MOTION CONTROL

Explain in detail components of motion control. OR

Explain the Essential components of a Motion control system.

Motion control is a technology used in various applications to manage the movement of mechanical systems.

It involves the precise control of the position, velocity, and acceleration of components such as motors, actuators,
and other devices to achieve desired motion control. Motion control systems are widely used in industries such as
manufacturing, robotics, aerospace, and automotive.

The components of a motion control system can be categorized into several key elements:

1. Controller:
• Motion Controller: The motion controller is the brain of the motion control system. It
processes input commands, typically from a higher-level control system or operator, and
generates output signals to drive the motion components.
2. Sensors:
• Position Sensors: These sensors provide feedback on the current position of the moving
component. Common ty pes include encoders, resolvers, and potentiometers.
• Velocity Sensors: Velocity feedback is essential for controlling the speed of the motion.
Sensors like tachometers or rotary encoders can provide this information.
• Acceleration Sensors: Some applications may require acceleration feedback for precise control.
3. Actuators:
• Motors: Electric motors, such as DC motors, AC motors (induction or synchronous), or stepper
motors, are used to generate motion.
• Hydraulic or Pneumatic Actuators: In some applications, fluid-based actuators may be used
for motion control, offering high force capabilities.
4. Drive Electronics:
• Motor Drives/Amplifiers: These devices amplify the control signals from the motion controller
to provide the necessary power to drive the motors.
5. Power Supply:
• Power Source: A stable and reliable power supply is crucial for the proper functioning of the
motion control system. It provides the necessary power to the drive electronics and motors.
6. Mechanical Transmission:
• Gears, Belts, and Couplings: Mechanical components are often used to transmit motion from
the motor to the load. The choice of transmission components depends on the application
requirements, including speed, torque, and efficiency.
7. Human-Machine Interface (HMI): In some systems, an HMI allows operators or engineers to interact
with and monitor the motion control system.

1
List out applications of Motion Control in industry.
1. Manufacturing and Automation:

o CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines: Motion control is essential for controlling the

movement of machine tools such as milling machines, lathes, and routers in manufacturing

processes.

o Robotics: Motion control plays a crucial role in industrial robots, allowing them to perform tasks

such as welding, assembly, and material handling with precision.

o Conveyor systems: Motion control is used in conveyor belts to control the movement of

products in manufacturing and distribution facilities.

o Packaging machinery: Motion control systems are used in packaging equipment to ensure

accurate product filling, sealing, and labeling.

2. Healthcare and Medical Devices:

o Medical robotics: Motion control is used in surgical robots and medical devices for minimally

invasive surgery and precise drug delivery.

o Diagnostic equipment: Motion control systems are employed in medical imaging equipment

like MRI machines and CT scanners.

3. Automotive Industry:

o Electric and hybrid vehicles: Motion control is used in electric powertrains to control the speed

and torque of electric motors.

o Active suspension systems: Motion control adjusts suspension systems in real-time for

improved ride comfort and handling.

4. Semiconductor Manufacturing:

o Wafer handling and processing: Precision motion control is critical in semiconductor

manufacturing equipment for tasks like wafer handling, lithography, and etching.

5. Agriculture:

o Precision farming equipment: Motion control is used in agricultural machinery such as GPS-

guided tractors and crop harvesting equipment for efficient and precise farming.

List any three actuators

1. Electric Actuators: These actuators use electrical energy to produce mechanical motion. They include
motors such as DC motors, stepper motors, and servo motors.
2. Pneumatic Actuators: Pneumatic actuators convert compressed air into mechanical motion. Common
types include pneumatic cylinders and air muscles.
3. Hydraulic Actuators: These actuators use pressurized fluid, typically oil, to generate mechanical motion.

2
Draw the Block diagram of Motion control system.

Explain fully controlled converter-based DC drive.

Three phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control (6 pulse) fed separately excited dc motor drive is shown
in Fig.

Thyristors are fired in the sequence of their numbers with a phase difference of 60° by gate pulses of
120°duration.

Each thyristor conducts for 120, and two thyristors conduct at a time—one from upper group (odd
numbered thyristors) and the other from lower group respective line voltage to the motor.

Transfer of current from an outgoing to incoming thyristor can take place when the respective line
voltage is of such a polarity that not only if forward biases the incoming thyristor.

Thus, firing angle for a thyristor is measured from the instant when the respective line voltage is zero
and increasing.

If line voltage vAB is taken as the reference voltage, then

3
Draw a block diagram of an electric drive.

Power Source :
The power source in the above block diagram offers the necessary energy for the system. And both the converter
and the motor interfaces by the power source to provide changeable voltage, frequency and current to the motor.

Power Modulator:
This modulator can be used to control the o/p power of the supply. The power controlling of the motor can be
done in such a way that the electrical motor sends out the speed-torque feature which is necessary with the load.

Load:
The mechanical load can be decided by the environment of the industrial process & the power source can be
decided by an available source at the place.

Control Unit:
The control unit is mainly used to control the power modulator, and this modulator can operate at power levels as
well as small voltage. And it also works the power modulator as preferred.

Sensing Unit:
The sensing unit in the block diagram is used to sense the particular drive factor such as speed, motor current. This
unit is mainly used for the operation of closed loop otherwise protection.

Motor:
The electric motor intended for the specific application can be chvosen by believing various features such as price,
reaching the level of power & performance necessary by the load throughout the stable state as well as active
operations.

What is Back EMF ?

When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the armature conductors move
through the magnetic field and hence emf is induced in them as in a generator.
The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known as Back EMF or

4
Counter EMF:
The equation to find out back emf in a DC motor is given below,

The back emf Eb(= PΦZN/60 A) is always less than the applied voltage V, although this difference is small when
the motor is running under normal conditions.

Derive induced EMF equation of DC machines.

EMF equation of DC machines is a mathematical expression to calculate the EMF induced in a DC machine.
Derivation of EMF equation of DC machines

Consider a motor that has ‘P’ number of poles and a ‘Z’ number of conductors per pole spinning at a speed of ‘N’
radials per second.

If ‘φ’ is the flux produced in ‘webers’, according to Faraday’s law, the EMF induced per conductor is given by:

The above equation states that the induced EMF is directly proportional to the change in flux. The flux generated
by a DC is constant.

As the machine is spinning at ‘N’ rpm (radials per minute),

Therefore the EMF induced per conductor is given by:

The total EMF induced in the machine, if there are ‘Z’ number of conductors and ‘A’ number of parallel paths is:

The above is the EMF equation of DC machines.

5
Explain working of DC motor/machine
A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors that convert direct current electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
Working:

In the previous section, we discussed the various components of a DC motor. Now, using this knowledge let us

understand the working of DC motors.

A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is energised.

The created magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field enters the armature

from the North pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s South pole side.

Draw and describe the working of brushless DC motor.

o A brushless DC motor (also known as a BLDC motor or BL motor) is an electronically commuted DC
motor which does not have brushes.
o The controller provides pulses of current to the motor windings which control the speed and torque of
the synchronous motor.

o These types of motors are highly efficient in producing a large amount of torque over a vast speed range.
o In brushless motors, permanent magnets rotate around a fixed armature and overcome the problem of
connecting current to the armature. Commutation with electronics has a large scope of capabilities and
flexibility.
o Before explaining the working of a brushless DC motor, it is better to understand the function of a brushed
motor. In brushes motors, there are permanent magnets on the outside and a spinning armature which
contains electromagnet is inside.
o These electromagnets create a magnetic field in the armature when the power is switched on and help to
rotate the armature.

6
Explain motion control using Sensor-less Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous
and Brushless DC drive.
Sensor less control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs) and Brushless DC (BLDC) drives refers to
the operation of these motors without the need for position or speed sensors.

Sensorless Control of PMSMs:

1. Back EMF Detection: PMSMs generate a back EMF voltage as the rotor moves relative to the stator's

magnetic field.

2. Model-Based Methods: Model-based sensor less control techniques use mathematical models of the

motor's dynamics to predict the back EMF waveform based on the applied voltage and current.

3. Observer-Based Methods: Observer-based sensor less control algorithms use state observers, such as

Kalman filters or extended Kalman filters, to estimate the rotor position and speed based on

measurements of stator currents and voltages.

4. High-Frequency Injection: Some sensor less control methods inject high-frequency signals into the

motor windings and analyze the resulting variations in the back EMF waveform to determine rotor position

and speed.

Sensorless Control of BLDC Drives:

1. Back EMF Zero Crossing Detection: BLDC drives use Hall effect sensors or sensor less methods to

detect the zero crossings of the back EMF waveform.

2. Initial Position Detection: At startup, BLDC drives may use an initial position detection algorithm to

determine the rotor's position before commencing sensor less operation.

3. Closed-Loop Control: While sensor less control provides rotor position estimation, closed-loop control

techniques can further improve performance by adjusting the drive's control signals based on feedback

from the estimated rotor position.

7
Draw equivalent circuit of DC Machine.

Draw and solve the State space model of a DC Motor.

Give the EMF Equation of a DC Generator.

Derive state space modeling of DC machines.

1. State Equation:
x˙=Ax+Bu
where x is the state vector, u is the input vector, and ˙x˙ represents the derivative of the state vector.
2. Output Equation:
y=Cx+Du
where y is the output vector.

8
Write a note on flux density distribution of PMSM.
o The flux density distribution in a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is a critical aspect of its
design and performance.
o The magnetic flux density within the motor is not uniform and varies in different parts of the motor due
to its geometry and the magnetic properties of the materials used.

o In a PMSM, the magnetic flux is generated by the permanent magnets on the rotor and is guided through
the air gap, the stator teeth, and the stator yoke before completing the magnetic circuit.

o The distribution of flux density is influenced by the shape and size of the magnets, the geometry of the
stator, and the operating conditions of the motor.

Key Points on Flux Density Distribution in PMSM:

• Three-Dimensional Analysis: Traditional analyses of flux density in PMSMs are often based on a two-
dimensional plane.
• Steady State and Dynamic Conditions: The flux density distribution is analyzed both in the steady state
and during the motor’s rotation.

How is Permanent magnet synchronous machine different?

o A Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM) is a type of synchronous electric motor that operates
based on the principles of electromagnetism, similar to other synchronous machines like synchronous AC
motors and generators.
o However, PMSMs are distinguished by the use of permanent magnets embedded in the rotor to generate
the magnetic field instead of relying solely on electromagnets.

Here are some key differences between PMSMs and other types of synchronous machines:

1. Use of Permanent Magnets: The primary distinction of PMSMs is the incorporation of permanent
magnets in the rotor.
2. Elimination of Excitation System: Unlike synchronous motors and generators that require a separate
excitation system to produce the magnetic field in the rotor, PMSMs do not need such a system.
3. High Power Density and Efficiency: The use of permanent magnets in PMSMs results in higher power
density and efficiency compared to traditional synchronous machines.
4. Improved Dynamics and Response: PMSMs exhibit faster dynamic response and superior control
characteristics compared to induction motors and some other types of synchronous machines.
5. Reduced Size and Weight: Due to their higher power density and efficiency, PMSMs are typically
smaller and lighter than equivalent induction motors or synchronous machines with field windings.
6. Cost Considerations: While PMSMs offer numerous advantages in terms of performance and efficiency.

Classify in detail PM synchronous machines in detail on the basis of direction of field flux.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines (PMSMs) can be classified based on the direction of the field flux relative
to the rotor's axis.

This classification primarily distinguishes between two types of PMSMs:

1. Radial Flux Machines:

In radial flux machines, the magnetic flux flows radially, from the center of the rotor to the outer periphery or vice
versa.

9
Radial flux machines can further be classified into two subtypes:

a. Surface-Mounted Magnet Machines:

In surface-mounted magnet machines, permanent magnets are mounted on the surface of the rotor, facing the
stator.

b. Interior Permanent Magnet Machines (IPMs):

In interior permanent magnet machines, the permanent magnets are embedded within the rotor core, located
between the rotor's surface and its center.

2. Axial Flux Machines:

In axial flux machines, the magnetic flux flows axially, parallel to the rotor's axis of rotation.

Axial flux machines can be further classified into two subtypes:

a. Disc-Type Axial Flux Machines:

In disc-type axial flux machines, the rotor consists of a disc-shaped core with permanent magnets arranged along
its circumference.

b. Drum-Type Axial Flux Machines:

In drum-type axial flux machines, the rotor consists of a cylindrical core with permanent magnets arranged along
its length.

Explain in detail constant torque angle control in case of PMSM.

Constant torque angle control is a control strategy used in Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs) to
regulate the motor's torque output by controlling the angle between the stator current vector and the rotor flux
vector.

This control method is particularly effective for PMSMs operating in field-oriented control (FOC) mode, where the
stator currents are controlled in a rotating reference frame aligned with the rotor flux.

Principle of Constant Torque Angle Control:

1. Field-Oriented Control (FOC): In FOC, the stator currents id and iq are controlled in a rotating

reference frame (d-q reference frame) that rotates with the rotor flux vector.

2. Torque Production: The torque produced by the PMSM is proportional to the product of the rotor flux

magnitude, the d-axis component of the stator current (id), and the sine of the angle between the rotor
flux vector and the d-axis stator current vector (θr−θi). This angle is known as the torque angle (θt).

3. Constant Torque Angle Control: In constant torque angle control, the objective is to maintain a

constant torque angle (θt) under varying operating conditions.

10
Explain in detail construction and operation of DC Motor .
DC motor is a machine that converts electrical energy of direct current into mechanical energy. In a DC motor,
the input electrical energy is direct current which is converted into mechanical rotation.

DC Motor Diagram:

Construction of DC Motor:

1. Stator: The stator is the stationary part of the motor and consists of a frame made of magnetic material

such as steel.

2. Field Winding: The field winding is a coil of wire wound around the stator slots.

3. Rotor: The rotor is the rotating part of the motor and is located inside the stator.

4. Armature Winding: The armature winding is a coil of wire wound around the rotor's core.

5. Commutator: The commutator is a rotary electrical switch mounted on the rotor shaft.

6. Brushes: Brushes are conductive carbon blocks or strips that press against the commutator segments.

Operation of a DC Motor:

1. Principle of Operation: When a voltage is applied across the field winding and the armature winding,

current flows through these windings, producing magnetic fields.

2. Starting: Initially, when the motor is at rest, there is no back EMF (electromotive force) generated in the

armature winding.

3. Running: As the rotor begins to rotate, a back EMF is induced in the armature winding due to the

relative motion between the magnetic field of the rotor and the armature winding.

4. Speed Control: The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by varying the applied voltage (armature

voltage control) or by adjusting the armature current (field flux control).

List out components of a DC Motor.

o Stator
o Rotor
o Field Windings
o Armature Winding
o Commutator
o Brushes
o Brush Holders
o Bearings
o Shaft
o Housing
o Cooling System

11
What is four quadrant DC Motor Drive? Explain

o Four Quadrant Operation of any drives or DC Motor means that the machine operates in four quadrants.
They are Forward Braking, Forward motoring, Reverse motoring and Reverse braking.

o A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and Braking. A motor drive capable of operating in both

directions of rotation and of producing both motoring and regeneration is called a Four Quadrant variable

speed drive.
o In motoring mode, the machine works as a motor and converts the electrical energy into mechanical

energy, supporting its motion. In braking mode, the machine works as a generator and converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy and as a result, it opposes the motion.

o The Motor can work in both, forward and reverse directions, i.e., in motoring and braking operations.

Explain in detail closed loop speed control of DC Drives

12
 o Closed-loop speed control of DC drives is a control method used to regulate the speed of a DC motor by

continuously comparing the actual motor speed with a desired reference speed and adjusting the control

signals accordingly.
o This approach utilizes feedback from speed sensors to continuously monitor and adjust the motor's

operation, ensuring accurate and stable speed control.

o This system used an inner control loop within an outer speed loop. The inner control loop controls the

motor current and motor torque below a safe limit.

Components of Closed-Loop Speed Control System:

1. DC Motor: The motor being controlled, typically a DC motor, which converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy to drive a load.

2. Speed Sensor: A sensor that measures the actual speed of the motor shaft.

3. Controller: The central component of the closed-loop control system responsible for processing the

speed feedback signal and generating control signals to adjust the motor's speed.

4. Reference Speed Input: The desired speed setpoint or reference speed input provided by the user or

an external control system.

5. Control Algorithm: The control algorithm implemented in the controller calculates the control signals

based on the speed error and other parameters.

6. Power Electronic Converter: A power electronic converter, such as a pulse-width modulation (PWM)

converter or chopper, adjusts the voltage or current supplied to the motor based on the control signals

generated by the controller.

State the principle of DC Machine

The principle of a DC machine, whether it's a DC motor or a DC generator, is based on electromagnetic induction.
The fundamental principle underlying the operation of DC machines is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
and Fleming's right-hand rule.

Principle of DC Motor Operation:

1. Faraday's Law: When a conductor (such as a coil of wire) moves in a magnetic field, or when the

magnetic field around the conductor changes, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the conductor.

2. Fleming's Right-Hand Rule: Fleming's right-hand rule is used to determine the direction of the induced

current or EMF in a conductor moving in a magnetic field.

3. DC Motor Operation: In a DC motor, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.

Explain in detail current controlled PWM inverters

o Pulse Width Modulated inverters(PWM inverter) replaced the older versions of inverters and has a wide

range of applications.

o An inverter whose functionality depends upon the pulse width modulation technology is referred to as

PWM inverters.

13
Working Principle:

o An inverter designing involves various topologies of power circuits and the methods to control the voltage.
o The most concentrated part of the inverter is its waveform generated at the output.

o For the purpose of filtering the waveform inductors and the capacitors are used. In order to reduce the

harmonics from the output low pass filters are used.

o The pulses used for switching are modulated and regulated before it supplied to the connected load.

When there is no requirement for voltage control fixed width of the pulse is used .

PWM Inverter types:

1) Single Pulse Width Modulation

2) Multiple Pulse Width Modulation

3) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

4) Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

List different types of control strategies of PMSM.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs) are widely used in various applications, and several control strategies are
employed to regulate their speed, torque, and other performance parameters.

Here are some of the different types of control strategies used for PMSMs:

1. Field-Oriented Control (FOC):

• FOC, also known as vector control, is one of the most common and effective control strategies for PMSMs.
• It involves transforming the three-phase stator currents and voltages into a two-coordinate reference frame
aligned with the rotor flux vector.
• FOC allows for independent control of torque and flux, enabling precise control of motor performance.
2. Direct Torque Control (DTC):
• DTC is another popular control strategy for PMSMs that provides fast and robust torque control without the
need for coordinate transformations.
• In DTC, the stator flux and torque are directly controlled using hysteresis comparators to maintain them
within predefined bands.
3. Sensor less Control:
• Sensor less control strategies eliminate the need for speed or position sensors by estimating the rotor
position using algorithms based on the motor's electrical and mechanical characteristics.
• Sensor less control reduces system complexity and cost and enhances reliability but requires sophisticated
algorithms and may be less accurate at low speeds.
4. Direct Power Control (DPC):
• It provides fast and accurate control of power flow without the need for coordinate transformations, making
it suitable for grid-connected applications.

14
Explain single stack variable reluctance motor .
o The working principle of a single-stack variable reluctance (VR) stepper motor is based on the property of

the flux lines to occupy the low reluctance path.

o Therefore, in a variable reluctance stepper motor, the stator and rotor get aligned such that the magnetic

reluctance is minimum.

Construction of Single-Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor:

o A single-stack variable reluctance stepper motor consists of a salient pole stator.

o The stator has concentrated windings placed over the stator poles. The number of stator phases depends
upon the connection of stator coils.

o The rotor of the single-stack variable reluctance stepper motor is a slotted structure made up of

ferromagnetic material and carries no winding.

o In a single-stack variable reluctance stepper motor, both the stator and rotor are made up of high quality
magnetic materials having very high permeability so that the excitation current required by the motor is
very small.

Explain multi stack variable reluctance motor.

o A Multi Stack or m stack variable reluctance stepper motor is made up of m identical single stack variable
reluctance motor. The rotor is mounted on a single shaft.
o The stator and rotor of the Multi Stack Variable motor have the same number of poles and hence, the
same pole pitch.

o The stator windings of each stack form one phase as the stator pole windings are excited simultaneously.
Thus, the number of phases and the number of stacks are the same.

15
Draw & explain Construction and Principle of Operation of AC machines.
o AC Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, featuring a stator, and rotor, and it have
versatile applications due to their simplicity, reliability, and efficiency.
o AC motor has a wide range of applications ranging from a small electric device used in our homes to
the huge machines used in major factories and industries.

Construction of AC Motor:
o An AC motor, or alternating current motor, consists of a rotor and a stator. The stator contains coils
that carry alternating current, creating a magnetic field.
o As the current alternates, it induces rotation in the rotor, resulting in mechanical motion. This simple
yet effective design powers various devices like fans and pumps.
AC Motor Diagram:

Stator:
• The stator is the stationary part of the motor.
• It contains coils of wire that are connected to the power supply.
• When electricity flows through these coils, it creates a magnetic field.
Rotor:
• The rotor is the moving part of the motor, situated inside the stator.
• It is usually made of conductive material, like copper, and is free to rotate.
• As the magnetic field from the stator interacts with the rotor, it induces a rotational motion.
Motor Shaft:
• The motor shaft is a rod or spindle that extends from the rotor.
• When the rotor turns due to the magnetic interaction, the motor shaft also rotates.
• This rotational motion is what can be harnessed for various applications.
Bearings:
• Bearings are components that support and facilitate the smooth rotation of the motor shaft.
• They reduce friction between the shaft and the motor housing.
• Bearings contribute to the overall efficiency and durability of the motor.
Working principle of AC Motor:
• AC motors receive electric power from a source, typically an electrical outlet.
• The motor consists of two main parts: the stator and the rotor.
• Coils of wire in the stator carry an electric current, generating a magnetic field.
• The rotor, a rotating component made of conductive material, interacts with the stator’s magnetic
field.
• The interaction induces a turning force on the rotor, causing it to rotate around the motor shaft.
• The motor shaft, connected to the rotor, transfers the rotational motion generated by the rotor.
• This rotating motor shaft can be utilized for various tasks, depending on the application.
• Bearings support and facilitate smooth rotation, enhancing the motor’s efficiency and durability.
• An enclosure surrounds the motor, providing protection against external elements and ensuring
safety.
• AC motors are versatile and find application in devices like fans, pumps, and other machinery.

16
Explain Closed loop operation of Chopper circuit.
In a chopper circuit, closed-loop operation refers to the control mechanism that adjusts the duty cycle or chopping
frequency to regulate the output voltage or current.

Here's how it generally works:

1. Input Monitoring: The closed-loop system monitors the input parameters, such as voltage or current,

using sensors.

2. Comparison: The measured input parameter is compared with a reference value, which represents the

desired output.

3. Error Calculation: The controller calculates the error, which is the difference between the measured

input parameter and the reference value.

4. Control Action: Based on the error signal, the controller determines the necessary control action to

minimize the error. In a chopper circuit, this typically involves adjusting the duty cycle of the chopper or

the chopping frequency.

5. Feedback: As the chopper circuit adjusts its operation, the output parameter (voltage or current)

changes. This change is sensed by feedback sensors.

6. Verification: The actual output parameter is compared with the desired reference value to ensure that

the error is minimized.

7. Closed-loop Operation: This entire process continues in a closed-loop manner, with continuous

monitoring, comparison, and adjustment, to maintain the desired output parameter despite variations in
input conditions or load.

17
Draw & Explain Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit.
The equivalent circuit of any machine shows the various parameter of the machine such as its Ohmic losses and
also other losses.

The losses are modeled just by inductor and resistor. The copper losses are occurred in the windings so the
winding resistance is taken into account.

Also, the winding has inductance for which there is a voltage drop due to inductive reactance and also a term
called power factor comes into the picture.

Here, R1 is the winding resistance of the stator.

X1 is the inductance of the stator winding.

Rc is the core loss component.

XM is the magnetizing reactance of the winding.

R2/s is the power of the rotor, which includes output mechanical power and copper loss of rotor.

R2’ is the rotor winding resistance with referred to stator winding.

X2’ is the rotor winding inductance with referred to stator winding.

List out all methods of speed control of dc motor and explain any one in detail.
Here's a list of common methods:

1. Armature Voltage Control:

• Varied by using a variable resistor or semiconductor devices like silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs) to control the voltage applied to the motor's armature.
2. Field Flux Control:
• Adjusting the field winding's current, typically achieved by varying the resistance in series with
the field winding or using a separate field control winding.
3. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Control:
• Utilizing high-speed switching devices like MOSFETs or IGBTs to control the average voltage
applied to the motor by modulating the width of the pulse.
4. Chopper Control:
• Similar to PWM control, but with a DC chopper circuit that switches the supply voltage on and
off rapidly to control the effective voltage applied to the motor.
5. Series-Parallel Control:
• Changing the motor's connections from series to parallel, altering the effective voltage and
speed-torque characteristics.

18
 6. Ward-Leonard Control:
• Using a motor-generator set where the speed of the DC motor is controlled by varying the
generator's speed.
7. Cascade Control:
• Combination of armature voltage control and field flux control to achieve better performance
and efficiency.

Explanation of PWM Control:

PWM control is a widely used method for speed control due to its efficiency and precise control capabilities.

Pulse Generation: A control circuit generates high-frequency pulses with variable widths. The width of these pulses
determines the average voltage applied to the motor.

Modulation: The width of the pulses is modulated based on the desired speed. A higher average voltage results
in a higher speed, while a lower average voltage leads to a lower speed.

Power Stage: The modulated pulses are fed to a power stage consisting of switching devices like MOSFETs or
IGBTs. These devices rapidly switch the supply voltage on and off according to the pulse width.

Motor Response: The motor responds to the effective voltage produced by the PWM signal.

Brief about microprocessor-based stepper motor speed control.

• The motor is controlled by ON/OFF the control winding.

• The popular stepper motor used for demonstration in laboratories has a step size of 1.8° (i.e.,

200 steps per revolution).

• This motor consists of four stator winding and require four switching sequence as shown.

• The basic step size of the motor is called the full step.

• By altering the switching sequence, the motor can be made to run with the incremental motion of half the full-
step value.

• Using INTEL 8279, a keyboard and six 7-segment LED displays have been interfaced in the system. Through
the keyboard, the operator can issue commands to control the system. The LED display has been provided to display
messages to the operator.

19
Write Principle of operation of the Chopper & Explain four quadrant operation of
chopper circuit.
The principle of operation of a chopper involves the conversion of a fixed DC voltage into a variable DC voltage by
controlling the average value of the output voltage through the periodic switching of a semiconductor device such
as a thyristor, transistor, or MOSFET.

Principles:

1. Switching Action: The chopper circuit consists of a semiconductor switch connected in series with the load and
the DC source. This switch rapidly alternates between on and off states.

2. Control Mechanism: By controlling the on and off times of the switch, the average output voltage can be
controlled.

3. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): To achieve variable output voltage, the chopper operates using pulse width
modulation (PWM).

4. Inductor/Capacitor Filtering: Depending on the chopper topology, an inductor or capacitor may be used to
filter the output voltage, smoothing out the pulsating DC waveform produced by the switching action.

Four Quadrant Operation of Chopper Circuit:

The four-quadrant operation of a chopper circuit refers to its ability to control both the direction and magnitude
of power flow between a source and a load in all four quadrants of the voltage-current plane.

Here's an explanation of each quadrant:

1. First Quadrant (Forward Motoring): In this quadrant, both the input voltage and current are positive.

2. Second Quadrant (Reverse Motoring): Here, the input voltage is positive, but the load current is negative,
indicating power flow from the load back to the source.

3. Third Quadrant (Forward Regenerative Braking): In this quadrant, both the input voltage and load current
are negative.

4. Fourth Quadrant (Reverse Regenerative Braking): Here, the input voltage is negative, but the load current is
positive.

20
Differentiate absolute versus incremental Encoder.

Explain Frequency Controlled Induction Motor drives.

Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive – Synchronous speed, therefore, the motor speed can be
controlled by varying supply frequency.

Voltage induced in stator is proportional to the product of supply frequency and air-gap flux. If stator drop is
neglected, terminal voltage can be considered proportional to the product of frequency and flux.

Any reduction in the supply frequency, without a change in the terminal voltage, causes an increase in the air-gap
flux.

Induction motors are designed to operate at the knee point of the magnetization characteristic to make full use of
the magnetic material. Therefore, the increase in flux will saturate the motor.

21
The Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive provides good running and transient performance
because of the following features:

1. Speed control and braking operation are available from zero speed to above base speed.
2. During transients (starting, braking and speed reversal) the operation can be carried out at the
maximum torque with reduced current giving good dynamic response.
3. Copper losses are low, and efficiency and power factor are high as the operation is restricted
between synchronous speed and maximum torque point at all frequencies.
4. Drop in speed from no load to full load is small.

What is modulation? List out types of modulation.

Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the
carrier signal, in accordance with an information signal, known as the modulating signal.

The modulating signal contains the information to be transmitted, while the carrier signal serves
as the vehicle to convey this information over a communication channel.

Modulation techniques are essential in various communication systems to transmit information

efficiently and reliably.

Here's an overview of modulation and some common types:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase Modulation (PM)
4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
5. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
6. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Explain Control of Induction Motor by AC Voltage Controllers.

• Controlling induction motors using AC voltage controllers involves varying the voltage supplied to the
motor to control its speed and torque.
• AC voltage controllers achieve this by adjusting the firing angle of power electronic switches, typically
thyristors or silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs), in the circuit.

• AC voltage controllers are essentially phase-controlled rectifiers. They convert the fixed AC supply
voltage into a variable DC voltage by controlling the conduction angle of the thyristors.
• By varying the firing angle of the thyristors, the average voltage supplied to the motor can be controlled,
thus controlling the speed and torque of the motor.

22
Describe importance of Pulse width modulation in context of motion control.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a crucial technique in motion control systems due to its ability to efficiently
regulate motor speed and torque while minimizing power losses.

1. Efficient Power Utilization:

• PWM allows for precise control of the average voltage applied to the motor by modulating the
width of voltage pulses.
2. Reduced Heat Generation:
• Traditional methods of speed control, such as resistive voltage control, result in significant power
losses and heat generation.
3. High Torque at Low Speeds:
• PWM control enables motors to generate high torque at low speeds, which is essential for
applications requiring precise motion control, such as robotics, CNC machines, and automated
manufacturing systems.
4. Wide Range of Applications:
• PWM is widely used in various motion control applications across industries, including robotics,
industrial automation, automotive systems, aerospace, renewable energy, and consumer
electronics.

List the stepper motor applications. Explain anyone.

1. 3D Printing: Stepper motors are commonly used in 3D printers to control the movement of the print

head, build platform, and other moving parts with high precision.

2. CNC Machines: Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines use stepper motors to drive the motion

of the cutting tool or workpiece along multiple axes (e.g., X, Y, and Z axes).

3. Textile Machinery: Stepper motors are employed in textile machinery for controlling the movement of

yarn feeders, fabric tensioning systems, and other components.

4. Automated Packaging Systems: Stepper motors drive conveyor belts, robotic arms, and packaging

machinery in automated packaging systems.

Example: 3D Printing Application

o In 3D printing, stepper motors are essential for controlling the movement of the print head, build platform,

and other mechanical components of the printer.

o The stepper motors precisely position the print head along the X, Y, and Z axes, allowing for the accurate

deposition of material layer by layer to create three-dimensional objects.

o Stepper motors enable the printer to achieve high-resolution prints with fine details and intricate

geometries.
o The precise control provided by the stepper motors ensures that each layer of material is deposited with

accuracy, resulting in high-quality prints with minimal defects.

23
List out the selection criteria for stepper motor.
1. Torque Requirement: Determine the amount of torque needed for your application, both holding
torque and operating torque.
2. Speed Requirement: Consider the maximum speed requirement of your application. Stepper motors
have a maximum speed at which they can operate effectively.
3. Physical Size: Ensure the motor physically fits within your design constraints.
4. Voltage and Current Ratings: Match the motor's voltage and current ratings to your drive system.
5. Resolution and Accuracy: Determine the resolution and accuracy required for your application.
6. Driver Selection: Select a suitable stepper motor driver capable of delivering the required current and
voltage to the motor.
7. Noise and Vibrations: Consider the level of noise and vibrations generated by the motor, especially if
your application requires quiet operation.

Brief about Constant Volts/Hz Control of AC drives.

Constant Volts/Hz Control, also known as V/Hz Control, is a method used in AC drives to regulate the speed of AC
motors. This control technique maintains a constant magnetic field strength within the motor by keeping a stable
ratio between the voltage (V) and frequency (Hz) supplied to the motor.

Here’s a brief explanation:

• AC Motor Design: AC motors are designed to operate with a magnetic field of constant strength. The
strength of this magnetic field is proportional to the V/Hz ratio.
• Varying Frequency: When the frequency of the supplied voltage is varied, it affects both the motor speed
and the magnetic field strength.
• Maintaining V/Hz Ratio: To prevent these issues and ensure stable torque production, the V/Hz control
method varies the voltage in proportion to the frequency to maintain a constant V/Hz ratio.
• Motor’s Rated Voltage and Frequency: The appropriate V/Hz ratio is determined by the motor’s rated
voltage and frequency. For example, a motor rated at 230 V and 60 Hz would have a V/Hz ratio of 3.83
(230/60).

Explain Induction motor Speed control using adjustable frequency PWM inverters.

Speed control of induction motors using adjustable frequency PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) inverters is a widely
used method for achieving variable speed drives.

24
Here’s a simplified explanation:

PWM Inverters: PWM inverters are electronic devices that convert a DC power supply into an AC power supply
with adjustable frequency and voltage. The frequency and voltage can be varied to control the speed of an induction
motor.

Induction Motor Speed Control: The speed of an induction motor is determined by the frequency of the AC
power supply, according to the formula:

where ( N_s ) is the synchronous speed, ( f ) is the supply frequency, and ( P ) is the number of poles of the motor.

Adjustable Frequency: By using a PWM inverter, we can adjust the frequency of the power supply to the motor.
Increasing the frequency increases the motor speed, and decreasing the frequency reduces the motor speed.

25