Califieri Crick Einstein El Said Gold Katz Kim Mozart Singh Srinivasan Wu

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. 65000

12121 Wu Finance 90000
15151 Mozart Music 40000
22222 Einstein Physics 95000
32343 El Said History 80000
33456 Gold Physics 87000
45565 Katz Comp. Sci. 75000
58583 Califieri History 60000
76543 Singh Finance 80000
76766 Crick Biology 72000
83821 Brandt Comp. Sci. 92000
98345 Kim Elec. Eng. 80000

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 B+-Tree Index Files (Cont.)
(a slide from chapter 14)

A B+-tree is a rooted tree satisfying the following properties:

§ All paths from root to leaf are of the same length
§ Each node that is not a root or a leaf has between én/2ù and n
children.
§ A leaf node has between é(n–1)/2ù and n–1 values
§ Special cases:
• If the root is not a leaf, it has at least 2 children.
• If the root is a leaf (that is, there are no other nodes in the tree), it
can have between 0 and (n–1) values.

n=4

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example of B+-tree
(a slide from chapter 14)

§ B+-tree for instructor file (n = 6)

El Said Mozart

Brandt Califieri Crick Einstein El Said Gold Katz Kim Mozart Singh Srinivasan Wu

§ Leaf nodes must have between 3 and 5 values

(é(n–1)/2ù and n –1, with n = 6).
§ Non-leaf nodes other than root must have between 3 and 6
children (é(n/2ù and n with n =6).
§ Root must have at least 2 children.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.61 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Queries on B+-Trees
(a slide from chapter 14)

search-key values within a node are kept in sorted order

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.62 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example of Hash Index
(a slide from chapter 14)
bucket 0
76766

h(76766) = 0, h(10101) = 3,
bucket 1
45565
h(45565) = 1, …, h(76543) = 1,
76543
bucket 2
22222 76766 Crick Biology 72000
10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. 65000
45565 Katz Comp. Sci. 75000
bucket 3
83821 Brandt Comp. Sci. 92000
10101
98345 Kim Elec. Eng. 80000
12121 Wu Finance 90000
bucket 4 76543 Singh Finance 80000
32343 El Said History 60000
58583 Califieri History 62000
15151 Mozart Music 40000
bucket 5 22222 Einstein Physics 95000
15151 58583 33465 Gold Physics 87000
33456 98345
bucket 6
83821
hash index on instructor, on attribute ID
bucket 7
12121
32343

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Static Hashing
(a slide from chapter 14)

§ A bucket is a unit of storage containing one or more entries (a bucket

is typically a disk block).
• we obtain the bucket of an entry from its search-key value using a
hash function
§ Hash function h is a function from the set of all search-key values K to
the set of all bucket addresses B.
E.g. h(76766) = 0, h(10101) = 3, h(45565) = 1, …, h(76543) = 1,

§ Hash function is used to locate entries for access, insertion as well as

deletion.
§ Entries with different search-key values may be mapped to the same
bucket; thus entire bucket has to be searched sequentially to locate an
entry.
§ In a hash index, buckets store entries with pointers to records
§ In a hash file-organization buckets store records

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Handling of Bucket Overflows
(a slide from chapter 14)

§ Bucket overflow can occur because of

• Insufficient buckets
• Skew in distribution of records. This can occur due to two reasons:
§ multiple records maps to the same bucket address
§ chosen hash function produces non-uniform distribution of key
values
§ Although the probability of bucket overflow can be reduced, it cannot be
eliminated; it is handled by using overflow buckets.

bucket 0

bucket 1

overflow buckets for bucket 1

bucket 2

bucket 3

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.65 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Index on a non-candidate key
(from chapter 14)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.66 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Authorization

§ We may assign a user several forms of authorizations on parts of the

database.

• Read - allows reading, but not modification of data.

• Insert - allows insertion of new data, but not modification of existing
data.
• Update - allows modification, but not deletion of data.
• Delete - allows deletion of data.
§ Each of these types of authorizations is called a privilege. We may
authorize the user all, none, or a combination of these types of privileges
on specified parts of a database, such as a relation or a view.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.67 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Authorization (Cont.)

§ Forms of authorization to modify the database schema

• Index - allows creation and deletion of indices.
• Resources - allows creation of new relations.
• Alteration - allows addition or deletion of attributes in a relation.
• Drop - allows deletion of relations.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.68 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Authorization Specification in SQL

§ The grant statement is used to confer authorization

grant <privilege list> on <relation or view > to <user list>
§ <user list> is:
• a user-id
• public, which allows all valid users the privilege granted
• A role (more on this later)
§ Example:
• grant select on department to Amit, Satoshi
§ Granting a privilege on a view does not imply granting any privileges on
the underlying relations.
§ The grantor of the privilege must already hold the privilege on the
specified item (or be the database administrator).

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.69 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Privileges in SQL

§ select: allows read access to relation, or the ability to query using the
view
• Example: grant users U1, U2, and U3 select authorization on the
instructor relation:
grant select on instructor to U1, U2, U3
§ insert: the ability to insert tuples
§ update: the ability to update using the SQL update statement
§ delete: the ability to delete tuples.
§ all privileges: used as a short form for all the allowable privileges

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.70 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Revoking Authorization in SQL

§ The revoke statement is used to revoke authorization.

revoke <privilege list> on <relation or view> from <user list>
§ Example:
revoke select on student from U1, U2, U3
§ <privilege-list> may be all to revoke all privileges the revokee may hold.
§ If <revokee-list> includes public, all users lose the privilege except those
granted it explicitly.
§ If the same privilege was granted twice to the same user by different
grantees, the user may retain the privilege after the revocation.
§ All privileges that depend on the privilege being revoked are also
revoked.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.71 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example
Before we start:

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.72 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.73 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.74 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example
You may need to restart the current session to see the new user

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.75 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example
2. Create new connection by
1. Close the current connection pressing the + sign next to
MySQL Connections

3. Press OK. Now you can click the new

connection and then enter password

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.76 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example

After you login as Albert:

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.77 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Roles

§ A role is a way to distinguish among various users as far as what these

users can access/update in the database.
§ To create a role we use:
create a role <name>
§ Example:
• create role instructor
§ Once a role is created we can assign “users” to the role using:
• grant <role> to <users>

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.78 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Roles Example

§ create role instructor;

§ grant instructor to Amit;
§ Privileges can be granted to roles:
• grant select on takes to instructor;
§ Roles can be granted to users, as well as to other roles
• create role teaching_assistant
• grant teaching_assistant to instructor;
§ Instructor inherits all privileges of teaching_assistant
§ Chain of roles
• create role dean;
• grant instructor to dean;
• grant dean to Satoshi;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.79 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Authorization on Views

§ create view geo_instructor as

(select *
from instructor
where dept_name = 'Geology');
§ grant select on geo_instructor to geo_staff
§ Suppose that a geo_staff member issues
• select *
from geo_instructor;
§ What if
• geo_staff does not have permissions on instructor?
• Creator of view did not have some permissions on instructor?

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.80 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example

1. Log in as root:

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.81 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example
2. Create a new connection for Dirac

3. Login as Dirac: Dirac can select phy_instructor, but not instructor.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.82 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 MySQL example

4. End the session of Dirac. Login as root again:

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.83 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Other Authorization Features

§ references privilege to create foreign key

• grant reference (dept_name) on department to Mariano;
• Why is this required?
§ transfer of privileges
• grant select on department to Amit with grant option;
• revoke select on department from Amit, Satoshi cascade;
• revoke select on department from Amit, Satoshi restrict;
• And more!

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.84 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 End of Chapter 4

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.85 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Homework:

• The project 1 is due on 11:59 pm of Aug 10.

• Write and run those MySQL example codes in the slides.

• Optional (won’t be collected and won’t be marked):

If you have more time, you may want to try some of the
Questions 4.2, 4.3, 4.15, 4.20 (or any questions that you feel
interesting) on Page 176 of the textbook.
Read and run the solutions (on canvas) afterwards.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 4.86 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan