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Decoding Product Obsolescence: A Taxonomic Approach from Product Design

Attributes

Article in Journal of Cleaner Production · September 2024

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143635

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 Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Decoding product obsolescence: A taxonomic approach from product

design attributes
Lesly Sierra-Fontalvo a , Laura Ruiz-Pastor b , Arturo Gonzalez-Quiroga c , Jaime A. Mesa a,*
a
GIMYP Research Unit, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad del Norte, Km 5 vía Puerto Colombia, Barranquilla, 081001, Colombia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Construction, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de la Plana, 12006, Spain
c
UREMA Research Unit, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad del Norte, Km 5 vía Puerto Colombia, Barranquilla, 081001, Colombia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Janine Fleith de Medeiros One challenge that product design has faced is the ongoing threat of obsolescence, where investment in an
updated solution can quickly become irrelevant within months or years as technology advances. This phe­
Keywords: nomenon not only affects consumers, who may find themselves with quickly outdated devices but also poses a
Eco-design dilemma for designers and manufacturers who must balance constant innovation with sustainability and product
Design attributes
durability. In this dynamic scenario, there arises a critical need to understand how design attributes impact
Circular economy
obsolescence and how this relationship can influence the creation of more sustainable and resilient products. This
Obsolete
Circular product paper develops a taxonomy of product design attributes influencing different types of obsolescence to address the
Lifecycle research gap between product design and obsolescence. It investigates the significance of obsolescence types
across product categories, the impact of design attributes on these obsolescences, and the role of design in
product sustainability. Employing a theoretical framework combining product design and lifecycle analysis, the
methodology includes a literature review and an expert survey to evaluate design attributes against obsolescence
types. From the literature review, 21 design attributes were identified and evaluated by 26 industry and
academia experts. The findings reveal distinct patterns of obsolescence in various product categories, empha­
sizing the influence of specific design attributes. The role of attributes such as upgradeability and compatibility in
technological, functional, and planned obsolescence was highlighted. Limited familiarity with certain types of
obsolescence among experts was acknowledged, underscoring the importance of raising awareness within the
design community. These insights are critical to align product design with sustainability goals and challenging
traditional product development practices. The study has significant implications for designers, manufacturers,
and policymakers, highlighting the importance of understanding design choices in reducing obsolescence and
promoting sustainable consumption.

1. Introduction Obsolescence refers to the state of a material, part, device, software,

or product when it is no longer maintained or required by the user, even
Moving towards more sustainable consumption and production if it still functions (Bartels et al., 2012; Satyro et al., 2018). Product
systems is crucial due to growing environmental problems such as obsolescence is inevitable with time; however, it is a major problem
biodiversity loss, water pollution, resource depletion, global warming, when the product is still functional and can provide some remaining
and overuse of land (Satyro et al., 2018). The rapid acceleration of useful life. As the number of short-cycle products, such as smartphones
product lifecycles related to obsolescence has become a factor to be and tablets, introduced in the market has increased, used products are
considered. This is not only because it contributes to the depletion of routinely discarded even if they are in good working condition (Joshi
non-renewable resources and pollution of the biosphere but also because et al., 2017; Rivera and Lallmahomed, 2016). This, coupled with the
it represents a barrier to extending a product’s useful life, hindering the absence of repair alternatives from manufacturers, results in higher
transition to a more circular economy (Pope et al., 1998; Sierra-Fontalvo product replacement frequencies and an increase in waste, which be­
et al., 2023; Umeda et al., 2005). comes an environmental problem.

* Corresponding author. Km 5 vía Puerto Colombia, Barranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Sierra-Fontalvo), [email protected] (J.A. Mesa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143635
Received 22 January 2024; Received in revised form 18 July 2024; Accepted 11 September 2024
Available online 12 September 2024
0959-6526/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

It is commonly accepted that product design plays a key role in limitations, and promising areas for further investigation.
minimizing or promoting obsolescence. During the design stage, the
performance of any product at later stages, including manufacturing, 2. Background
use, and end-of-life (EOL), is defined both economically and environ­
mentally (Anišić, 2013; Asif et al., 2021). Some researchers state that 2.1. Product lifecycle
70% or even more of a product’s lifecycle cost is determined during the
design stage (Wang and Tseng, 2011; Zhang et al., 2021). Once the In today’s competitive and commercial environment, many products
design stage is finished, the design attributes of the product can hardly are constantly replaced by newer, more advanced versions (Mellal,
be changed. Likewise, it can assess the condition of obsolescence in its 2020). While some products become obsolete due to natural causes such
different types. Different attributes, such as technical characteristics and as wear and tear or technological advances, others are strategically
materials used, contribute to the obsolescence that a product may designed with a predetermined shelf life to encourage rapid product
exhibit (Salas Cordero et al., 2022; Soltan et al., 2018; Wang and Tseng, turnover. The latter are considered short-lifecycle products like smart­
2011). Therefore, design against obsolescence represents a cornerstone phones and tablets (Kim and Kim, 2020).
approach from which product designers can contribute to sustainability. Previous works have focused on understanding the product lifecycle
Some researchers have identified design factors by analyzing the in terms of factors, including product lifecycle stages, product life
relationship between different product attributes and design method­ extension, and product marketing issues. (Solomon et al., 2000) defines
ologies for X (DFX). For instance, (Zhang et al., 2019) identified relevant a product diffusion curve representing six lifecycle stages based on the
product design features for remanufacturability (DfRem) based on change in part sales: introduction, growth, maturity (saturation),
feedback from failure modes. Similarly, (Du et al., 2012) provide an decline, phase-out, and obsolescence. This concept considers obsoles­
overview of the methodology of remanufacturability evaluation of used cence as the final stage of a product’s lifecycle that can be predicted.
machine tools in which the thresholds are mainly determined by expert However, the problem of lifecycle mismatch between the parts and the
experience. From the practical surveys of the machine tool remanu­ products requires a more holistic view of this concept (Bradley and
facturing industry, the criteria of remanufacturability evaluation are Guerrero, 2008). Various factors, such as technical, constructive, social,
composed of technology feasibility, economic feasibility, and environ­ and supply chain management characteristics, must be considered to
mental benefits. On the other hand, (Sabaghi et al., 2016), from a determine the appropriate EOL strategy for product and component
state-of-the-art, described disassembly pertinent attributes to design for sustainability (Wang and Tseng, 2010).
disassembly (DfD) and presented a scale for evaluation of different pa­ By influencing all the final stages of the lifecycle, design directly
rameters in a disassembly task. (Remery et al., 2012) provides a set of 15 affects not only product cost and production but also product obsoles­
final parameters that influence the EOL decision. The parameters were cence, as presented in Fig. 1. Value retention, both in economic and
used to evaluate the technical characteristics of the product modules and environmental terms, can be achieved by an adequate selection of design
rank the EOL scenarios, offering a basis for decision-making on EOL attributes that allow the promotion or delay of critical moments in
strategies during the initial product design phase. which obsolescence may arise, either due to technological advances,
Despite the existing research efforts, current methodologies fail to changes in market demand, or the emergence of new regulations (Anišić,
consider design aspects that can either facilitate or delay the different 2013; den Hollander et al., 2017).
types of product obsolescence. The design attributes are still fragmented
and not integrated to support the development of products conceived for
multiple lifecycles. Therefore, this paper proposes a novel taxonomy of 2.2. Product obsolescence
those design attributes responsible for obsolescence in future lifecycle
phases, contributing to the field of product design and obsolescence. The Product obsolescence encompasses being outdated or no longer in
taxonomy is obtained following a literature review and is analyzed using use, referring to products, technologies, materials, or parts that have lost
an expert-based survey. The survey approach provides insights into the relevance or usefulness in the current context (Bartels et al., 2012).
relative importance of attributes within the product design process, Different types of obsolescence have been defined over time and have
considering six types of obsolescence: technological, functional, psy­ been the focus of numerous research efforts. The most mentioned in the
chological, economic, planned obsolescence, and diminishing literature are planned obsolescence, technological, functional, psycho­
manufacturing sources and material shortages (DMSMS). Three main logical, and economic obsolescence, and diminishing manufacturing
research questions are proposed to address the research motivation of sources and material shortages (DMSMS). Table 1 summarizes the most
this study. common types of obsolescence found in the literature.
In general, obsolescence occurs when an object is discarded or
1. How does the importance of different types of obsolescence (tech­ replaced, even in good physical and functional condition. This condition
nological, functional, psychological, economic, planned, and occurs mainly due to five causes, which are technological evolution and
DMSMS) vary for industrial design and mechanical engineering innovation processes (Gravier and Swartz, 2009; Nelson and Sandborn,
experts? 2012); the loss or disappearance of suppliers in the market (Trabelsi
2. What is the relevance of specific design attributes concerning engi­ et al., 2021); the absence of support or spare parts from suppliers or the
neering design, and how do these attributes influence the design original manufacturer of the product; changes in legislation that force
process? modifications in design and manufacturing processes (Bartels et al.,
3. How do design attributes impact the different types of obsolescence 2012); and not least aesthetic aspects linked to consumer psychology
associated with products? (Piselli, 2018).
Besides, obsolescence can be presented as an indirect consequence.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. First, section 2 For example, in the conventional linear economy model, planned
outlines a background related to the basic concepts required to distin­ obsolescence (PO) is associated with the manufacturer as the sole
guish the further development of this work. Next, section 3 describes the responsible party (Asif et al., 2021). Nevertheless, some authors
research method used for generating the attributes taxonomy, including consider PO as a tool to recover market share and contribute to tech­
the data collection and survey analysis. Section 4 presents the results nological progress and innovation (Harmer, 2005; Karakus Umar and
from the literature review and the expert survey. Later, section 5 dis­ Beyaz, 2021; Satyro et al., 2018). However, the second approach un­
cusses the main findings and identifies the research gaps. Finally, we derlines the adverse effects of PO, such as pollution, an increase in
conclude with final remarks on the contribution of this research, its waste, and depletion of natural resources (Cooper, 2005).

2
L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Fig. 1. Complete product lifecycle including both the design and market (sale-use-service and support) phases. Obsolescence commonly occurs during the market
phase (original creation).

demands. For this article, design attributes will be understood as the

Table 1
combination of both internal and external properties.
Definitions and types of obsolescence. Based on (Cooper, 2004; Sierra-Fontalvo
During the design phase, the product designer may already be aware
et al., 2023).
of possible functional obsolescence that the product might encounter.
Type Definition
However, other forms of obsolescence are challenging to predict due to
Technological obsolescence It refers to how quickly technology advances the unpredictability of consumer behavior, market trends, and techno­
and new products and solutions enter the logical advancements (Asif et al., 2021a; Kim and Kim, 2020). During
market, causing electronic and technological
the development of a product, various techniques can be utilized to
items to become obsolete. The most recent
technologies and applications can swiftly ensure its sustainability and circularity, as (Formentini & Ramanujan,
render once-state-of-the-art products 2023) suggested. Among these techniques, Design for X (DfX) methods
obsolete. are handy for industries to incorporate circularity aspects in their
Functional/incompatibility A product can no longer effectively fulfill its
product development processes. DfX comprises a range of design
obsolescence original function due to evolving external
factors. This obsolescence also refers to the
methods that aim to optimize the product development process for
inability to handle software updates as it specific product lifecycle values or features represented by X (Anišić,
lacks complementary options. 2013; Formentini & Ramanujan, 2023). Some researchers that use these
Psychological obsolescence Useful products are discarded because they methodologies identify the product design attributes by analyzing the
lose their aesthetic appeal due to the
relationship between product characteristics and specific EOL strategies
adoption of fresh design fads or users’ desire
for novelty. or case studies. Table 2 presents some of the design attributes based on
Economic obsolescence The cost of using a product exceeds its DFX methodologies. Also, the relevant literature in this field encom­
economic feasibility. It occurs when the passes a variety of methods employed to investigate how design factors
expenses associated with consumables,
can influence product obsolescence. These approaches include theoret­
maintenance, and repairs become
unaffordable compared to the relatively
ical analyses, literature reviews, surveys, models, and case studies. For
lower cost of purchasing a new product. instance, (Sabaghi et al., 2016), from a state-of-the-art, described
Diminishing manufacturing sources Product’s components, materials, or disassembly pertinent attributes to design for disassembly (DfD) and
and material shortages (DMSMS) technologies become unavailable in the presented a scale for evaluation of different parameters in a disassembly
market due to discontinuation of
task. Likewise, (Joustra et al., 2021) identified, based on a literature
manufacturing or inadequate supply.
DMSMS can lead to supply chain disruptions, analysis and expert survey, four clusters of design attributes for com­
production delays, and escalating costs. posite products: handling and rework, product architecture, specifica­
Planned obsolescence Intentionally designing and manufacturing tions, and traceability.
products with a predetermined lifespan or On the other hand, (Blijlevens et al., 2009) researched appearance
period of usefulness. This results in the
product becoming obsolete or unusable after
attributes that customers use to distinguish durable products. This
a specific time, encouraging consumers to research aimed to provide knowledge on the consumer perception of
buy a replacement. product appearances and identify the aesthetic qualities that distinguish
durable products, such as color, shape, and sense of modernity. Simi­
larly, (Du et al., 2012) based on a survey of experts provide an overview
2.3. Product design attributes
of the remanufacturability assessment methodology of used machine
tools. Based on practical studies of the machine tool remanufacturing
Sustainable closed lifecycles can be achieved by selecting suitable
industry, they identify that the evaluation criteria for remanufactur­
alternatives during the product design (Alzaydi, 2024). Product design
ability are technological feasibility, economic viability, and environ­
meets customer needs by connecting functional requirements with
mental benefits.
design attributes or product properties. To achieve this, proper selection
Further, (Zhang et al., 2019) investigated the challenges of identi­
of design attributes must satisfy applicable requirements while consid­
fying design factors for the DfRem method. The article proposes a pro­
ering their constraints and promoting economic and environmental
cess to identify, based on a two-phase QFD model, relevant
value retention (Geng et al., 2020; Wang and Tseng, 2010). Products are
characteristics from the information on failure modes. As a result, it was
typically identified based on their characteristics. According to (Sundin,
determined that ease of disassembly and separation, ease of access, ease
2004), a product property is defined as any inherent attribute that de­
of cleaning, and ease of handling are some of the design attributes
fines and distinguishes a product, categorized into internal and external
applicable to engine crankshafts for remanufacturing. (Remery et al.,
properties. Internal product properties are achieved through design
2012) provides a set of 15 final parameters that influence the EOL de­
features such as shape, dimensions, materials, and surface quality. On
cision through a multicriteria decision process based on a fuzzy tech­
the other hand, external product properties support these internal con­
nique for order preference by similarity. The parameters were used to
siderations and are determined by the product’s environmental

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Table 2 between design attributes and types of obsolescence. The proposed

Design attributes found in the literature related to DfX methodologies. framework consists of four phases: i) Development of the comprehensive
Author DFX methodology Design attributes/ list of design attributes related to obsolescence, ii) Identification of the
parameters measurable parameters of each design attribute, iii) Categorize the at­
(Bouyarmane et al., 2020; Design for Circular Disassembly force tributes, and iv) Validate and refining the taxonomy based on the survey
Desai and Mital, 2005; Disassembly (DfCD) Material handling to experts in the field. Each phase of the proposed framework is
Formentini & Ramanujan, Design for disassembly Requirement of tools described in detail as follows.
2023; Geda and Kwong, (DfD) for disassembly
2018; Sabaghi et al., Accessibility of joints/
2016) grooves
Step 1. Development of a comprehensive list of design attributes related to
Positioning obsolescence. It is developed by a literature review and includes en­
Mating face gineering characteristics and DfX guidelines.
Connection type and Step 2 Categorize the design attributes. A hierarchical structure is
quantify
established to organize the taxonomy. The main categories and
End-of-life scenarios
Disassembly time subcategories to classify the product attributes are decided. For each
category and subcategory, define the terms and definitions to be used
(Du et al., 2012; Zhang Design for Remanufacture Ease of disassembly
et al., 2019) (DfRem) and separation
consistently throughout the taxonomy.
Ease of access Step 3 Identify the measurable parameters of each design attribute.
Ease of handling From the literature review, critical parameters related to obsoles­
Ease of sort and cence and each of the design attributes identified in Step 1 are
identification
identified. This step will provide measurable aspects to qualify each
Ease of inspection
Ease of reassembly design attribute based on the product category of interest.
Feasibility of part Step 4 Validate and refine the taxonomy based on a survey to experts
reconditioning in the field. The taxonomy is reviewed with subject matter experts or
Feasibility of machine relevant stakeholders to gather feedback and make necessary im­
upgrading
Energy saving
provements. In this step, a survey of product design experts is con­
Pollution reduction ducted with emphasis on the product categories defined in the
previous step. This step also allows for identifying other design at­
Yadav et al. (2018) Design for assembly Number of parts
Number of different tributes not found in the literature and organizing hierarchically the
materials importance of each one depending on the field of application.
Type of material
Number of fasteners
Type of connection
(parts/subassemblies) 3.1. Literature search
Accessibility to joints

Go et al. (2016) Design for Multiple Cleanability

The identification of design attributes and parameters was based on a
Lifecycles (DfMLC) Commonality review of 65 selected papers collected from an exhaustive literature
Modularity search through the SCOPUS database on July 8, 2023. The research
Serviceability protocol included the following keywords: (“product obsolescence” OR
Durability
“product end-of-life” OR “EOL product” OR “product lifecycle man­
Accessibility
Disassemblability agement”) AND (“design method*” OR “DFX tools” OR “Design for X
Utilization of tools” OR “design for sustainability” OR “sustainable design”). The
Standardization Parts search was limited to peer-reviewed articles and conference proceedings
Li et al. (2008) Design for Modularity Serviceability published between 2000 and 2023, limited to English, and using titles,
(DfMo) Material selection keywords, and abstracts as search fields.
Geometry constrains A framework based on three main aspects was used to analyze the
Disassembly
content of the selected articles: i) objectives and methodology, ii) life­
cycle phases, and iii) design attributes (see Table 3). The attribute
evaluate the technical characteristics of the product modules and rank consolidation process involved analyzing the selected articles and cat­
the EOL scenarios, offering a basis for decision-making on EOL strategies egorizing them according to their objectives and methodology. This
during the initial product design phase. process allowed us to distinguish between studies that propose new
Despite these approaches, design attributes remain fragmented and methods, evaluate specific properties, and explore relationships be­
are not integrated to support the generation of a product for multiple life tween design variables and life cycles. Subsequently, the documents that
cycles that address all parameters. Similarly, although some authors presented case studies were filtered, and the variables, attributes, or
identify design parameters from failure modes (Zhang et al., 2019), none parameters related to the constructive characteristics of the product or
contemplate the different types of obsolescence. This partial approach system used as a case study were selected. In turn, each case study was
limits designers’ ability to anticipate and mitigate obsolescence in their categorized depending on the design methodology for X used and the
design strategies, focusing on solutions that may be effective against one type of product evaluated. This allowed the identification of patterns
type of obsolescence but ineffective or even counterproductive against and trends concerning the use of typical attributes and their variability
others. with the product category. Once the case studies were categorized, it
identified which life cycle phases are critical for the product’s durability
3. Methods and where the design and improvement efforts have been concentrated.
Table 3 presents the life cycle stages that were considered. Each case
This paper used a systematic review process and a content-based study was identified based on which stage of the life cycle the author’s
analysis to identify the most relevant design attributes related to obso­ analysis was suggested and which aspects could be evaluated in a design
lescence. An expert survey from industry and academia was conducted stage. This process allowed a first list of options for attributes and
to complement the results and gain deeper insight into the relationship measurable parameters. Given that the identification of each attribute
and the decision of its feasibility of evaluation in design stages depended

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Table 3 3.2.2. Study recruitment

Framework for the content-based analysis based on (Mesa et al., 2022). In line with the research objectives, we aimed to obtain responses
Investigated aspect Options and definition from leading experts in the field of obsolescence and product design
worldwide. Potential respondents were identified through the authors’
Objective and Propose methodology or guideline: proposes or develops
methodology methodologies, guidelines, or approaches to determine combined networks. To reduce the potential bias of our network, we
product durability included top authors selected in a parallel bibliometric analysis on
Assess properties or parameters: proposes an indicator or obsolescence in our list of potential participants. In total, 45 potential
approach for assessing product durability participants and their email addresses were collected. By prioritizing the
Explore or analyze determinants and relationships
explores or analyzes stated relationships, hypotheses, or
expert knowledge of respondents over the number of respondents, we
determinants among several variables (e.g., consumer aim for a more homogeneous selected group of participants with a
behavior and product replacement) profound background in industrial design engineering (electronic
Lifecycle phases Manufacturing: addresses implications for the product product design, mechanical product design, home appliance product
production phase (Production of components, parts, and
design, etc.).
assembly)
Sales and distribution: addresses implications for the The web-based survey was created and processed with the aid of
phase where the product is sold and delivered to the final Microsoft Forms. To determine the effectiveness of our survey, a pre-test
user was carried out with experts in our closer networks at the end of
Usage: addresses implications for the phase where the final September and the beginning of October 2023. The feedback was used to
user uses the product
End of use: addresses implications for the phase where the
specify the criteria more precisely and to combine, revise, or eliminate
product ends its use question items. Even though we cannot completely exclude any bias in
Design attributes Materials: involves durability from material selection for interpreting the requirements and answering the questions, the re­
products and parts searcher’s neutrality has been constant during implementation, avoid­
Geometry: involves durability from the definition of
ing personal influences.
geometry for products and parts
Aesthetics: involves durability from aesthetics design While the potential participants were addressed personally, the
aspect cover letter of the invitation mail explained the intention and back­
Other attributes: involves durability from other aspects ground of the study and provided personal contact information. Emails
such as functionality or serviceability were sent to each potential interviewee with one round of follow-up
emails. The final sample consisted of 26 completed questionnaires.
on the researcher’s perspective, this process went through refinement This corresponds to a response rate of around 58%. Fieldwork was
stages through a round of reviews by the authors to validate and char­ completed on November 30, 2023.
acterize the extracted information.
4. Results
3.2. Survey
4.1. Literature review results
3.2.1. Form of data acquisition and design of the survey
A web-based survey was chosen as an appropriate technique of data This subsection presents the design attributes identified from the
acquisition. The research objectives primarily determined the structure literature analysis in subsection 3.1. The final definition of each design
of the survey, and the corresponding question items were derived from attribute is presented in Table 4. These definitions result from a syn­
the literature review results (section 4.1). The research team clustered, thesis obtained from the contributions and perspectives of various au­
defined, and classified design attributes during the development thors identified in the review. They are not attributed to a specific
process. author. Adopting this comprehensive approach is intended to offer a
The survey started with a selection of socio-demographic questions. complete and equitable understanding of the terms presented, consid­
The structure included 32 questions subdivided into five categories: i) ering the diversity of interpretations that exist in academic literature on
definitions, familiarity, and experience, ii) familiarity with obsolescence obsolescence and product design. Through this result, we sought to
concept, iii) design attributes by product category, and iv) design at­ establish a solid framework that guides the construction of the expert
tributes by type of obsolescence. Each section, except for the first section survey presented in subsection 4.2.
corresponding to the demographic questions, was related to the
following research questions. 4.2. Analysis of survey results

1 How does the importance of different types of obsolescence (tech­ The authors collected the results and verified the authenticity of
nological, functional, psychological, economic, planned, and answers by excluding respondents for whom one of the following con­
DMSMS) vary for industrial design and mechanical engineering ditions applied: the survey was incomplete, there were repeated answers
experts? across several questions, there was a limited variability of answers
2. How important is each design attribute concerning engineering where Likert scales were used, and there were inconsistent answers.
design? After filtering the data, the number of respondents is 26 valid partici­
3. How important or how much impact does each design attribute have pants. Fig. 2 presents the demographic data of the participants. It also
on the type of obsolescence? presents the respondents’ familiarity with the different types of obso­
lescence. Most experts in the sample work in Spain, Colombia, and
Criteria were queried on an ordinal scale with a five-point Likert Brazil, as shown in Fig. 2a. Also, the participants have an average of 12
scale ranging from 1-very low to 5-very high. Since the questionnaire years of experience and belong to the Department of Mechanical Engi­
comprised items derived from the literature body, all parts included one neering, Industrial Design Engineering and Production. Of these, 77%
open question that was asked of the design experts to state future di­ indicated they are dedicated to research (not specific product category),
rections or add new design attributes. To reduce confusion, all the 20% work directly with mechanical products and the rest work with
design attributes presented, and the types of obsolescence were defined electronic products.
at the beginning of each question. On the other hand, of the six types of obsolescence presented in the
literature, most participants are familiar with technological, planned,
and functional obsolescence. However, only five participants know

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

General design attributes found in the literature based on design methodologies Design attribute Definition
for X.
Supply chain The diversification of a product’s supply chain, i.e., the
Design attribute Definition diversification adoption of multiple suppliers or sources for the
Software upgradability The ability of a product to receive updates or upgrades components, materials or services required for its
to its software. manufacture.

Compatibility The ability of a product to function or be compatible Dependence on old Indicates the dependence of a product on obsolete or old
with other products, systems, or standards on the technologies technologies instead of adopting more advanced and
market. updated technologies.

Performance The performance or ability of a product to meet Regulatory restrictions Restrictions and regulations imposed by governmental
established requirements and expectations. authorities or regulatory agencies on the design,
manufacture, or marketing of a product.

Scalability The ability of a product or system to adapt and grow

efficiently in response to changes in user demand, size, about DMSMS, as presented in Fig. 2c. This is in line with the fact that
or complexity.
the first three types of obsolescence are the most common and socially
accepted, while the last one is related to a more specific industrial sector,
Flexibility Indicates the ability of a product to adapt or adjust to
such as the military (Brown et al., 2011).
different needs, configurations, or usage scenarios.
The survey findings are presented individually for each survey sec­
tion. The following four subsections describe the results of questions 1 to
Reparability The easeness with which a product can be repaired in
4 presented in subsection 3.2.1.
the event of failure or damage.

4.2.1. Familiarity with the obsolescence concept

Disassemblability The easeness with which a product can be disassembled
into its individual components.
The second section of the survey (the first consisted of demographic
data) was based on establishing the importance of the different types of
obsolescence. This section allowed us to identify the relevance of each
Reliability The ability of a product to perform consistently and
without failure for a specified period under normal type of obsolescence for the participants and whether they considered
conditions of use. these types during the design stage. Table 5 presents participants’ re­
sponses by type of obsolescence and field of experience. To avoid bias in
Durability The resistance and capacity of a product to withstand the responses and given that it was expected that not all types of obso­
wear and tear and adverse environmental conditions lescence would be known, the concept of each type was presented at the
without losing functionality or performance. beginning of each question.
The results show a trend toward higher scores for technological and
Modularity The ability of a product to be divided into individual functional aspects compared to psychological and economic aspects in
modules or components that can be combined, various fields and types of work. As for psychological obsolescence,
interchanged, or upgraded independently.
researchers seem to have a broader variability in its effect on product
design than those with a more specific field of expertise. This may
Material selection Indicates the choice and use of appropriate materials for indicate that its importance is perceived more subjectively. Likewise,
the manufacture of a product.
this may be because experts with a field of work focused on a particular
product already have an idea based on their experience of how this type
Energy efficiency Indicates the energy efficiency of a product, i.e., the
of obsolescence affects them. In contrast, researchers focus on more
amount of energy it consumes in relation to its
performance or function. general design methods and do not pertain to a specific product type but
rather analyze different product types.
Ease of use The ability of the product to be understood, learned, and
used intuitively and effortlessly by users. 4.2.2. Design attributes by product category
This subsection relates to the question “RQ2. Evaluate the design
Social desirability The perception and social acceptance of a product.
attributes in order of importance according to your experience”. Given
that this research aims to identify the most relevant design attributes,
Fig. 3 presents the participants’ opinions regarding the design attributes
Brand perception The image, reputation, and perception of a brand by
consumers. found in the literature and previously listed in Table 4. The divergence
bar chart presented in Fig. 3 visualizes the importance attributed to
different design attributes, rated by respondents on a scale of 1–5. In this
Aesthetic design Refers to the consideration and application of visual
elements and principles to achieve an aesthetically chart, each bar represents a specific attribute and is divided into seg­
pleasing, attractive and consistent appearance. ments that reflect the distribution of responses. The lowest scores (1 and
2), indicating low importance, are shown to the left of the central axis
Lifecycle for market The estimated duration or life cycle of a product on the (0%), while the highest scores (4 and 5), denoting high importance, are
market before it becomes obsolete or is replaced by shown to the right. The center of the graph represents the neutral rating
newer versions. (3), which indicates that the attribute is considered neither important
nor unimportant by respondents. This representation allows for easy
Support and maintenance Indicates the availability and quality of technical comparison between the attributes evaluated, clearly highlighting
support and maintenance services offered for the which ones are perceived as more or less relevant to survey participants.
product.
The results show that for the participants, the performance, dura­
bility, reliability, support and maintenance, lifecycle for market, and
easiness of use are design attributes that strongly influence the design of

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Fig. 2. Characterization of the expert panel. a) Geographic distribution of survey participants, b) years of experience of the participants, c) familiarity with the
different types of obsolescence.

Table 5
Results of the level of importance of the types of obsolescence according to each participant’s experience.
Field of expertise Type of job Product category Technological Functional Psychological Economic DMSMS Planned

Electronic product Managing Director Electronic 5 5 3 4 5 1

design Researcher 5 5 5 4 3 3
Mechanical Product Professional in a factory Mechanical 5 5 1 4 4 2
Design Faculty 4 5 3 1 3 2
Professional 5 4 1 2 2 4
Machinery designer 5 5 2 4 2 5
Research Full professor Plastic products, packaging 5 4 5 4 4 5
Researcher Products in general (not 4 4 4 3 3 4
Researcher specific category 5 3 3 4 4 3
Researcher 5 5 1 2 4 1
Researcher 4 4 2 3 3 1
Researcher 5 5 4 4 4 4
Researcher 5 3 4 4 5 5
PhD student 3 5 5 2 1 4
Professional in a 4 2 1 4 1 1
Technological Center
Researcher 4 5 5 2 2 5
Professional in a research 5 5 4 3 3 5
institute
Professor 4 4 4 1 1 2
Researcher 5 3 3 4 1 4
Researcher 5 5 4 2 3 3
Researcher in product design 5 3 4 2 1 3
Researcher 5 4 1 2 5 4
PhD Candidate 4 5 5 4 3 5
Researcher 4 4 5 4 4 5
Professor 5 5 2 4 4 5
Researcher 5 5 4 5 4 3

a product (scores of 4 and 5); however, the attributes related to Product importance (no higher than two on a scale of 1–5), while 42% consider
management, such as regulatory restrictions, dependence on old tech­ them relevant in making decisions about a product.
nologies, and supply chain diversification, show divided opinions. About Additionally, experts also suggest that attributes such as safety, cost,
35% of experts believe those are attributes with a minimum level of reuse/recycling, environmental compliance, delivery times, prices, and

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Fig. 3. Opinion of the participants regarding the importance of the design attributes found in the literature.

emotional attachment of the user should be considered within the tax­ except psychological obsolescence, which is shown in Fig. 4c, with a
onomy due to their relevance in making decisions about the usefulness significance of mostly 5, and technological obsolescence, which is
life of a product assigning it values of 4 and 5 on the scale used. shown in Fig. 4a with divided opinions. Regarding technological obso­
lescence, 50% of participants consider aesthetic design an attribute of
4.2.3. Design attributes by type of obsolescence low relevance, but brand perception has 54% votes between 4 and 5 on
Considering each design attribute found in the literature (Table 4), the Likert scale. On the other hand, social desirability has 35% of votes
experts were asked to rate them based on each type of obsolescence. This between 1 and 2 and 38% between 4 and 5. Another marked trend is the
subsection aims to identify how the selection of different design pa­ relevance of reliability, support and maintenance, and durability attri­
rameters can impact a product and how they vary in their effects butes since they maintain high scores, regardless of the type of obso­
depending on the type of obsolescence that may occur. Fig. 4 presents lescence being treated.
the results of each kind of obsolescence. In this figure, each bar repre­ On the other hand, disassembly shows divided opinions on func­
sents a specific attribute and is divided into segments that reflect the tional obsolescence. Around 42% of the participants rated disassembly
distribution of responses. The lowest scores (1 and 2), indicating low as a non-relevant factor with scores less than 3, while 57% considered it
importance, are shown to the left of the central axis (0%), while the a factor with an importance level between 3 and 5. These results show an
highest scores (4 and 5), denoting high importance, are shown to the unexpected contrast with the repairability attribute, which presents
right. The center of the graph represents the neutral rating (3), which higher scores (4 and 5) in most participants (70%) since they are related
indicates that the attribute is considered neither important nor unim­ design attributes. The more manageable the product disassembly is, the
portant by respondents. greater its repair capacity.
From the results presented in Fig. 4, attributes such as software up­ The results in Fig. 4c also reveal that, from the participants’
gradability, compatibility, and performance tend to receive higher perspective, most of the attributes identified in the literature have little
scores (4 and 5) about technological, functional, economic, and planned impact concerning psychological obsolescence. They showed a trend
obsolescence. This suggests that these attributes are essential for most towards design attributes directly related to the user experience as
participants to address these types of obsolescence during the design relevant when identifying possible psychological obsolescence. Con­
stages. However, attributes such as aesthetic design, brand perception, cerning DMSMS and economic obsolescence attributes such as regula­
and social desirability show low relevance in almost all obsolescence, tory restriction, dependence on old technologies, supply chain

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Fig. 4. Opinions of the participants regarding the importance of the design attributes found in the literature with the different types of obsolescence.

diversification, support and maintenance, and lifecycle for the market design attributes rated as less critical (rating between 1 and 2) among
show significant relevance for most participants when facing these types the participants. In this case, although 16 design attributes presented
of obsolescence. This is consistent with the fact that both kinds of ratings between 1 and 2, 85.9% of participants rated all attributes be­
obsolescence involve evaluating the costs associated with the continued tween 3 and 5, so none were eliminated. Additionally, the results pre­
use of a product. In economic obsolescence, the costs of consumables, sented in Fig. 3 allow us to identify which design attributes are
maintenance, and repairs are compared to the relatively lower cost of considered most important by the experts, which makes it possible to
purchasing a new product. In DMSMS, the unavailability of essential determine common trends among the experts in terms of which features
components or materials can increase costs and affect the economic they prioritize. These results can be used as a benchmark to compare
viability of production. Likewise, DMSMS can arise at any time, espe­ designs with experts’ expectations. For example, survey results can
cially in the production and long-term maintenance stages. guide the establishment of specific design requirements. If several ex­
perts consider “maintainability” or “compatibility” to be crucial, de­
5. Discussion signers should evaluate how that aspect is encountered during the
design process and how it affects overall product performance.
Technological evolution and the speed with which products become Five logical categories were defined to structure the taxonomy based
obsolete pose significant challenges in various sectors. Product obso­ on the commonalities and relationships among the design attributes. It
lescence represents a considerable challenge in the transition towards a also presents suggested measurable parameters for each design attri­
circular economy, as it limits the extension of products’ life cycles and bute. The parameters were selected from the literature about case
increases waste generation. Given this reality, creating a taxonomy of studies with mechanical, electronic, and electromechanical products in
design attributes is a crucial tool to understand and address the factors this case. This decomposition helps create a more granular taxonomy
contributing to obsolescence in its multiple manifestations. In turn, it and guides the evaluation of each design attribute.
provides a precise conceptual framework that categorizes and relates
relevant design attributes, allowing designers and manufacturers to 5.1. Impact of design attributes on obsolescence
identify and understand how certain elements influence the durability
and relevance of a product over time. By using this type of taxonomy in The connection between the design attribute taxonomy and sus­
the initial design phases, informed decision-making is possible, favoring tainability lies in the ability to anticipate and mitigate the factors
the creation of more durable and sustainable products from their contributing to premature obsolescence. A detailed understanding of
conception and favoring the optimization of resources, reducing waste, how design attributes influence different types of obsolescence is critical
and strengthening competitiveness in a market increasingly oriented to achieving more sustainable designs in the contemporary era. Careful
towards sustainability. consideration of aspects such as durability of materials, modularity of
Based on the results of this study, the taxonomy of design attributes components, and ease of upgrade not only impacts the longevity of a
that affect obsolescence can be defined as indicated in Table 6. The product but can also mitigate the incidence of different types of obso­
design attributes selected for this taxonomy were validated based on the lescence. By identifying and understanding these attributes, designers
results obtained in the survey. Fig. 3 presents the opinions of the re­ can develop strategies that extend the life of products and make it easier
spondents regarding the design attributes. This survey section allowed to repair and upgrade them, thereby reducing waste and promoting the
us to identify which design attributes should be removed or added to circular economy (Proske and Finkbeiner, 2020).
determine the taxonomy. The methodology consisted of eliminating the Based on the findings presented in subsection 4.2.3 “Design

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Fig. 4. (continued).

attributes by type of obsolescence”, it is possible to identify how (Table 4) in general and their impact on obsolescence. From the func­
different design attributes impact obsolescence. Table 7 presents the tionality category, it stands out that the software update capacity and
design attributes classified by their impact category and their relation­ compatibility are consistently considered elements of high impact on
ship with each type of obsolescence. These results allow us to identify technological, functional, and planned obsolescence. Experts high­
that, although all attributes affect the obsolescence of a product in some lighted that software updates allow devices to maintain their function­
way, how they affect depending on the type of obsolescence is different. ality and security without needing physical replacement, which can
Therefore, during the design stage, it is necessary to identify which at­ significantly reduce the generation of electronic waste. Performance and
tributes satisfy the product requirements, how these affect them flexibility also emerge as significant factors, particularly in functional
depending on each type of obsolescence, and which obsolescence is most obsolescence, followed by planned obsolescence. Of the technical at­
likely for the specific product category (Asif et al., 2021). For this case, tributes identified, durability and reliability are perceived as relevant
the survey of experts provided an evaluation of 21 design attributes elements in economic and planned obsolescence, underscoring the

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Table 6
Design attributes and measurables parameters related to obsolescence.
General category Design attribute Definition Parameters

Functionality Software upgradability Refers to a product’s ability to receive updates or upgrades to its software. • Number of supported updates
• Frequency of updates required
• Time between updates
Compatibility Refers to the ability of a product to function or be compatible with other products, • Number of new supported hardware
systems, or standards on the market. standards
• Number of supported devices/software
• Number of systems or products with
which it is compatible
• Frequency of incompatibilities
Performance Refers to the performance or ability of a product to meet established requirements • Speed
and expectations. • Capacity
• Resolution
• Connectivity
• Efficiency
• Comfort and fit
• Expected service life
Scalability Refers to the ability of a product or system to adapt and grow efficiently in response • Ability to add additional components
to changes in user demand, size, or complexity. • Ability to expand storage capacities
• Ability to increase processing power
• Ability to adapt to different sizes or
spaces
Flexibility Indicates the ability of a product to adapt or adjust to different needs, configurations, • Number and variety of configuration
or usage scenarios. options available
• Ease of adjustment or customization
• Adaptability (different sizes, shapes, or
environments/scenarios of use)
• Number of possible uses
• Ease of adjustment for different users or
ergonomic requirements

Technical Reparability Refers to the ease with which a product can be repaired in case of failure or damage. • Spare parts availability
characteristics • Cost of spare parts
• Average repair time
• Documentation
Disassemblability Indicates the ease with which a product can be disassembled into its components. • Connection type
• Disassembly force
• Accessibility of joints
• Documentation
• Type of tool
• Disassembly time
Reliability Refers to the ability of a product to perform consistently and without failure for a • Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)
specified period under normal conditions of use. • Failure rate
Durability Refers to the resistance and capacity of a product to withstand wear and tear and • Wear resistance
adverse environmental conditions without losing functionality or performance. • Structural strength
• Dimensional stability
• Corrosion resistance
Modularity Refers to the ability of a product to be divided into individual modules or components • Number of interchangeable components
that can be combined, interchanged, or upgraded independently. • Ease of module replacement
• Functional independence of the
components

Sustainability Material selection Indicates the choice and use of appropriate materials for the manufacture of a • Material compatibility
product. • Percentage of scarce materials
• Number of different materials
• Availability of materials
• Use of hazardous materials
Energy efficiency Indicates the energy efficiency of a product, i.e., the amount of energy it consumes in • Power consumption compared to newer
relation to its performance or function. models
• Energy cost

User experience Ease of use Refers to the ability of the product to be understood, learned, and used intuitively • Learning time
and effortlessly by users. • User errors
Social desirability Refers to the perception and social acceptance of a product. • How well the product matches current
trends
• How well the product reflects the user’s
social status
• How well others perceive the product
Brand perception It refers to the image, reputation, and perception of a brand by consumers. • Brand devaluation
• Brand loyalty/Consumer opinion
surveys
Aesthetic design Refers to the consideration and application of visual elements and principles to • How well the product aligns with the
achieve an aesthetically pleasing, attractive and consistent appearance. user’s values
• Harmony of shapes
• Combination of colors in the design
(continued on next page)

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

Table 6 (continued )
General category Design attribute Definition Parameters

• How well the product fits into the user’s

lifestyle

Product Lifecycle for market Refers to the estimated duration or lifecycle of a product on the market before it • Time from launch to discontinuation
management becomes obsolete or is replaced by newer versions. • Time until the launch of a new model
Support and Indicates the availability and quality of technical support and maintenance services • Promised support time
maintenance offered for the product. • Effective support time
• Maintenance cost
Supply chain Refers to the diversification of a product’s supply chain, i.e., the adoption of multiple • Number of alternative sources in the
diversification suppliers or sources for the components, materials or services required for its supply chain
manufacture. • Percentage of main suppliers
Dependence on old Indicates a product’s dependence on obsolete or old technologies instead of adopting • Use of old technologies
technologies more advanced and updated technologies. • Availability of older technologies
Regulatory restrictions Refers to restrictions and regulations imposed by governmental authorities or • Regulatory Compliance
regulatory agencies on the design, manufacture, or marketing of a product. • Import/export restrictions
• Data protection and privacy
• Environmental compliance

Table 7
Importance of each design attribute concerning the types of obsolescence.
Category Attributes Technological Functional Psychological Economic DMSMS Planned

Functionality Software upgradability 4.85 4.73 3.31 3.77 3.19 4.73

Compatibility 4.38 4.69 3.12 3.81 4.15 4.42
Performance 4.19 4.42 4.00 3.88 3.15 4.08
Scalability 3.38 3.77 2.77 3.35 3.19 3.77
Flexibility 3.54 4.08 4.00 3.46 3.35 3.69
Technical characteristics Reparability 3.62 3.69 2.38 4.31 3.85 3.88
Disassemblability 3.00 2.81 2.27 3.31 3.27 3.35
Reliability 4.00 4.12 3.62 4.31 3.65 4.35
Durability 3.81 3.92 3.38 4.38 3.92 4.62
Modularity 3.88 3.50 2.58 3.69 3.62 3.69
Sustainability Material selection 2.92 3.08 2.65 3.35 4.31 3.46
Energy efficiency 3.35 2.92 2.81 3.96 3.42 3.23
User experience Ease of use 3.35 3.00 4.08 2.62 2.31 2.73
Social desirability 3.00 2.31 4.65 2.19 2.00 2.50
Brand perception 3.35 2.54 4.54 2.73 2.19 3.15
Aesthetic design 2.54 1.85 4.88 2.04 2.00 2.69
Ergonomics 2.54 4.00 4.88 2.04 2.00 4.00
Product management Lifecycle for market 3.58 3.31 3.35 3.50 3.62 4.00
Support and maintenance 4.08 3.96 4.00 4.12 3.88 4.15
Supply chain diversification 3.04 3.23 2.27 3.46 4.19 3.19
Dependence on old technologies 3.62 3.58 2.85 3.42 3.73 3.35
Regulatory restrictions 3.46 3.42 2.35 3.12 3.27 3.08

importance that respondents provide to costs associated with mainte­ effects and ensure the development of sustainable products.
nance, repair, and replacement. In the case of the sustainability cate­
gory, material selection is identified as a critical contributor to DMSMS • In the case of technological obsolescence (TO), the critical attributes
obsolescence. The results indicate a strong trend toward valuing are software upgradability (4.85), compatibility (4.38), performance
repairability and modularity as critical attributes to counteract eco­ (4.19), reliability (4.00), and support and maintenance (4.08). These
nomic and functional obsolescence. Most experts agree that facilitating attributes are essential to ensure that products remain up-to-date
repair and allowing modular upgrades can significantly extend the life of with technological advancements and can integrate with other
products, aligning with the principles of the circular economy. modern systems.
Furthermore, attributes such as ease of use, social desirability, and • For functional obsolescence (FO), the most critical aspects are soft­
brand perception exhibit specific preferences in their relationship with ware upgradability (4.73), compatibility (4.69), performance (4.42),
psychological obsolescence. There was a division in opinions on the flexibility (4.08), reliability (4.12), and ergonomics (4.00). These
importance of aesthetics and brand perception. While some experts factors are crucial for products to continue fulfilling their purpose
considered that aesthetic design and branding can influence purchasing and adapting to new needs and uses.
decisions and, therefore, psychological obsolescence, others argued that • For psychological obsolescence (PO), the critical attributes include
sustainability and functionality are gaining importance among envi­ aesthetic design (4.88), ergonomics (4.88), social desirability (4.65),
ronmentally conscious consumers. Aspects linked to the life cycle for the brand perception (4.54), performance (4.00), flexibility and support
market and support and maintenance demonstrate their influence on and maintenance (4.00). These aspects influence the user’s percep­
planned obsolescence in the product management category. However, tion of the product’s value, relevance, and overall satisfaction.
supply chain diversification, dependence on old technologies, and reg­ • Economic obsolescence (EC) is primarily influenced by durability
ulatory restrictions constantly impact each type of obsolescence with (4.38), reparability (4.31), reliability (4.31), support and mainte­
values greater than three and less than 4, with a majority influence on nance (4.12), and energy efficiency (3.96). These attributes are
DMSMS obsolescence. fundamental to keeping operational costs low and ensuring a long
The following summary analyzes the critical attributes of each type product lifespan.
of obsolescence, highlighting areas that require attention to mitigate its

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• For DMSMS, the most relevant attributes are material selection designs. By understanding how products can become obsolete, designers
(4.31), supply chain diversification (4.19), compatibility (4.15), are better equipped to anticipate and mitigate these risks early in the
support and maintenance (3.88), durability (3.92), reparability design process. This is crucial to developing strategies that extend the
(3.85) and dependence on old technologies (3.73). life of products and reduce the need for frequent replacements,
• Finally, in planned obsolescence (PLO), the critical attributes are contributing to environmental sustainability. Based on the previous
durability (4.62), software upgradability (4.73), compatibility analysis and discussion, three key areas can be addressed to advance
(4.42), reliability (4.35), support and maintenance (4.15), perfor­ knowledge in the field of obsolescence from product design and
mance (4.08), reparability (3.88) and lifecycle for market (4.00). management.
These aspects are essential to balance the product’s lifespan with
market strategies, ensuring customer satisfaction while managing • Education and Awareness: Considering that a significant percent­
obsolescence strategically. age of experts have limited familiarity with certain types of obso­
lescence, a possible area of research could focus on developing
These results allow us to address how different attributes can be compelling education and awareness strategies. This could include
strategically managed during the design phase to promote product training programs for design and industry professionals that address
durability and sustainability. For example, Fig. 3 shows that design at­ the diversity of types of obsolescence.
tributes impact the performance of a product in different ways. In the • Interdisciplinary Research: Collaborations with experts in con­
case of repairability, this design attribute presents impact values of 4–5 sumer psychology, economics, and supply chain management to
in most participants (81%). This means that if a product has a limited better understand the motivations behind psychological and eco­
level of repair, either due to lack of parts or complexity of the repair, this nomic obsolescence and the implications of DMSMS obsolescence on
aspect will significantly decrease the performance or perception of the the supply chain.
product compared to another with greater capacity. From Table 7, • Development of evaluation tools and validation of results:
limited repair capacity increases the probability of facing economic and Future research could focus on validating and expanding the survey
DMSMS obsolescence. On the other hand, software updating appears to results using different data collection methods, such as case studies,
be a crucial factor in prolonging the relevance and usefulness of elec­ in-depth interviews, or analysis of products in the market. This
tronic products, directly confronting technological obsolescence. would help corroborate the relationship between design attributes
Furthermore, aesthetics and brand perception can positively influence and types of obsolescence. Besides, given the variability in the
psychological obsolescence by aligning products with users’ aesthetic perception of the importance of design attributes, evaluation pro­
expectations and values over time. However, we also recognize that if tocols that consider the relevance of specific design attributes
these attributes are not appropriately managed, they can generate the depending on the product category studied could be designed.
desire to purchase new products and cause users to replace their current
products prematurely. Recognizing these trends contributes to more “The current approach provides a valuable starting point for un­
conscious decision-making and the creation of products less susceptible derstanding the relationships between design attributes and obsoles­
to obsolescence. cence. The response variability highlights the need for more focused and
However, these results are conditioned by the respondents’ knowl­ context-specific approaches to understanding the relationships between
edge about each type of obsolescence and the importance they place on design attributes and obsolescence. The limitations identified from the
it. At the beginning of the survey, the experts were asked what kinds of proposed approach are listed below.
obsolescence they knew based on their experience (see Fig. 2c), of which
it stands out that only 35% knew about psychological and economic • Limitations of the survey: The survey may have inherent limita­
obsolescence and 19% about DMSMS. Respondents’ limited familiarity tions, such as a non-representative sample or unclear questions. This
with certain types of obsolescence presents implications, such as biasing can lead to inconsistent or non-representative responses. The sample
responses toward more familiar types. Therefore, the perception of the size should be increased in future work to obtain more representative
importance of specific design attributes could be biased toward those and robust results. A larger sample may better understand opinion
most directly related to the types of obsolescence that respondents are variations and improve the findings’ generalizability. Also, it is
most familiar with. Additionally, low familiarity with psychological, recommended to include participants from various disciplines and
economic, and DMSMS obsolescence could indicate that the survey re­ sectors related to design to capture a wide range of opinions and
sults may not fully represent all types of obsolescence and could limit experiences. This could consist of designers in electronics, textiles,
respondents’ ability to provide practical and specific design and other fields. Likewise, incorporating qualitative methods, such
recommendations. as interviews or focus groups, alongside quantitative surveying can
Additionally, the survey results highlighted significant variations in provide a deeper understanding of the reasons behind design attri­
how different types of obsolescence are valued (Table 5). For example, bute evaluations.
while technological and functional obsolescence consistently received • Product diversity: Obsolescence can affect different products
high ratings across various fields of expertise and job types, psycho­ differently. Some products may be more prone to obsolescence than
logical and economic obsolescence generally received more varied rat­ others, influencing participants’ responses. Future studies should
ings. Specifically, psychological obsolescence received ratings from 1 to consider evaluating design attributes in contexts specific to product
5 among mechanical product designers and researchers, indicating a category. This will allow for a more precise analysis of how each
lack of consensus on the topic’s impact. This dispersion may affect the design attribute impacts obsolescence in different product types.
interpretation of design attributes, as respondents who value psycho­ Likewise, conducting case studies on various product categories
logical obsolescence more may consider specific attributes, such as could provide a deeper understanding of how design attributes affect
repairability or aesthetic updating, more relevant in preventing obso­ obsolescence in each context. This could involve collecting data and
lescence. On the other hand, those who consider psychological obso­ analyzing specific cases of products designed and launched in
lescence less important may give less weight to these attributes. This different product categories.”
diversity of opinion suggests that any design strategy to mitigate obso­
lescence must be multifaceted and adaptable to address different user 5.2. Practical implications
perceptions and priorities.
Therefore, familiarity with different types of obsolescence allows Proposing a taxonomy of design attributes to address obsolescence
designers to proactively identify potential obsolescence risks in their presents significant advantages in understanding how different design

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L. Sierra-Fontalvo et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 475 (2024) 143635

aspects impact various types of obsolescence. By categorizing these at­ repairability, and upgradeability as critical elements. However, the need
tributes according to their influence on technological, functional, psy­ for greater attention to the complexity involved in the interaction of
chological, economic, planned, and DMSMS obsolescence, the taxonomy multiple attributes in sustainable design is recognized. These findings
offers a more specific and contextualized view of the interactions be­ provide a solid foundation for future research and design strategies to
tween the design and useful life of products. However, this precise address the challenges of obsolescence and move towards more sus­
classification also comes with challenges, as some attributes may tainable practices in the product design industry.
simultaneously affect multiple types of obsolescence. Furthermore, the It is essential to recognize the potential limitations inherent to this
applicability of this taxonomy in industry and product design raises study that could affect the interpretation of the presented results. The
critical implications. On the one hand, designers can use this taxonomy representativeness of the sample, the quality of the measurement in­
to innovate and create more sustainable and adaptable products. It acts strument, and the availability and homogeneity of the existing literature
as a guideline to anticipate future technological and market trends, are critical aspects that must be considered. Furthermore, factors such as
making designs more resilient to obsolescence. Also, this approach can response biases, temporal conditions, and time constraints constitute
serve as a professional development tool, helping designers understand potential limitations that could have influenced data collection and,
their design choices’ broader impact on sustainability and product therefore, the validity and applicability of the results obtained. These
lifecycles. elements could have introduced variations in participants’ responses,
Similarly, understanding the factors contributing to obsolescence affecting the generalizability of the findings and their accurate
can help manufacturers extend the lifespan of their products, reducing interpretation.
waste and costs associated with frequent product updates. The taxon­
omy guides manufacturers in adopting more sustainable practices, Funding
reducing environmental impact, and meeting regulations. Manufac­
turers prioritizing longevity and sustainability in their products can This research work was supported by Vicerrectoría de Investigación,
differentiate themselves in the market, appealing to environmentally Creación e Innovación, Universidad del Norte, under contract UN-OJ-
conscious consumers and fostering greater customer loyalty and satis­ 2022-57010.
faction by designing products less prone to obsolescence. On the other
hand, policymakers can also use this information to develop educational CRediT authorship contribution statement
initiatives to promote sustainable consumption and production among
businesses and the public. The insights can aid in developing regulatory Lesly Sierra-Fontalvo: Writing – original draft, Visualization,
frameworks that incentivize companies to design products with longer Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Laura Ruiz-Pastor:
life spans and lower environmental impacts. At the same time, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Data curation, Conceptualiza­
embracing these design principles can offer companies a competitive tion. Arturo Gonzalez-Quiroga: Writing – review & editing, Supervi­
advantage by aligning with consumer and regulatory trends toward sion, Funding acquisition. Jaime A. Mesa: Writing – review & editing,
sustainability. Finally, this knowledge also empowers users to advocate Supervision, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition,
for more sustainable products and practices, influencing market trends Conceptualization.
towards products that are designed with longer life spans.

6. Conclusion Declaration of competing interest

Research on obsolescence and its management from the design stage The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
is crucial for redefining paradigms in the product development process. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
The need for a taxonomy becomes evident by recognizing that obso­ the work reported in this paper.
lescence is not limited only to technical obsolescence but also encom­
passes aspects such as planned obsolescence, perceived obsolescence, Data availability
and style obsolescence. This study presents a literature analysis and an
expert survey to identify the most relevant design attributes and their Data will be made available on request.
effect on product obsolescence. The combination of literature analysis
and expert survey emerges as a robust and balanced methodological References
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