2.

TO STUDY THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A DICOT STEM

Introduction

• A typical example of a dicot stem is a sunflower

• The outline of the stem in the transverse section is circular with a hairy surface

• The transverse section depicts the arrangement of different tissues in a particular way from the
exterior to the center as listed below:

1. Epidermis
• It is the outermost covering of the stem and is single layered
• The cells are living cells that are densely arranged having a thin wall, enclosed in a cuticle
• It displays multicellular hair
• Function – It provides protection Cortex
• Located just under the epidermis
• It consists of the following regions – Hypodermis, Endodermis, General cortex
(a) Hypodermis –
It is situated just below the epidermis and consists of 4 to 5 layers of collenchymatous
cells. These are cells that have the cellulose deposits at the edges and are living cells. It
may possess chloroplast and hence carry out photosynthesis. Function: It renders
mechanical support
(b) General Cortex (Parenchyma)
Located just under the hypodermis, it consists of several layers of cells that are living
having thin walls along with intercellular spaces. It may contain chloroplast and hence
become photosynthetic. Several mucilaginous canals can also be observed. Function: Food
storage Endodermis – Forms the interior most covering of the cortex consisting of a singular
row of cells that are densely arranged and barrel-shaped with no intercellular spaces. They
are composed of starch grains. In tissue, it forms the central core having a vascular
bundle.
It comprises of – pericycle, vascular bundles, medullary rays, and pith.
(a) Pericycle
• Located between the vascular bundles and endodermis
• Has recurrent patches of parenchyma and sclerenchyma • Each schlerenchyma patch
is linked with hard-blast
(b) Medullary rays
• It is located in gaps between the vascular bundles. This gap finds parenchymatous
cells that are thinly walled and arranged radially in 4-5 rows.
• Helps in the storage of food material and in the lateral conduction of water and
food

( C ) Vascular Bundles

• They are open, collateral and conjoint and are set up in a ring-like manner
• Each of the vascular bundle comprises of- xylem, phloem, cambium
 • Phloem is located below the pericycle towards the exterior side. It consists of thin
cell walls possessing companion cells, sieve tube and phloem parenchyma and conducts
food material
• Xylem is found in the interior of the vascular bundle, i.e., smaller protoxylem towards
the center and larger metaxylem towards the periphery. Therefore, xylem is endarch.
These cells are dead and lignified. Xylem conducts minerals and water
• Cambium is present between phloem and xylem. The cells are rectangular and have
thin cell walls. It consists of meristematic tissues that generate new cells

( D) Pith

• It forms the mid-region of the stem. It arises under the vascular bundle up till the
center and consists of large parenchymatous cells.

Q No:02
Answer.
TO STUDY THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MONOCOT STEM, MAIZE STEM
Introduction
• The maize plant is a monocot plant
• The transverse section is circular having a smooth surface • The ground tissue consists
of many scattered vascular bundles
• From the periphery to the centre, the transverse section displays the structure of
different tissues in a particular manner as follows:
1. Epidermis
• An outermost, single layer
• Thin-walled cells that are living. Presence of thick cuticle towards the outermost
surface
• The rare occurrence of stomata.
• Lack of epidermal hair • Function – Protection of internal tissue
2. Hypodermis
• Present under the epidermis
• Consists of the thick-walled dead layer of sclerenchymatous cells. Made up of two
of these three layers
3. Ground Tissue
• Found below the hypodermis
• Consists of thin-walled living cells, parenchymatous cells • Loose arrangement of
cells with the presence of intercellular spaces
• As seen in the dicotyledonous stem, there is no differentiation of cortex, pericycle and
the endodermis
4. Vascular bundles
• Several scattered vascular bundles found in the ground tissue and are closed type,
collateral and conjoint
• At the periphery, the vascular bundles are more and densely arranged when
compared to the center
• Large vascular bundles in the center compared to vascular bundles at the periphery
• They resemble an oval shape that is girdled by sclerenchymatous bundle sheath
• It consists of the xylem and the phloem
(a) Xylem
• Y-shaped
• Metaxylemis present at the two lateral arms. Protoxylem is present at the base
• The lower protoxylem particles form a cavity known as lysogenic cavity
• Function: Conducts water
(b) Phloem
• Present at the periphery and consists of living cells
• It comprises of companion cells, sieve tubes, and the phloem parenchyma
• Function – Conducts food material .

TO STUDY OF THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MONOCOT ROOT, MAIZE ROOT

Introduction
The transverse section of monocot root depicts the structures as listed below:
1. Epiblema or Epidermis
• It is a single outermost layer with no cuticle
• Densely arranged cells
• Few cells may see unicellular root hair emerging
2. Cortex
• Found below epidermis
• It is broad consisting of multiple layers of parenchyma cells
3. Endodermis
• The innermost layer of the cortex
• Barrel-shaped cells arranged in a ring-like manner • Presence of Casparian
bands
4. Pericycle
• Found below the endodermis and is a single layer of parenchymatous cells
5. Vascular bundles
• There are 8 or more alternating bundles of phloem and xylem known as
radial bundles
• Xylem bundles are exarch
• Xylem bundles are oval or rounded
• Phloem is found under the pericycle and comprises of companion cells, sieve
tube, parenchyma
6. Conjunctive tissue
• It is the xylem and phloem bundles that are distinguished from each other
by the parenchyma tissue
7. Pith
• Well-developed pith is observed
• It comprises of the parenchyma in the mid.

Q NO:03
Answer.

ROSACEAE (Rose Family) :

Diagnostic Characters Size: 115 genera,1500species

1. Habit: Perennial; herbs, shrubs, and trees. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
2.Roots: Fibrous taproot and fibrous adventitious roots.
3.Stem: Herbaceous or woody; the stem is covered with prickles.
4. Leaves: Petiolate; alternate; simple or compound (pinnate type):
Stipulate (adnate)
5. Inflorescence: Racemose or mostly cymose, some are solitary.
6. Flower: Pedicillate; bracteate: actinomorphic; Regular; complete;
hermaphrodite; perigynous. Sometimes epigenous.
7.Calyx: 5 or 4 sepals: free. Sometimes, epicalyx of bracteoles is present .
8.Corolla: 5 or multiple of 5 petals; free; imbricate.
9.Stamens: numerous stamens; lice, sometimes united by their filaments;
versatile.
10.Carpel: I to numerous carpels; pocarpotis or syncarpous; placentation
basal or axile.
11. Fruits: Drupe. Pome or an etaerio of drupes or achenes of follicles .
12. Seed: Non-endospermic seed 52

Important Plants of Family:

Rosa indica (rose) Pyruscummunis(nashpati) Malusdomestica (apple)
Prunusdulchis(badaam) Eriobotrya japonica (lookat) Fragariavesca (strawberry)
Floral formula and Floral Diagram of Rosa indica .

LAMIACEAE (Mint family)

Diagnostic Characters Size: 200 genera and 3000 species

1. Habit: Annual herbs or rarely shrubs. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
2. Roots: Taproot
3. Stem: Herbaceous; quadrangular; glandular hairs are present.
4. Leaves: Petiolate; opposite and decussate; simple; exstipulexstipulat
5. Inflorescence: Verticillaster (opposite axillary cymes)
6. Flower: Pedicillate; ebracteate; zygomorphic; complete; hermaphrodite;
hypogynous;
7. Calyx: 4 or 5 sepals;
8. fused: tubular of funnel-shaped, sometimes two-lipped or bilabiate.
9. Corolla: 4 or 5 petals; gamopetalous; forms two lips (bilabiate), upper lip
has two notches and lower lips have three notches.
10. Stamens:.4 stamens; didynamous; epipetalous; basifixed.
11. Carpel: Bicarpellary; syncarpous; ovary superior; tetralocula due to
formation of the false septum;placentatinotch.
12. Fruits: Carcerulus with persistent calyx.
13. Seed: Non-endospermic. Important Species of the
14. Family: Lavendulavera (Lavender) Menthaarvensis (menthol) Menthapiperita
(peppermint) Menthaspicata (spearmint) Thymus vulgaris (thyme)
Origanumvulgare (oregano) .

Q NO:04
Answer:

Some major Steps for the preservation of specimens for scientific study
are as follows:
1. Euthanizing. Specimens should be euthanized in a way that will leave
them undamaged and relaxed.
2. Injection and slitting. Liquid preservatives must be introduced into the
body cavity, limbs, and tail, either by hypodermic injection or through
slits.
3. Fixing. While the specimens are still relaxed, they should be arranged
in trays so that they will harden in the proper position.
4. Labeling. Each specimen should be accompanied by certain data,
either attached directly or entered in a notebook with a number
corresponding to a numbered tag tied to the specimen.
5. Storage. After specimens have been fixed in the proper position,
they should be stored in liquid preservative for at least several days,
after which they may be allowed to remain in the liquid, or
transferred to plastic bags for temporary storage.

Animals Preserving Techniques

Most invertebrates except those listed below:
• Kill and preserve in jars of 10% formalin solution or 70% alcohol
(ethyl orisopropyl; make label with India ink and place inside jar
Most insects except butterflies, moths and dragonflies
• Kill in killing jar or freezer; pin properly; allow to dry; label should
be nolarger than 1”x1/2” and placed on pin below insect

Butterflies, moths and dragonflies

• Kill in killing jar or freezer; pin and arrange wings on spreading
board orpiece of styrofoam; allow to dry; label should be no larger
than 1”x1/2”and placed on pin below insect

Vertebrates except for birds and mammals (e.g.: Fish, Frogs,

Salamanders, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles)
• Kill in freezer; fix and preserve in jar of 10% formalin solution; use
syringe to inject formalin solution into the body cavity in several
places; make label with India ink and place inside jar

Birds and Mammals:

• Hunt following all applicable state and federal laws; prepare a
“studyskin” using the techniques outlined in the ‘ZACT’ manual
mentioned above; a label no larger than 1”x3”is attached by string
to rear leg.

Animals collected dead but in good condition: Most invertebrates and

lower vertebrates:

• Preserve in jars of 10% formalin solution or 70% alcohol; label as

above
Insects:
• If they are freshly dead, use above procedures; if they are long
dead anddried out you will need to place them in a “relaxing
chamber” to softenthem up so they can be pinned and arranged;
label as above

Birds and Mammals:

• “roadkills” in good condition can be skinned and study skins
prepared asabove

Skull or Skeletal mounts:

• The flesh can be removed by several means such as boiling,
staking nearfireant hill or using dermestid beetles; once bones are
defleshed they canbe placed in a bleach or hydrogen peroxide solution
to whiten; allow todry; place in bag or box with a complete label
tied to skull if possible Nests, Feathers, Eggs, Racks, shells, feathers:
Clean up as much as possible and place in bag or box with complete
label

Footprints and Burrows:

• Use plaster of Paris to pour into print, allow to set then remove
and cleanoff; place in bag or box with a label .