Republic of the Philippines

University of Eastern Philippines

Laoang Campus
Laoang, Northern Samar

LEARNING MODULE
in Educ 1
The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

Prepared by:

BENJIELEN C. DE GUZMAN
Instructor 1
 Course Guide
About the Course
Welcome to the G.E. 1 (The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles) class!
This subject is under the Professional Education subject component of the new Teacher
Education curricular program. As a future teacher, It is a must that you know the different
literacies that should possessed by our learners. But of course, the future teachers, you my dear
students should also build and enhance in you the same literacies we expect from our students.
This subject is designed for you to acquire this goal.
This course focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on current research
and theory on biological linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of development.
Further, this includes factors that affect the progress of development of the learners and shall
include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each developmental level. Our official
schedule is
 9:00 – 10:00 MWF BPEd 2a
 1:00 – 2:00 MWF BEED 1a
 3:00 – 4:00 MWF BEED b

Study Tips
How will you maximize your learning in this subject? Here are some tips
1. You are the master of your fate. Meaning, your success will totally depend on how you
will strive to pass the subject.

2. Do not procrastinate. Manage your time well in reading the module and answering the
concept checks. Remember, this is not the only module you will be reading as there are
more modules in your other subjects.

3. Be mindful of your study schedule. After getting the study schedule for all your subjects,
make a general study schedule for all your subjects.

4. Take note of deadlines of submission. But it would be better if you could submit ahead of
time.

5. While reading the modules, you may encounter some words which are quite unfamiliar
to you, hence, a dictionary can be of help in this situation.

6. While the modules contain concepts taken from various sources, you are still encouraged
to look for other references along the topics in the module to validate the ideas coming
from the authors referred to in this module.
 7. Keep your modules in good condition, the way we also keep our books and other reading
materials in a safe place.

8. In answering the activities, particularly the Concept Check after every lesson, please bear
in mind that you don’t have to copy what is in the module. Your answer should manifest
more of your understanding as well as, the higher order thinking skills of analysis and
synthesis.

9. Be sure to take note of the University Link where you would submit your requirements.
After submitting, make a private message telling me of the details: what you submitted
and the date and time of submission.

10. While waiting for your Journal to be checked and returned, please work on the next
module and make a draft for the meantime.

11. If there are clarifications regarding the modules and the content, for as long as they
related to the subject, do not hesitate to contact me through our messenger group chat
or my mobile number 0999 622 2899 or 0997 632 3508. However, be sure to introduce
yourself on your first message.

12. You are the learner. While you can ask for help from other people, like your siblings or
parents, the bulk of the work rests on you, my dear student. Let us ensure that the values
of honestly, patience, and perseverance would be exhibited in you, dear future teachers.

Module Organization

The whole module material for this course is composed of four (4) modules. Each
module is made up of the following parts:

1. Module Number and Title

2. Overview. The overview describes the course in general and how the module could be
helpful in you as learner.

3. Learning Outcomes. The learning outcomes are the target competencies which you are
expected to gain after learning the module.

4. Lessons. The module is divided into lesson chunks or mini-lesson

5. Activity. After every mini-lesson is an activity. This is an open-ended question which
measures your understanding of the concepts in the lesson chunk.

6. Feedback. The feedback is your teacher’s way of checking your journey in learning the
module and your readiness in moving to the next module.

7. Summary. This is the synthesis of the concepts presented in the module.

8. Suggested Readings/Videos. These are some links which were not included in the main
references for the module but are materials to read to watch on the internet to give you
more understanding about the topics.

Study Schedule
Week and Dates Topic Activity

 Course Overview 1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly

 Introduction 2. Be sure you are a member of the
Messenger Group Chat for this
subject. Please format your
Week 1 nickname using this template:
August 15, 2022 First Name, Surname and Brgy./
Municipality
3. As a manifestation of your first
attempt to be recognized in the
class, please introduce yourself by
telling the group some few things
about yourself.
4. After posting your response for #3,
please post your photo for
familiarization purposes.
5. Your Course Syllabus is posted in
your Moodle Account. If there will
be a way as there is always a way if
you will really intend to, please
access your Moodle Account. A
copy of the modules can also be
found in the Moodle Account for
 downloading.
Module 1 1. Read and understand Module 1.
Week 2-5 2. Answer the Concept Check after
August 22 – Sept. Chapter 1 – Educational every lesson in your Journal
16, 2022 Philosophies 3. Your Journal should be submitted
Chapter 2 – The relationship of to the University Links on or
school and society before May 14, 2021.
Chapter 3 – Structural
Functional theory;
conflict theory;
symbolic interaction
Module 2 1. Read and understand Module 2.
Week 6 - 9 2. Answer the Concept Check after
Sept. 19 – Oct. 14, Chapter 4 - The Strengths and every lesson in your Journal
2022 Weaknesses of the 3. Your Journal should be submitted
Filipino Character to the University Links on or
Chapter 5 – Global Issues that before - June 11, 2021.
concern schools and
society
Chapter 6 – The Why and how
of school and
community partnership
Week 9 Mid-term Examination 1. Please be updated on the
Oct. 14, 2022 Messenger Group Chat for the
detailed instructions for the
Mid-term Examination.
Module 3 1. Read and understand Module 3.
Chapter 7 – The teacher and the 2. Answer the Concept Check after
Week 10 - 13 community every lesson in your Journal
Oct. 17 – Nov. 11, Chapter 8 - Organizational 3. Your Journal should be submitted
2022 Leadership to the University Links on or
Chapter 9 – The school head in before July 09, 2021.
school based
management
Module 4 1. Read and understand Module 3.
Chapter 10 – Creating a positive 2. Answer the Concept Check after
Week 14 - 17 school culture every lesson in your Journal
Nov. 14 – Dec. 09, Chapter 11 – School policies 3. Your Journal should be submitted
 2022 and their functions to the University Links on or
Chapter 12 – Roles and before
competencies of school July 23, 2021.
heads
Week 18 Final Examination 1. Prepare this week for your written
Dec. 12, 2022 Final examination.

Assessment Tasks
How will you be graded in this subject? To pass the subject, you should submit all required
activities and pass the exams.
1. Journal. You must come up with a journal where you will write your answers on the
activity check in every module. For your journal.
2. Midterm Examination. You must pass the Midterm examination which will be
accomplished through the Google classroom account. Details of the examination will be
posted in our Messenger Group Chat.

3. Final examination. You must pass the Midterm examination which will be
accomplished through the Google classroom account. Details of the examination will be
posted in our Messenger Group Chat.

In computing for your final grade for Educ. 1, the following percentages will be allotted
for the above-mentioned assessment task:

Journal 40%
Mid-term Examination 20%
Final examination 20%
Final output 20%
Total 100%

Again, welcome to Educ. 1 and have fun in learning the subject!

INST. BENJIELEN C. DE GUZMAN

Course Instructor
MODULE 2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES O CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 1 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES In this lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain Fred's views about child and adolescent

development.
 Assess oneself' childhood experiences through
recalling life's experiences.
 Draw implications of Fred's theory to education.

"The ego is not master in its own house.

- Sigmund Freud

Freud's views about human development re more than a century old. He can be
considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory
about the unconscious and also bout sexual development. Although a lot of his views
were criticized and some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted some of his
earlier views). Freud's theory remains to be one of the most influential in psychology.
His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became
the starting point of many other theories, notable of which is Erikson's Psychosocial
theory in TOPIC 4.

PRE TEST:

1. Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision. Narrate the
situation below. Indicate what the decision was about, the factors that were
involved and how you arrived at your decision.
 2. What factors influenced you in making your decision? Which of the following did
you consider most in making your decision: what will make you feel satisfied,
what is most beneficial or practical, or what you believed was the most moral
thing to do? Elaborate your answer.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many psychologists present

different views about how about how personality develops. As mentioned, Freud
presents a very interesting theory about personality, its components and development.
Read and hopefully it will also somehow lead you to understand more your own
personality.

As you read through Fred's theory, fill out the graphic organizer to highlight the
important concepts:

Activity 1: Meet the O-A-Pha-La-Ge Zone

Fill up the following stages' erogenous zone, description and fixations.

Erogenous zone - a specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure needs. This may be
the mouth, anus and the genitals.

Fixation - results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage.
 EROGENOUS ZONE:
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE:

FIXATIONS:
ORAL STAGE

EROGENOUS ZONE:

DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE:

FIXATIONS:
ANAL STAGE

EROGENOUS ZONE:
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE:

FIXATIONS:
PHALIC
STAGE

EROGENOUS ZONE:
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE:

FIXATIONS:

LATENCY
STAGE

EROGENOUS ZONE:
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE:

FIXATIONS:

GENITAL
STAGE
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality,
also probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual development includes
five distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five
stages and along the way there are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not,
determines whether the person will develop a healthy personality or not. The theory is
quite interesting for many because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each
stage of development. These are specific "pleasure areas" that become focal points for
the particular stage. If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult,
the person will now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.

1. Oral stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the
oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasure (sucking). Too much or too little
satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an
increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive
or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails or use curse
words or even gossip. As a result, these persons may become dependent on
others, easily fooled, md lack leadership traits. On the other hand, they may also
fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in relating with
people.

2. Anal stage (18 months to 3 years). The child's focus of pleasure in this stage is
the anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining faeces.
Through society's expectations, particularly the rents, the child needs to work on
toilet training. Let us remember that between one year and a half to three years
the child's favorite word might be "No!. Therefore, a struggle might exist in the
toilet training process when the child retains faeces when asked to eliminate, or
may choose to defecate when asked to hold faeces for some reason. In terms of
personality, fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive, an
obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control; or anal expulsive where the
person may become messy and disorganized.

3. Phallic stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.
During the preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and
girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals.
Fred's led him to believe that during this stage boys develop unconscious sexual
desire for their mother. Boys then see their father as a rival for her mother's
 affection. Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these feelings,
thus, the castration anxiety. These feelings comprise what Freud call Oedipus
Complex. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus unintentionally killed his father and
married his mother Jocasta.

Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar experience,
developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is
referred to as the Electra Complex.

According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition
of their father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them.
By identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and
identify themselves as males and repress their sexual deviances (both overindulging
and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.

4. Latency stage (age 6 to puberty). It's during the stage that sexual urges remain
repressed. The children's focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills.
Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.

5. Genital stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development

begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the
earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex
peers, with the pleasure centered on the genitals.

Freud's Personality Components

Freud describes the personality structures as having three components, the id, the
ego, and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id followed by the ego,
and the last to develop is the superego.

1. The Id.

Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one's
personality because as a baby works so that the baby's essential needs are met.
The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification
 or satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue
with no consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For
example, a baby is hungry. Its id wants food or milk... so the baby will cry. When
the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the
id speaks up until his or her needs are met.

Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It
is not oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how
babies cry anytime of day and night. Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is
tired or daddy is sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants it now and it
wants it fast!

2. The Ego

As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a toddler and then into a
preschooler, he/she relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to
emerge. The ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware that other also
have needs to be met. It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or
selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it reasons and considers the
best response to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent of the personality.
Although it functions to help the id meets its needs, it always takes into account
the reality of the situation.

3. The Superego.
Near the end pf the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the
superego develops. The superego embodies a person's moral aspect. It is the
ideal principle. This develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons
who exert influence impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened to
conscience because its exerts influence on what one considers right and wrong.

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can
help satisfy the needs of the id, without goings against the superego while
maintaining the person's sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it
 is not easy for the ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much
power over the ego, the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking
behavior takes over one's life. On the opposite direction, one may find the
superego so strong that the ego is overpowered. The person becomes so harsh
and judgmental to himself and other's actions. The person's best effort to be
good may still fall short of the superego's expectations.

The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner

was brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, the to which he
was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was taught bout right and
wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent adjustment that a person
will make. Freud believed that the personality of an individual is formed early during the
childhood years.

Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he

described the features of the mind's structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an
iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

Freud (1915) described the conscious mind, which consists of all the mental
processes of which we are aware, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. For example,
you may be feeling thirsty at this moment and decide to get a drink.

The preconscious contains thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently
aware of, but which can easily be brought to consciousness (1924). It exists just below
the level of consciousness, before the unconscious mind. The preconscious is like a
mental waiting room, in which thoughts remain until they 'succeed in attracting the eye
of the conscious' (Freud, 1924, p. 306). This is what we mean in our everyday usage of
the word available memory. For example, you are presently not thinking about your
mobile telephone number, but now it is mentioned you can recall it with ease. Mild
emotional experiences may be in the preconscious but sometimes traumatic and
powerful negative emotions are repressed and hence not available in the preconscious.

Finally, the unconscious mind comprises mental processes that are inaccessible to
consciousness but that influence judgments, feelings, or behavior (Wilson, 2002).
According to Freud (1915), the unconscious mind is the primary source of human
behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you cannot see.
Our feelings, motives and decisions are actually powerfully influenced by our past
experiences, and stored in the unconscious.
 Freud applied these three systems to his structure of the personality, or psyche - the
id, ego and superego. Here the id is regarded as entirely unconscious whilst the ego and
superego have conscious, preconscious, and unconscious aspects.

1. The Unconscious.

Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs,
and impulses deep within are not available to us a conscious level. He believed
that most of what influence us in our unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra
Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the unconscious, out of
our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes
are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling and doing in
perhaps dramatic ways.

2. The Conscious.

Freud also said that all that we are aware if is stored in our conscious mind.
Our conscious mid only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our
everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our
personality; most of what were is hidden and out of reach.

3. The Preconscious.

The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that
we can reach if prompted but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the
surface, but still "hidden" somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as
telephone number, some childhood memories or the name of your best
childhood friend is stored in the preconscious. Because the unconscious is so
huge, and because we are only aware of the very small conscious at any given
time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the
iceberg is hidden beneath the water's surface.

The water may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced,
and that has not been made part of our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.
 SELF-EVALUATION:

From the topic on Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned that.

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

Frued's psychoanalytic theory is the most well-known and controversial theory

in psychology.

There are five stages Psychosexual theory, namely: Oral stage, Anal stage, Phallic

stage, Latency stage and Genital stage.

Freud conceptualized the personality structures as having three components:

the id, ego and superego.

Freud also illustrated in an iceberg model as the topographical model of the

mind: conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

 POST TEST:

Read a research paper or study related to Fred's Psychoanalytic

theory. Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format; APA

format

Findings Conclusion

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

MODULE 2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES O CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES In this lesson, you should be able to:

 Analyze Piaget's stages in relation to

teaching-learning process.
 Evaluate learning activities to the learner's cognitive
stage

"The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new
things, no tsimply of repeating what other generations have done - men who are
creative, inventive and discoverers.

- Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of

educational psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.

PRE-TEST:

Encircle your choice on the corresponding item.

1. According to Piaget, children are in constructing their understanding of the

world.
a. Active
b. Passive
c. Neutral
d. Bystanders

2. Incorporating new information into your existing ideas is a process known as:
a. Accommodation
b. Appropriation
c. Assimilation
d. Initiation
 3. Two containers hold the same amount, but Jane thinks that the taller skinnier
glass holds more. This is known as:
a. Accommodation
b. Egocentrism
c. False belief
d. Conservation

4. Piaget believed that children in the concrete operational stage have difficulty
with:
a. Perspective-taking
b. Deductive logic
c. Inductive logic
d. Conservation

5. A schema is a:
a. Category of knowledge that allows us to interpret and understand the
world
b. The process of taking in new information and experiences
c. The process of balancing old knowledge and new information
d. None of the above

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Piaget' (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs

a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed
trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological
maturation and interaction with the environment.

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to
develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued
with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required
logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences
between the thinking of adults and children.
 Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive
development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development,
detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but
ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.

What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count,
spell or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was
the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity,
causality, justice and so on emerged. Before Piaget's work, the common assumption in
psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget
showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure
(genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are
based.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

1. Schema
Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the cognitive structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an
individual's way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It
is like the mid has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files
of things he has had an experience with.
For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own
schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks. It's furry. The child
then "puts this description of a dog 'on file' in his mind". When he sees another
similar dog, he "pulls' out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the
animal, and says, "four legs, tail, barks, furry ... that's a dog!"

2. Assimilation
This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog,
this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding
this new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
3. Accommodation
This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now sees
another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might
try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, "Look mommy, what a funny
looking dog. Its bark is funny too!" Then the mommy explains, "That is not a
funny looking dog. That's a goat!" With mommy's further descriptions, the child
will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing
cabinet.

4. Equilibration
Piaget believed that people have the natural need to understand how the
world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life.
Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of
schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This
means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood.
We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish
equilibrium once more.

Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the

environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget's
theory is similarin nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning like
Bruner and Vygotsky.

Assimilation

Equilibration

New Situation

Disequilibrium

Accommodation
 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Age Characteristics Goal

Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 Motor activity without use of Object permanence
months old symbols. All things learned are
based on experiences, or trial and
error.

Preoperational 2 to 7 years Development of language, Symbolic thought

operational old memory, and imagination.
Intelligence is both egocentric
and intuitive.
Concrete 7 to 11 years More logical and methodical Operational thought
operational old manipulation of symbols. Less
egocentric, and more aware of the
outside world and events.
Formal Adolescence Use of symbols to relate to Abstract concepts
operational to adulthood abstract concepts. Able to make
hypotheses and grasp abstract
concepts and relationships.

1. The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
(object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers

acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's
entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,
and motor responses.
 It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of
dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are
continually making new discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a
relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only
learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a
great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke
this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to
attach names and words to objects.

Substages

As any parent or caregiver can attest, a great deal of learning and development
happens during the first two years of a child's life. The sensorimotor stage can be
divided into six separate sub-stages that are characterized by the development of a new
skill:

Reflexes (0-1 month)

During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through
inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.

Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)

This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a
child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the
action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins
to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For
example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.

Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months)

During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The
child may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin
exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of
others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to
recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize
that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth

substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting
attention from a caregiver.

Early Representational Thought (18-24 months)

Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the
final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards
understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

Object Permanence

According to Piaget, developing object permanence is one of the most

important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object
permanence is a child's understanding that objects continue to exist even though they
cannot be seen or heard.

Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will believe
that the other person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled
when the object reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will
 realize that the person or object continues to exist even when unseen.

This is a classic example of how, during this stage, an infant's knowledge of the
world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities and how
behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

2. The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.
 The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major
hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.
 Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world around
them.

At this stage, kids lean through pretend play but still struggle with logic and
taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the
idea of constancy. For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two
equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with.
One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat
pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely
choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

Symbolic Function

This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that
represents something else. A drawing, written word, or spoken word comes to be
understood as representing a real object like MRT train.
 Egocentrism

This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view. The child cannot
take the perspective of others.

Centration

This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or
event and exclude other aspects. For example, when a child is presented with two
identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same
amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is transferred to a
obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the
taller glass. The child only focused or "centered" only one aspect of the new glass, that it
is a taller glass. The child was not able to perceive that the new glass is also narrower.
The child only centered on the height of the glass and excluded the width in determining
the amount of water in the glass.

Irreversibility

Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can
understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5 - 3 is 2.

Animism

This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics

to inanimate objects. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply
"Mr. Sun is asleep.'

Transductive reasoning

This refers to the pre-operational child's type of reasoning that is neither

inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A
causes B, the B causes A. for example, since her mommy comes home everyday around
six o' clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the child will say, "because
my mom is already home."
3. The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid
in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational
state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with
abstract and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin
to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

Decentering

This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects
and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This
allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations.

Reversibility

During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow certain
operations can be done in reverse. For example, they can already comprehend the
commutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse of addition. They
can also understand that a ball of clay is shaped into dinosaur can again be rolled back
into a ball of clay.
 Conservation

This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass,
volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. Because of the
development of the child's ability of decentering and also reversibility, the concrete
operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrower
container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass. The
children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a
transitional thinker and then a conserver.

Seriation

This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume or size.

4. The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and
political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of
the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan
for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that
emerge during this stage.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual

development as a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information
and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested
that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process
through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the
world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the
world.

Deductive Logic

Piaget believed that deductive reasoning becomes necessary during the formal
operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to
determine a particular outcome. Science and mathematics often require this type of
thinking about hypothetical situations and concepts.

Abstract Thought

While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the
ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage.
Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible
outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term
planning.

Problem-Solving

In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the

formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive
development are often able to plan quickly an organized approach to solving a problem.

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning

Piaget believed that what he referred to as "hypothetical-deductive reasoning"

was essential at this stage of intellectual development. At this point, teens become
capable of thinking about abstract and hypothetical ideas. They often ponder "what-if"
type situations and questions and can think about multiple solutions or possible
outcomes.

While kids in the previous stage (concrete operations) are very particular in
their thoughts, kids in the formal operational stage become increasingly abstract in their
thinking..

As children gain greater awareness and understanding of their own thought

processes, they develop what is known as metacognition, or the ability to think about
their thoughts as well as the ideas of others.

Activity 1: I Can Relate!

NAME: Date:

Course & Year: Score:

Instruction. This activity focuses on story involving the interaction of the family
members. Choose a story you want to use for this activity. It can be from a
story you have read or a movie or "telenovela" that you watched or plan
to watch. Use the matrix below to relate the characters to Piaget's Stages of
Cognitive Development.

Title of Story/ Movie:

Write a brief summary of the story:

 CHARACTER PIAGETIAN CONNECTION
DESCRIPTION
Father What is his stage of cognitive development?
Example: Cite instances why you say he is in this stage. (What he
thought of, how he thought, his reactions and attitudes)

Mother What is her stage of cognitive development?

Example: Cite instances why you say she is in this stage. (What she
thought of, how she thought, her reactions and attitudes)

Children What is his/ her stage of cognitive development?

1. Example: Cite instances why you say he/ she is in this stage. (What
he/she thought of, how he/she thought, his/her reactions and
attitudes)

2.

3.

Other Characters What is his/her stage of cognitive development?

Example: Cite instances why you say he/she is in this stage. (What
he/she thought of, how he/she thought, his/her reactions and
attitudes)
 From the topic on Piaget's Cognitive Development
Theory, I learned that ...

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

Piaget made several assumptions about children while developing his theory:
 Children build their own knowledge based on their experiences.
 Children learn things on their own without influence from adults or older
children.
 Children are motivated to learn by nature. They don't need rewards as
motivation
There are four stages in all:
 sensorimotor stage
 preoperational stage
 concrete operational stage
 formal operational stage
 POST TEST: Encircle your answer.

1. At which sensorimotor substage do children begin to develop symbols to

represent events or objects in the world?
a. Primary Circular Reactions
b. Secondary Circular Reactions
c. Tertiary Circular Reactions
d. Early Representational Thought

2. The ability to think abstractly and systematically solve problems emerges during
the:
a. Concrete Operational Stage
b. Sensorimotor Stage
c. Formal Operational Stage
d. Preoperational Stage

3. Piaget believed that children in the concrete operational stage have difficulty
with:
a. Perspective-taking
b. Deductive logic
c. Inductive logic
d. Conservation

4. A schema is a:
a. Category of knowledge that allows us to interpret and understand the world
b. The process of taking in new information and experiences
c. The process of balancing old knowledge and new information
d. None of the above

5. Children in the preoperational stage have difficulty taking the perspective of

another person. This is known as:
a. Reversibility
b. Egocentrism
c. Metacognition
d. Constructivism
MODULE 2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES O CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 4 Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
LEARNING OUTCOMES In this lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain why Vygotsky's theory is called

"Socio-cultural" theory.
 Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky's views on
cognitive development.
 Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.

"What a child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow she/he

will be able to do alone.

- Lev Vygotsky

The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction plays a very
important role in cognitive development. He believed that individual development could
not be understood without looking into that social and cultural context within which
development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance
given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.

PRE TEST:

Describe the terms in your understanding:

1. Socio-cultural.
2. Scaffolding –
3. Private speech –
4. Social speech-
5. Tutorial.
 LEARNING ACTIVITY

When Vygotsky was a young boy, he was educated under a teacher who used
Socratic method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that
allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of
understanding. This teacher led him to recognize social interaction and language as two
central factors in cognitive development. His theory became known as the
Socio-Cultural Theory of Development.

Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky's worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget's in between the
1920's and 30's but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive
development. Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceding lesson, it would be
easier now to see how his views compare with Vygotsky's.

Piaget Vygotsky
Sociocultural context Little emphasis Strong emphasis
Constructivism Cognitive constructivist Social constructivist
Stages Strong emphasis on stages No general stages of
of development development proposed
Key process in Equilibration; schema; Zone of proximal
development & learning adaptation; assimilation; development; scaffolding;
accommodation language/dialogue; tools of
the culture
Role of language Minimal-Language provides Major-Language plays a
labels for children’s powerful role in shaping
experiences thought
(egocentric speech)
Teaching implications Support children to explore Establish opportunities for
their world and discover children to learn with the
knowledge teacher and more skilled
peers
 Activity 1. Let’s Recall!

1. As a child, recall a skill that you wanted to learn and eventually learned well,
through the help of another person (like swimming, riding a bike, playing the
piano, skating, etc.)

2. What made you interested to learn that skill?

3. Who taught or assisted you?

4. Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what steps or actions
the person did in order to help you learn.
 Social Influences on Cognitive Development

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively
involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new
understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social
contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated
discovery.

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs

through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or
provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or
collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions
provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information,
using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw.
Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with
her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the
comer/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself
and offers encouragement when she does so.

As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more
independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving
cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.

In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive

development, one must understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: the
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). More
Knowledgeable Other The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat
self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability
level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.

Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is
not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the
individuals with more knowledge or experience.

For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music
groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the
newest dance craze - a child or their parents?
 In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support
employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance support
systems.

Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and
guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or
be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner
does.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second
important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development. This is an
important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve
independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a
skilled partner.

ZPD and scaffolding

Technology & Tools

Knowledgeable others

What I can
learn on
my own

What I can learn with help

(ZPD)

Beyond my reach

For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above)
by itself and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it
following interaction with the father, and has developed competence at this skill that will
be applied to future jigsaws.
 Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills
they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.

Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing

skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where
less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of
proximal development.

Vygotsky and Language

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for

communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man's greatest tool, a means for
communicating with the outside world.

According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive

development:

1. It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.

2. Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech

which is external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age of two);
private speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self and serves an
intellectual function; and finally private speech goes underground, diminishing in
audibility as it takes on a self-regulating function and is transformed into silent inner
speech (typical from the age of seven).

For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the
beginning of life, merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and thought
become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, speech becomes representational.
When this happens, children's monologues internalized to become inner speech. The
internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive development.

"Inner speech is not the interiour aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It still
remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external speech thought is
embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is
to a large extent thinking in pure meanings.' (Vygotsky, 1962: p. 149)
 Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance of
private speech. He considered private speech as the transition point between social and
inner speech, the moment in development where language and thought unite to
constitute verbal thinking.

Thus private speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation of inner
speech. Indeed, private speech is more similar (in its form and function) to inner speech
than social speech.

Private speech is 'typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech

addressed to the self (not to others) for the purpose of self-regulation (rather than
communication).' (Diaz, 1992, p.62)

Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e., hidden), private speech is overt. In
contrast to Piaget's (1959) notion of private speech representing developmental
dead-end, Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private speech as:

"A revolution in development which is triggered when preverbal thought and

preintellectual language come together to create fundamentally new forms of mental
functioning.' (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005: p. 1).

In addition to disagreeing on the functional significance of private speech,

Vygotsky and Piaget also offered opposing views on the developmental course of private
speech and the environmental circumstances in which it occurs most often (Berk &
Garvin, 1984).

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is an instructional technique in which a teacher provides

individualized support by incrementally improving a learner's ability to build on prior
knowledge. Scaffolding can be used in a variety of content areas and across age and
grade levels. Within education, the social learning theory of Vygotsky is generally
credited with providing theoretical basis for the practice, where he describes the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). Scaffolding provide special type of help that assists
learners move towards new concepts, skills, or understandings. Actually, Vygotsky
himself never mentioned the term of scaffolding. It was first introduce by Jerome Bruner,
David Wood, and Gail Ross (1976) while applying Vygotsky's concept of Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) to various educational contexts.

Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the "role of teachers and others in

supporting the learners development and providing support structures to get to that
next stage or level" (Raymond, 2000)

Teachers provide scaffolds so that the learner can accomplish certain tasks they
would otherwise not be able to accomplish on their own (Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, 2000)

The goal of the educator is for the student to become an independent learner and
problem solver (Hartman, 2002)

Contingency Temporary Transfer of

responsibility
Support is Support is
provided only reduced and Responsibility for
when the extent is removed as the successful
needed learner gains performance is

competence and gradually

able to answer and transferred from

solve problems on the support

their own provider to the

learner

Classroom Applications

A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky's theories is "reciprocal

teaching," used to improve students' ability to learn from text. In this method, teachers
and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing,
questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the process is reduced over
time.
 Also, Vygotsky theory of cognitive development on learners is relevant to
instructional concepts such as "scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in which a teacher or
more advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work on it
successfully.

Vygotsky's theories also feed into the current interest in collaborative learning,
suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced
peers can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.

Activity 2. Unfolding the scaffold!

1. Choose a skill you are good in.

2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will
benefit from scaffolding.

3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill

4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will

do to scaffold.
 SELF-EVALUATION:

From the topic on Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory, I learned

that…

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

Vygotsky scaffolding is a teaching method that uses instructors and more

advanced peers to help students learn.

Vygotsky scaffolding is part of the education concept "zone of proximal

development" or ZPD. The ZPD is the set of skills or knowledge a student can't

do on her own but can do with the help or guidance of someone else. It's the skill

level just above where the student currently is.

Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence

development. While Piaget's theory stressed how a child's interactions and

explorations influenced development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that

social interactions play in cognitive development.

 POST TEST:

Encircle your answer.

1. Vygotsky believed that children construct knowledge.

a. True
b. False

2. Vygotsky postulates that learning cannot be seperated from its social context.
a. True
b. False

3. Within the Constructivist Theory, language does not place a central role in
mental development
a. True
b. False

4. What is MKO?
a. MKO is the flexibility of a facilitator to produce a conducive social
environment for the learner.
b. MKO refers to anyone who has better understanding or a higher ability level
than the learner, with respect to particular task, process or concept.
c. MKO refers to the ability of children to make use of knowledge.
d. MKO is the abbreviation for, Making Knowledgeable Operations.
5. According to Constructivist Theorist, " Collaborative learning is highly beneficial
to the mental development of a learner.
a. True
b. False
MODULE 2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES O CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 3 Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory of Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES In this lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain the 8 stages of life in relation to its

importance to education.
 Formulate at least 6 ways on how Erikson's theory
can be useful for you as a future teacher

"Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have

Integrity enough not to fear death

- Erik Erikson;

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development are a very relevant, highly

regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and
trials which help us to grow. Erikson's enlightening theory guides and helps to tell us
why.

PRE-TEST:

Identify what developmental stage are the following. Encircle

your answer.

1. Which is an example of the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage?

a. An infant chewing on a teething ring
b. A preschooler insisting on picking out her own clothes, no matter how
mismatched they are
c. A middle-schooler completing a challenging math assignment
 d. A teenager trying out new fashions and hairstyles

2. The central theme of Erikson's theory of psychosocial stages was the

development of:
a. Personality
b. Social Status
c. Psychosocial conflict
d. Ego identity

3. What do people face during each psychosocial stage that can serve as a turning
point in development?
a. Epiphany
b. Conflict
c. Paradigm shift
d. Turmoil

4. The stage that occurs between birth and one year of age is concerned with:
a. Trust vs. Mistrust
b. Initiative vs. Guilt
c. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
d. Identity vs. Role Confusion

5. If a child struggles to do well in school, what problem might emerge?

a. Struggle with feelings of inferiority
b. Experience a sense of guilt
c. Develop a poor self-identity
d. Begin to mistrust the people around him

LEARNING ACTIVITY:

Erikson's "psychosocial" term is derived from the two source words namely
psychological (or the root, "psyche", relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc.) and
social (external relationships and environment). His theory is largely influenced by
Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social
aspects into Fred's biological and sexually-oriented theory.
 Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order
through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During
each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or
negative outcome for personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because
they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the
needs of society (i.e., social). According to the theory, successful completion of each stage
results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to

complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 -1.5
2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1.5 – 3
3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3–5
4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 – 12
5. Identity vs. Role confusion Fidelity 12 – 18
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 – 40
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 – 65
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65 +

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1.5 years old) - Infancy

Basic question: "Can I trust the world?'

This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During

this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards
their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will
develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will
be able to feel secure even when threatened. If these needs are not consistently met,
mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.

If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant
may develop a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will
not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of
trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that
other people will be there as a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope
will lead to the development of fear.

This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other
relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of
mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby

and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can
affect relationships with others in later life.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1.5 - 3 years old) - Early childhood

Basic question: "Is it okay to be me?"

This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.

According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense ofpersonal
control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage
areencouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become
moreconfident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to

assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or
doubt in their abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering
that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing
with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense independence and
autonomy.

For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by
walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices
about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
 What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits
of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should
have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the
parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same
time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do
everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize
the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

The aim has to be "self-control without a loss of self-esteem" (Gross, 1992).

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 5 years old) - Preschool age

Basic question: "Is its okay for me to do what I do?"

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more
frequently.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child's life. According

to Bee (1992), it is a "time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as
aggressive."

During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting
with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the
opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with
others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in
their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control,

children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his
forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict
his initiatives too much.
 It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child's questions as trivial, a nuisance or
embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have
feelings of guilt for "being a nuisance"

Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit
their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know
how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 7 years old) - School age

Basic question: "Can I make it in this world?'

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums,
to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child's life as they
teach the child specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child's peer group will gain greater significance and
will become a major source of the child's self-esteem. The child now feels the need to
win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and
begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel
industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this
initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins
to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her
potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g.
being athletic) then they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty.
Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 - 18 years old) - Adolescence

Basic question: "Who am !?"

During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity,
through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most

important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in
terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a
society and fit in.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage

between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the
ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he
will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his
identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities
are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is "a
reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one's appropriate sex
role". During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for
a while until they can adapt and "grow into" the changes. Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of fidelity.

Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of
accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. In response to role
confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different
lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).

Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of
establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own
identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of
identity within society ("I don't know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to
role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves
or their place in society.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 - 40 years old) - Early adulthood

Basic question: "Can I love?"

This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately
18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving
relationships with other people.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We
explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other
than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a

sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing
commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes
depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 - 65 years old) - Adulthood

Basic question: "What can I give to the next generation?'

Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through

creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals
experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees
or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work,
and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity
we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the
world.

By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel

unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their
community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years) - Maturity/ Old age

Basic question: "How have I done?"

 It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can
develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will
experience feelings of bitterness and despair.

Erikson described ego integrity as "the acceptance of one's one and only life cycle
as something that had to be (1950, p. 268) and later as "a sense of coherence and
wholeness" (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down
our productivity and explore life as a retired person.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our
past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life
and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a
person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also
accept death without fear.

Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but
they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both
integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.

Activity 1. My Semi-MMK Story

Write your own life story using stages of psychological development as

framework. Go through each of the stages that apply to you (most probably, stages 1-5 to
6). Ask information from your parents and other significant persons in your life. Look at
old baby books and photo albums. You may put this in a powerpoint slides (if you wish
to send your output online).

You may encode this and print in a short-sized bondpaper or do a scrapbook

type (handwritten style). For every psychosocial stage include pictures of yourself and
significant persons in your life. Discuss your own psychosocial development using
 Erikson's theory. Consider the crisis,
maladaptation/malignancy and the virtues.

SELF-EVALUATION:

From the topic on Erikson's Psychosocial Theory, I learned that…

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS

"Psychosocial" term is derived from the two source words – namely

psychological (or the root, "psyche" , relating to the mind, brain personality, etc.)
and social (external relationships and environment)
Erikson's theory believed that the earlier stages served as the foundation for the
later stages.
Each stage involves psychosocial crisis of two opposing forces (versus).
Is a stage is manage well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial
strength which helps us through the rest of the stages of our lives.
On the other hand, if we don't do so well, we may develop maladaptation and
malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development.
Malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too
much of the negative aspect of the task, such as a person who can't trust others.
Maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too
little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.
 POST TEST

Give 6 ways on how Erikson's theory can be useful for you as a future teacher.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
MODULE 2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES O CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 5 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES In this lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain the stages of moral development in light to

making daily decisions.
 Analyze a person's level of moral reasoning based on
his responses to moral dilemmas.
 Cite how the theory of moral development can be
applied to your work as a teacher later on.

"Right actions tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and

Standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole

- Lawrence Kohlberg

Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral

decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was
interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on the
findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right from
wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.

PRE-TEST:

Describe the following terms in your understanding. Do not use any

dictionary.

1. Dilemma –
2. Moral development –
3. Punishment –
4. Good boy/ Nice Girl Orientation
5. Justice -
 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral

development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. He used Piaget's
storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case he
presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority
and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated.

One of the best known of Kohlberg's (1958) stories concerns a man called
Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. (Watch the animation on Youtube,
https://youtu.be/5czp9S4u26M).

Heinz's wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug
might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make
the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.

Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He
explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug
cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.

The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to
make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he
broke into the chemist's and stole the drug.

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions,

Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The
sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10-16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at
three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984).
 Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. What
Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the action right or
wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to
change as the children got older.

Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional,

conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has two sub-stages. People can only pass
through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of
the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.

Activity 1: Don’t know what to do?

Read the moral dilemma below.

Ryan, 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for this concert or rock band.
His parents have discouraged him from going as the concert will surely be with a rowdy
crowd. The band is notorious for having out-of-control audience who somehow
managed get drunk and stoned during the concert. Ryan agreed not to watch anymore.
But a day before the concert, Nic, 15-year-old brother of Ryan, saw a comer of what
appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of Ryan's bag. Nic examined it and
confirmed it was indeed a ticket. Looking at Ryan's bag, Nic also found an extra shirt and
2 sticks of marijuana. So he figured Ryan will go to the concert after all. That night, Ryan
told his parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a classmate's house for a school
requirement. Then later that evening, he told Nic of his plan to go the concert. Nic didn't
say anything, but he found it difficult to sleep that night, thinking whether to tell their
parents or not.

1. If you were Nic, what would you do?

2. Why would you choose to do that? What were the things you considered in
deciding what to do?
 Stage1: Punishment/obedience.
Whatever leads to punishment is wrong
Level 1: Right & wrong
Pre-conventional determined by
rewards/punishment Stage 2: Rewards. The right way to
morality
behave is the way that is rewarded

Stage 3: Good intentions. Behaving in

Level 1: Views of others matter; ways that conform to “good behavior”
Pre-conventional avoidance of blame;
morality seeking approval Stage 4: Obedience to authority.
Importance of “doing one’s duty”

Stage 5: Difference between moral and

legal right. Recognition that rules
Abstract notions of
Level 1:
justice. Rights of others should sometimes be broken
Pre-conventional
can override obedience
morality Stage 6: Individual principles of
to laws/rules
conscience. Takes account of likely
views of everyone affected by a moral
decision.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child's sense of morality is externallycontrolled.

Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parentsand teachers. A
child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's
conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuseslargely on external
consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child's desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example,
an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse
the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the "what's in it for me?" position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning
shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further
the individual's own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or
intrinsic respect, but rather a "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours" mentality. An
example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks
"what's in it for me?" and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an
allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child's sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages,
and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being "nice" to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and
obeying rules by doing what one is "supposed" to do is seen as valuable and important.
Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in
stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would- thus there is an
obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain
at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Post- Conventional

Throughout the post-conventional level, a person's sense of morality is defined in terms

of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own
ethical principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and
justice-_and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute
dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals
elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior,
especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the
pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never
reach this level of abstract moral reasoning

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws
are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the
greatest number of people. This achieved through majority decision and inevitable
compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stag five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical

principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus
on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are
grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey
unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate
those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best
interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg
insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently
operated at that level.
 Examine the answers you gave on our Activity 1 for this topic. Compare it
with the responses provided below. In which of these responses is your answer
most similar? Encircle it.

Stage 1

"Yes I will tell our parents. Because if they found out later that I knew, for sure they
will get angry and most likely punish me'

"No, I will not tell because Ryan will make my life difficult and also punish me for
telling.

Stage 2

"Yes, I will tell my parents because they will reward me for it. I will subtly ask for
that new I Pod that I'm wishing have"

"No, I will not tell,. Ryan will surely grant me a lot of favors for not telling. He'll not
also squeal on me.

Stage 3

"Yes. I will tell so my parents will think I am such an honest boy!'

"No I will not tell. Ryan will think of me as a really cool brother!".

Stage 4

"Yes I will tell because we should follow the rules that our parents say."

"No. because it's been our rule to keep each others secrets.

Stage 5

"Yes. I will tell because he might be hurt or get trouble and his welfare is top most

priority.

"No. because he is big enough to question my parents decision not to let him go."

Stage 6

"Yes, I will tell because lying is always wrong and I want to be true to what I believe

"No, because I believe brothers watch our for each other. If he trusted me with this,

should stay true to him and not say anything.

 Activity 2. My Moral Reasoning

Since you already learned the moral development's (3) levels and its (6) stages,
from a given dilemma, state every possible moral reasoning in each stage.

Given Dilemma:

During your midterm exam, you got a chance to tell your teacher that your seatmate
has been cheating on you.

Stage Moral Reasoning

S1 Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

S2 Instrumental Orientation

S3 Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

S4 Law-and-Order Orientation

S5 Social-Contract Orientation
S6 Universal-Ethical- Principal Orientation

SELF-EVALUATION:

From the topic on Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory,

I learned that

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget's work, and set the groundwork for the

present debate within psychology on moral development.

Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking through their

experiences which include understandings of moral concepts such as justice,

rights, equality, and human welfare.

Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major

levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social moral reasoning or

perspective of the person.

 POST TEST:

The following are Moral Dilemmas which has given the specific
level and specific stage. State the moral reasoning based on the level
and stage asked.

Example:

You caught your classmate cheating since he didn't have a good review for their exam.
(L1, S1)

Answer: I will tell my teacher about it because I fear that my teacher will punish
me if she finds out that I knew from the start that my classmate cheated

1. You caught your classmate cheating since he didn't have a good review for their
exam. (L2, S3)

2. You caught your classmate stealing money from your teacher's bag. (L1,S2)

3. A teacher you noticed who does all the overloaded required tasks given by the
principal. (L3, S5)

4. A teacher whom you discovered to have a relationship that is still a student.

(L1,S1)

5. You caught your father/ mother cheating your father/mother with another
lady/man. (L3.S5)
6. You caught your sibling who accidentally broke your television at home. (L2,S4)

7. You as a passerby who witnessed the traffic enforcer asking for money from a
motorist. (L1,S2)

8. You noticed that the cashier stole money from the money box. (L2,S4)

9. You have seen your classmate forged your Instructor's signature. (L2,S3)

10. Since you lose a game, you were dared by your friends to pay for your ordered
foods. (L1,S1)
MODULE 2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES O CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 6 Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
LEARNING OUTCOMES In this lesson, you should be able to:

 Describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner's

Bioecological model
 .Evaluate factors in one's own life that exerted
influence on one's development.
 Use the bioecological theory as a framework to
describe the factors that affect a child and adolescent
development.

""Children need people in order to become human.

MODULE # 2 - Urie Bronfenbrenner

Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the

different factors that exert influence on an individual's development. It points out the
ever-widening spheres of influence that shape every individual, from his/ her immediate
family to the neighborhood, the country, even the world!

PRE-TEST:

Describe the following terms in your own understanding in light to

social influence.

1. Family –
2. Peers.
3. Religion.
4. School
5. Workplace
 LEARNING ACTIVITY:

Activity 1. Fill me up!

Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also ask your parents
for some information. Write your answers on the graphic organizer below.

Answer the following sentence completion items.

1. When I was 5 years old, my parents ___________________________________________________.

2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were _________________________________________
3. When was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show_________________.
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in________________________________________.
5. I cannot forget my teacher who _______________________________________________________.
6. When I was growing up, I was away from ____________________________________________.
7. When I was in high school, I was close to _____________________________________________.
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about ____________________________________________.
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was ____________________________.
10. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was
___________________________________________________________________________________________.
 Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the Bioecological Systems theory
presents child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the
child's environment. It describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on
the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures The
term "bio-ecological" points out that a child's own biological make-up impacts as a key
factor in one's development.

Through the child's growing and developing body and the interplay between
his immediate family/ community environment and the societal landscape fuels and
steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other
layers. To study her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger
environment as well.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model

1. Microsystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and
most immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem
comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of
the children.

Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships

with family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or
individuals interact with the children will affect how they grow.

Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence
how they treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions
and relationships will understandably foster they children's improved development.

One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his
study of ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the
same ecological system to experience very different environments.

Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not

impossible for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child's
particular personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique
genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others.
 2. Mesosystem

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems

which children find themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such,
involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, and
between family and community.

According to Bronfenbrenner's theory, if a child's parents are actively involved

in the friendships of their child, for example they invite their child's friends over to
their house from time to time and spend time with them, then the child's development is
affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness.

However, if the child's parents dislike their child's peers and openly criticize
them, then the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will
likely lead to negative development.

3. Exosystem

The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more
settings, one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly
nonetheless.

Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may
not directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people
may include the parents' workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood
the children live in.

For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an

indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at
home.

4. Macrosystem

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places
to the children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is
composed of the children's cultural pattems and values, specifically their dominant
beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.

For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of

development than children in peaceful environments.
 5. Chronosystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful
dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in
the children's environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family structure,
address, parents' employment status, as well as immense society changes such as
economic cycles and wars.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner's Ecological

Systems Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on
children's development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can sensitize us
to variations in the way children may act in different settings.

For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may
portray the role of a terrified victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are
concerned with the care of a particular child should pay close attention to his/her
behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections that exist
between these settings.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly-funded early childhood

program in the US. He concluded that "the instability and unpredictability of family life is
the most destructive force to a child's development." Researches tell us that absence or
lack of children's constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects
on their development. According to the bioecological theory, "if the relationships in the
immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other
parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be present in
the child/ parent (or child/ other important adult) relationship look for attention in
inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as
antisocial behavior, lack of discipline, and inability to provide self-direction.

Bronfenbrenner's theory reminds the school and the teachers of their

important role. If there is a lack of support, care and affection from the home, if there is a
serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child's life, what can the school, the
teachers in particular do? This theory helps teachers look into every child's
environmental systems in order to understand more about the characteristics and needs
of each child, each learner. The schools and the teachers can contribute stability and
long-term relationships, but only to support and not replace the relationships in the
home. He believes that, "primary relationship needs to be with someone who can
provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be
fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the child's influence.
Schools and teachers' crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if such exists, but
to work so that the school becomes an environment that welcomes and nurtures families.
Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value work done on behalf of children
at all levels, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work
supervisors, legislators.Activity 2. Let me in!

Write each answer you gave in the Activity 1 on the circle where it belongs.

Culture, subculture, social class

Extended family

Family, church, school

ME
 SELF-EVALUATION:

From the topic on Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory, I

learned that…

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in

multiple environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to
understand their development.
Each of these ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each
other in all aspects of the children's lives.
Bronfenbrenner's ecological model organizes contexts of development into five
levels of external influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate
level to the broadest.
POST TEST:

Looking at your answers from (Activity 1 and Activity 2) of

this lesson, describe how these people or circumstances have
influenced your attitudes, behavior and habits.
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