Western Asia

and Egypt
3500–500 B.C.
Key Events
As you read, look for the key events in the history of Southwest Asia and Egypt.
• The Sumerians in Mesopotamia were among the first groups to build a civilization,
and they were the first to develop a system of writing.
• Due in large part to the Nile, early Egyptian civilization was stable and prosperous.
Massive monuments, the pyramids, were built to honor the deaths of the pharaohs.
• The Israelites emerged as a distinct people.
• Of the other empires that came into being in Southwest Asia, the longest lasting and
most powerful were the Assyrian and Persian Empires.

The Impact Today

The events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.
• The peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt built cities and struggled with the problems of
organized government.
• The Israelites developed a major world religion, which influenced the development of
Christianity and Islam and has a continuing effect on Western civilization.

World History Video The Chapter 2 video, “Egypt,” chronicles

the rise of Egyptian civilization.

Hammurabi established
a code of law.

3000 B.C.
Sumerian 1792 B.C. 1652 B.C.
cities emerge 2700 B.C. Hammurabi Middle
in southern Old Kingdom comes to Kingdom
Mesopotamia begins power ends

3000 B.C. 2700 B.C. 2400 B.C. 2100 B.C. 1800 B.C. 1500 B.C.

3000 B.C. 2540 B.C. 1567 B.C.

Cuneiform Great New
writing Pyramid of Kingdom
invented King Khufu begins
finished

Sumerian cuneiform script

34
The Great Sphinx and the Great Pyramids at Giza, Egypt, symbolize the power and longevity of Egyptian kingdoms.

Death mask of King

Tutankhamen of Egypt
521 B.C.

539 B.C.
Darius begins
to expand
HISTORY
Babylonia Persian
falls Empire Chapter Overview
Visit the Glencoe World
History Web site at
wh.glencoe.com and click
1200 B.C. 900 B.C. 600 B.C. 300 B.C. 100 B.C. 50 B.C.
on Chapter 2–Chapter
Overview to preview
chapter information.
970 B.C.
Solomon
becomes
King of Israel

King Solomon’s temple in Jerusalem

35
 Sumerian ruins at Uruk

The Cradle of the Human Race

I n the winter of 1849, a daring young Englishman made a
difficult journey into the deserts and swamps of southern
Iraq. He moved south down the banks of the river Euphrates
while braving high winds and temperatures that reached 120
Why It Matters
In the fertile river valleys of Meso-
degrees Fahrenheit (48.9° C). The man, William Loftus, led a potamia, Egypt, India, and China,
small expedition in search of the roots of civilization. As he intensive farming made it possible
said, “From our childhood we have been led to regard this to support large groups of people.
place as the cradle of the human race.” The people in these regions were
Guided by native Arabs into the southernmost reaches of able to develop the organized soci-
Iraq, Loftus and his small group of explorers were soon over- eties that we associate with civiliza-
whelmed by what they saw. He wrote, “I know of nothing tion. The beginnings of Western
more exciting or impressive than the first sight of one of these civilization lie in the early civiliza-
tions of Southwest Asia and Egypt.
great piles, looming in solitary grandeur from the surround-
ing plains and marshes.” History and You As you read
One of these “piles” was known to the natives as the this chapter, analyze the climatic
mound of Warka. The mound contained the ruins of the conditions in Mesopotamia that
ancient city of Uruk, one of the first real cities in the world favored certain crops. Compare
and part of one of the world’s first civilizations. Southern Mesopotamia’s climate and crops
Iraq, known to ancient peoples as Mesopotamia, was one to the climate and crops that were
of four areas in the world where civilization began. grown in the Nile Valley of Egypt.
What conclusions can you draw
from this information?

36
 Civilization Begins
in Mesopotamia
Guide to Reading
Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy
• Mesopotamia, one of the first civiliza- Sumerians, Akkadians, Sargon, Categorizing Information As you read
tions, began between the Tigris and Hammurabi this section, complete a chart like the one
Euphrates Rivers. shown below to explain the Sumerians’
• The Sumerians formed city-states and
Places to Locate various contributions to civilization.
created forms of communication that Tigris River, Euphrates River,
Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent, Uruk, Political Life Cultural Life Inventions
affect our lives today.
Babylon
Key Terms
city-state, ziggurat, theocracy, empire,
Preview Questions
patriarchal, polytheistic, cuneiform 1. How did geography affect the civiliza-
tions in Mesopotamia?
2. How did the Akkadian Empire begin?
Preview of Events
✦3000 B.C. ✦2750 B.C. ✦2500 B.C. ✦2250 B.C. ✦2000 B.C. ✦1750 B.C. ✦1500 B.C.
3000 B.C. 2340 B.C. 2100 B.C. 1792 B.C.
Sumerians establish Akkadians set up Akkadian Hammurabi
independent cities the first empire Empire falls comes to power

Voices from the Past

The following poem reflects the deep despair of the people of Ur after the burning
and sacking of their city:

“ Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament. The country’s blood now fills its holes like hot
bronze in a mould. Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our temple is destroyed, the
gods have abandoned us, like migrating birds. Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.
—Legacy: The Search for Ancient Cultures, Michael Wood, 1995
”
Constant conflict marked early civilization in Mesopotamia. Invaders flowed into the
Reconstructed temple at Ur flat land of the region, and city fought city for land and water.

The Impact of Geography

The ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land “between the rivers.” Mesopotamia was at the
eastern end of an area known as the Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from the
Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Because this land had rich soil and abun-
dant crops, it was able to sustain an early civilization.
Mesopotamia was a region with little rain, but its soil had been enriched over
the years by layers of silt—material deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, the
Tigris and Euphrates often overflowed their banks and deposited their fertile
silt. This flooding, however, depended on the melting of snows in the upland

CHAPTER
CHAPTER
2 Western
# Asia
Chapter
and Egypt
Title 37
 Ancient Mesopotamia
20°E 30°E 40°E 50°E 60°E

EUROPE Fertile Crescent

Direction of flow 40°E 50°E

Caspian
Sea
ASSYRIA

Ti
Cas
Aral

gr
is
Sea

Ca
uc

R.

Z
N
Black Sea

p i a n Se
as E u ph

ag
ra
40°N us W E
Mo AKKAD

te

ro
unt

sR
. S
ain ASIA

s
a
ASIA MINOR s
o

M
Sardis u
n
ta
Me in
Me s Babylon
dit E o Nineveh s
erra up SUMER
po

hr
Ti g ri s

nea
tam

n Se a at
Sidon Byblos es Uruk
Syrian Desert
i a R.

Nile Tyre Ur
Syrian
R.

Delta Eridu
Jerusalem Desert Babylon Susa Ancient
200 miles shorelin
Jordan R. 0 e
LOWER EGYPT Dead Uruk Ur 30°N
Giza Sea 0 200 kilometers Persian
Eridu Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Gulf
Ancient
Shoreline
Persepolis
Ni

Pe

rs
le R

ia
nG
.

ulf
First Cataract
UPPER EGYPT A r a b i a n
Second Cataract Several important cultures and civiliza-
D e s e r t
tions developed in Mesopotamia.
Red

Third Cataract KUSH

1. Interpreting Maps What mountain
Se a

Fourth range forms the eastern border of the

Cataract Fifth
Cataract N Fertile Crescent?
AFRICA W E 2. Applying Geography Skills In
0 500 miles S which direction do the Tigris and
Arabian Euphrates Rivers flow? In which direc-
Sea
0 500 kilometers
tion does the Nile flow?
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
en
of Ad
Gulf

mountains where the rivers began. People in the val- Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. We focus first on the
ley could not tell exactly when the floods would Sumerians, the creators of the first Mesopotamian
come or how large they would be. civilization.
Because of these circumstances, farming in ancient
Reading Check Explaining What role did geography
Mesopotamia could be done only when people
controlled the flow of the rivers. Irrigation and play in the development of Mesopotamian civilization?
drainage ditches—part of a large-scale system of
water control—made it possible to grow crops on a
The City-States
regular basis. The resulting abundance of food
enabled large numbers of people to live together in of Ancient Mesopotamia
cities and made possible the emergence of civiliza- The origins of the Sumerian people remain a mys-
tion in Mesopotamia. tery. By 3000 B.C., they had established a number of
When we speak of Mesopotamian civilization, we independent cities in southern Mesopotamia, includ-
are referring to the achievements of several peoples. ing Eridu, Ur, and Uruk. As the cities expanded, they
Ancient Mesopotamia includes three general areas: came to have political and economic control over the

38 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt

surrounding countryside. They formed city-states, goddesses owned the cities. The people devoted
the basic units of Sumerian civilization. much of their wealth to building temples, as well as
elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who
Sumerian Cities Sumerian cities were surrounded served the gods. The temples and related buildings
by walls. Uruk, for example, was encircled by a wall served as the center of the city physically, economi-
six miles (10 km) long with defense towers located cally, and even politically.
along the wall every 30 to 35 feet (9 to 10 m). City Priests and priestesses, who supervised the tem-
dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both ples and their property, had a great deal of power. In
the small houses of peasants and the larger buildings fact, historians believe that in the early stages of the
of the city officials, priests, and priestesses. city-states, priests and priestesses played an impor-
Although Mesopotamia had little stone or wood tant role in ruling. The Sumerians believed that the
for building purposes, it did have plenty of mud. gods ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy—
Mud bricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bake a government by divine authority. Eventually, how-
in the hot sun until they were hard enough to use for ever, ruling power passed into the hands of worldly
building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably figures, or kings.
creative with mud bricks. They invented the arch and Sumerians viewed kingship as divine in origin.
the dome, and they built some of the largest brick Kings, they believed, derived their power from the
buildings in the world. Mud bricks are still used in gods and were the agents of the gods. As one person
rural areas of Southwest Asia today. said in a petition to his king: “You in your judgement,
you are the son of Anu [god of the sky]. Your com-
Gods, Goddesses, and Rulers The most prominent mands, like the work of a god, cannot be reversed.
building in a Sumerian city was the temple dedicated Your words, like rain pouring down from heaven, are
to the chief god or goddess of the city. This temple without number.”
was often built atop a massive stepped tower called Regardless of their origins, kings had power. They
a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and led armies, supervised the building of public works,

History through Architecture

Restored ziggurat at Ur, c. 2100 B.C.
At the top of a ziggurat was a shrine, which only
the priests and priestesses could enter. Describe
the technology and resources needed to build
a ziggurat.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 39

 and organized workers for the irrigation projects on estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, and crafts-
which Mesopotamian farming depended. The army, people. Probably 90 percent or more of the people
the government, and the priests and priestesses all were farmers. Slaves belonged to palace officials,
aided the kings in their rule. As befitted their power, who used them mostly in building projects. Temple
Sumerian kings, their wives, and their children lived officials most often used female slaves to weave cloth
in large palaces. and grind grain. Rich landowners also used slaves to
farm their lands.
Economy and Society Although the economy of
Reading Check Explaining Why were the city-states
the Sumerian city-states was based chiefly on farm-
ing, trade and industry became important as well. considered to be theocracies?
The peoples of Mesopotamia were well known for
their metalwork, but they also made woolen textiles Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia
and pottery. The Sumerians imported copper, tin, As the number of Sumerian city-states grew and
and timber in exchange for dried fish, wool, barley, the city-states expanded, new conflicts arose. City-
wheat, and metal goods. Traders traveled by land to state fought city-state for control of land and water.
the eastern Mediter- Located on the flat land of Mesopotamia, the Sumer-
ranean in the west ian city-states were also open to invasion by other
Ti

and by sea to India in Mediterranean Trade route groups.

g ri
sR

Sea
the east. The inven- To the north of the Sumerian city-states were the
.

Euphrates Persian Gulf

tion of the wheel, R.
INDIA Akkadians (uh•KAY•dee•uhnz). We call them a
around 3000 B.C., led Semitic people because they spoke a Semitic lan-
to wheeled carts, Arabian guage. Around 2340 B.C., Sargon, leader of the Akka-
Sea
which made the trans- dians, overran the Sumerian city-states and set up the
port of goods easier. first empire in world history. An empire is a large
Sumerian city-states contained three major social political unit or state, usually under a single leader,
groups: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Nobles that controls many peoples or territories. Empires are
included royal and priestly officials and their fami- often easy to create but difficult to maintain. The rise
lies. Commoners worked for palace and temple and fall of empires is an important part of history.

The Royal Standard

of Ur is a box, created
about 2700 B.C., that
depicts different Sumer-
ian scenes. This panel
shows a royal
celebration following
a military victory.

40 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt

 Attacks from neighboring hill peoples eventually
caused the Akkadian Empire to fall. Its end by 2100 Hammurabi
B.C. brought a return to the system of warring city- Ruled 1792–1750 B.C.
states. It was not until 1792 B.C. that a new empire Babylonian king
came to control much of Mesopotamia. Leadership
came from Babylon, a city-state south of Akkad,
where Hammurabi (HA•muh•RAH•bee) came to
Hammurabi was justly proud of his
famous code of laws. As he stated:
power. He gained control of Sumer and Akkad, thus “When Marduk [a Babylonian god]
creating a new Mesopotamian kingdom. After his sent me to rule the people . . . I estab-
death in 1750 B.C., however, a series of weak kings lished law and justice in the land, and
was unable to keep Hammurabi’s empire united, and promoted the welfare of the people.” Hammurabi built
it finally fell to new invaders. temples and irrigation canals, encouraged trade, and
brought an economic revival. Hammurabi was also a
Reading Check Evaluating Why was it so easy for man of war. He had a well-disciplined army of foot sol-
Sargon and his army to invade the Sumerian city-states? diers who carried axes, spears, and copper or bronze
daggers. Hammurabi divided his opponents and
defeated them one by one. After his conquests, he called
himself “the sun of Babylon, the king who has made the
The Code of Hammurabi four quarters of the world subservient.”

Hammurabi is remembered for his

law code, a collection of 282 laws. Many of its ideas
were similar to later Israelite codes.
they had to be replaced and the house rebuilt at the
For centuries, laws had regulated people’s rela- builder’s expense.
tionships with one another in the lands of The largest category of laws in the Code of Ham-
Mesopotamia. Hammurabi’s collection of laws pro- murabi focused on marriage and the family. Parents
vides considerable insight into social conditions in arranged marriages for their children. After mar-
Mesopotamia. riage, the two parties signed a marriage contract.
The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system Without a contract, no one was considered legally
of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were married.
severe, and they varied according to the social class Society in ancient Mesopotamia was patriarchal—
of the victim. A crime against a member of the upper that is, Mesopotamian society was dominated by
class (a noble) by a member of the lower class (a com- men. Hammurabi’s code makes it clear that women
moner) was punished more severely than the same had far fewer privileges and rights in marriage than
offense against a member of the lower class. More- did men.
over, the principle of retaliation (“an eye for an eye, A woman’s place was definitely in the home. If she
tooth for a tooth”) was a fundamental part of this sys- failed to fulfill her duties, her husband had legal
tem of justice. grounds for divorce. In addition, if a wife was not
Hammurabi’s code took seriously the duties of able to bear children or tried to leave home to engage
public officials. Officials were expected to catch bur- in business, her husband could divorce her. Even
glars. If they failed to do so, the officials in the district more harsh, a wife who was a “gadabout . . . neglect-
where the crime was committed had to replace the ing her house [and] humiliating her husband,” could
lost property. If murderers were not found, the offi- be drowned.
cials had to pay a fine to the relatives of the murdered Fathers ruled their children as well as their wives.
person. Judges could be fined or lose their positions Obedience was expected: “If a son has struck his
for ruling incorrectly on a case. father, he shall cut off his hand.” If a son committed
The law code also included what we would call a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit
consumer protection laws. Builders were held him. Obviously, Hammurabi’s law code covered
responsible for the buildings they constructed. If a almost every aspect of people’s lives.
house collapsed and caused the death of the owner,
the builder was put to death. If the collapse caused Reading Check Identifying Identify at least five
the death of the son of the owner, the son of the aspects of Mesopotamian society as revealed by the Code of
builder was put to death. If goods were destroyed, Hammurabi.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 41

 The Importance of Religion
The physical environment strongly affected the
way Mesopotamians viewed the world. Ferocious
floods, heavy downpours, scorching winds, and
oppressive humidity were all part of the
Mesopotamian climate. These conditions, as well as
famines, convinced Mesopotamians that this world
was controlled by supernatural forces, which often
were not kind or reliable. In the presence of nature,
Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as this
poem relates:

“ The rampant flood which no man can oppose,

Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to
tremble,
In an appalling blanket folds mother and child,
”
And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.

To the Mesopotamians, powerful spiritual

beings—gods and goddesses—permeated all aspects
of the universe. The Mesopotamians identified almost
three thousand gods and goddesses. Mesopotamian
religion was polytheistic because of this belief in History
many gods. Human beings were supposed to obey
and serve the gods. According to Sumerian beliefs, The people of Mesopotamia associated gods with
different aspects of nature and the universe. What
human beings were created to do the manual labor
aspect of nature do you think this goddess
the gods were unwilling to do for themselves. By their
represents? Explain.
very nature, humans were inferior to the gods and
could never be sure what the gods might do to help or
hurt them. They have been a valuable source of information for
modern scholars.
Reading Check Describing What role did the physi-
Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily for
cal environment play in the way Mesopotamians viewed the record keeping. Cuneiform texts, however, were also
world? used in schools to train scribes, members of the
learned class who served as copyists, teachers, and
The Creativity of the Sumerians jurists.
For boys of the upper class in Mesopotamia,
The Sumerians are credited with becoming a scribe was the key to a successful career.
inventing the oldest writing system, cuneiform, which Men who began their careers as scribes became the
dates from about 3000 B.C. leaders of their cities, temples, and armies. Scribes
The Sumerians created many inventions that still came to hold the most important positions in Sumer-
affect our lives today. Probably their greatest inven- ian society.
tion was their writing. In addition, historians credit To become scribes, boys from wealthy families,
them with many technological innovations. many of them the sons of scribes, attended the new
schools that were in operation by 2500 B.C. Young
Writing and Literature Around 3000 B.C., the boys seeking to become scribes began school when
Sumerians created a cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) they were small children and trained until they were
system of writing. Using a reed stylus (a tool for writ- young men. School days began at sunrise and ended
ing), they made wedge-shaped impressions on clay at sunset. Discipline was harsh. The following essay,
tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun. written by a teacher as a copying exercise for pupils,
Once dried, these tablets lasted a very long time. Sev- shows that punishments—being caned or beaten
eral hundred thousand tablets have been found. with a stick—were frequent:

42 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt

 Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is wise, strong, and perfect in
““Why
In the tablet-house, the monitor said to me:
are you late?” I was afraid, my heart
body. He is part man and part god. Gilgamesh
befriends a hairy beast named Enkidu. Together, they
beat fast. I entered before my teacher, took
set off to do great deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gil-
my place.
gamesh feels the pain of death and begins a search for
My “school-father” read my tablet to me, said,
the secret of immortality. His efforts fail, and Gil-
“The word is cut off,” caned me.
gamesh remains mortal. This Mesopotamian epic
He who was in charge of drawing said “Why
makes clear that “everlasting life” is only for the gods.
when I was not here did you go out?”
caned me. Sumerian Technology The Sumerians invented
He who was in charge of the gate said several tools and devices that made daily life easier
“Why when I was not here did you go out?” and more productive. They developed the wagon
caned me. wheel, for example, to help transport people and
My teacher said “Your hand is not good,” goods from place to place. The potter’s wheel to
caned me.
” shape containers, the sundial to keep time, and the
arch used in construction are other examples of
Scribal students spent most of their school days fol-
Sumerian technology. The Sumerians were the first to
lowing the same routine. They were taught by copy-
make bronze out of copper and tin, creating finely
ing and recopying standard works on clay tablets and
crafted metalwork. The Sumerians also made out-
reciting from them. Although boring, this was proba-
standing achievements in mathematics and astron-
bly the scribe’s only way of learning how to form the
omy. In math, they devised a number system based
cuneiform writing signs neatly and correctly.
on 60. Geometry was used to measure fields and
Writing was important because it allowed a soci-
erect buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians charted
ety to keep records and to pass along knowledge
the heavenly constellations. A quick glance at your
from person to person and generation to generation.
watch and its division into 60 minutes in an hour
Writing also made it possible for people to communi-
should remind you of our debt to the Sumerians.
cate ideas in new ways. This is especially evident in
The Epic of Gilgamesh. Reading Check Identifying Name two major inven-
Gilgamesh is a Mesopotamian epic poem that tions of the Sumerians, and tell how those inventions affect our
records the exploits of a legendary king named lives today.

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals

1. Define city-state, ziggurat, theocracy, 6. Explain Which type of government— 8. Examine the photograph of the Royal
empire, patriarchal, polytheistic, separate city-states or an empire— Standard of Ur on page 40 of your text.
cuneiform. would have been most advantageous What facts about Mesopotamian life
to the people living in Mesopotamia? can you identify by studying the pic-
2. Identify Sumerians, Akkadians, Sar-
ture? How does this box reflect the val-
gon, Hammurabi, Code of Hammurabi, 7. Organizing Information Create a
ues of the Sumerian civilization?
The Epic of Gilgamesh. chart showing the achievements made
by the Sumerians and list the effects of
3. Locate Tigris River, Euphrates River,
these achievements on our lives today.
Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent, Uruk,
Babylon. Effects on our 9. Expository Writing Explain why
Achievements
lives today Hammurabi’s code was a significant
4. Explain what the Mesopotamians development. Develop a set of laws
believed was the relationship between based on the Code of Hammurabi
gods and mortals. that would apply to your community
5. List the three general areas of ancient today. Explain why your code differs
Mesopotamia. from that developed by Hammurabi
or why it is similar.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 43

 Hammurabi’s Code
ALTHOUGH THERE WERE EARLIER 198: If he has destroyed the eye of a commoner
Mesopotamian law codes, the Code of or broken the bone of a commoner, he
Hammurabi is the most complete. The law shall pay one mina of silver.
code emphasizes the principle of retribution
(“an eye for an eye”) and punishments that 199: If he has destroyed the eye of a free man’s
vary according to social status. Punishments slave or broken the bone of a free man’s
could be severe, as these examples show. slave, he shall pay one-half his value.

229: If a builder constructed a house for a

22: If a man has committed nobleman but did not make his work
highway robbery and has strong, with the result that the house
been caught, that man which he built collapsed and so has
should be put to death. caused the death of the owner of the
house, that builder shall be put to death.
23: If the highwayman has
not been caught, the 232: If it has destroyed goods, he shall
man that has been make good whatever it destroyed;
robbed shall state on also, because he did not make the
oath what he has lost house strong that he built and it
and the city or district collapsed, he shall reconstruct the
governor in whose house that collapsed at his own
territory or district the expense.
robbery took place
shall restore to him —The Code of Hammurabi
what he has lost. Hammurabi’s code was written on a
stone monument, approximately seven
25: If fire broke out in a
feet tall, called a stele. The upper sec-
free man’s house and tion of the stele shows Hammurabi
a free man, who went standing in front of the seated sun god.
to extinguish it, cast
his eye on the goods Analyzing Primary Sources
of the owner of the
house and has appro- 1. Explain the principle of retribution.
priated the goods of 2. According to the Code of Hammurabi, what was
the owner of the most highly valued in Mesopotamian society?
house, that free man What was the least valued? Explain your
shall be thrown into answers.
that fire. 3. What is the guiding principle in the
American criminal justice system? How
196: If a free man has does this compare with Hammurabi’s
destroyed the eye justice?
of a member of the
aristocracy, they
shall destroy his eye.

44