UNIT – II

Software Project Management Renaissance

Conventional Software Management, Evolution of Software Economics, Improving Software Economics,
The old way and the new way.
Life-Cycle Phases and Process artifacts
Engineering and Production stages, inception phase, elaboration phase, construction phase, transition
phase, artifact sets, management artifacts, engineering artifacts and pragmatic artifacts, model based
software architectures

Part –I Software Project Management Renaissance

Conventional Software Management

1. The best thing about software is its flexibility:
- It can be programmed to do almost anything.
2. The worst thing about software is its flexibility:
- The “almost anything” characteristic has made it difficult to plan, monitor, and
control software
development.
3. In the mid-1990s, three important analyses were performed on the software engineering industry.
All three analyses given the same general conclusion:-
“The success rate for software
projects is very low”. They Summarized as follows:
1. Software development is still highly unpredictable. Only 10% of software projects are delivered
successfully within initial budget and scheduled time.
2. Management discipline is more differentiator in success or failure than are technology advances.
3. The level of software scrap and rework is indicative of an immature process.
Software management process framework:
WATERFALLL MODEL
1. It is the baseline process for most conventional software projects have used.
2. We can examine this model in two ways:
IN THEORY
IN PRACTICE
IN THEORY:-
In 1970, Winston Royce presented a paper called “Managing the
Development of Large Scale Software Systems” at IEEE WESCON.
Where he made three primary points:
1. There are two essential steps common to the development of computer programs:
- analysis

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 - coding

2. In order to mange and control all of the intellectual freedom associated with software
development one should follow the following steps:

- System requirements definition

- Software requirements definition
- Program design and testing

These steps addition to the analysis and coding steps

3. Since the testing phase is at the end of the development cycle in the waterfall model, it may be risky and
invites failure.
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 So we need to do either the requirements must be modified or a substantial design changes is warranted by
breaking the software in to different pieces.

-There are five improvements to the basic waterfall model that would eliminate most of the development risks
are as follows:
a) Complete program design before analysis and coding begin (program design comes first):-
- By this technique, the program designer give surety that the software will not fail because of storage, timing, and
data fluctuations.
- Begin the design process with program designer, not the analyst or programmers.
- Write an overview document that is understandable, informative, and current so that every worker on the project
can gain an elemental understanding of the system.
b) Maintain current and complete documentation (Document the design):-
-It is necessary to provide a lot of documentation on most software programs.

- Due to this, helps to support later modifications by a separate test team, a separate maintenance team, and
operations personnel who are not software literate.
c) Do the job twice, if possible (Do it twice):-
- If a computer program is developed for the first time, arrange matters so that the version finally delivered
to the customer for operational deployment is actually the second version insofar as critical design/operations are
concerned.
- “Do it N times” approach is the principle of modern-day iterative development.
d) Plan, control, and monitor testing:-
- The biggest user of project resources is the test phase. This is the phase of greatest risk in terms of cost and
schedule.
- In order to carryout proper testing the following things to be done:
i) Employ a team of test specialists who were not responsible for the original design.
ii) Employ visual inspections to spot the obvious errors like dropped minus signs, missing factors of
two, jumps to wrong addresses.
iii) Test every logic phase.
iv) Employ the final checkout on the target computer.
e) Involve the customer:-
- It is important to involve the customer in a formal way so that he has committed himself at earlier points
before final delivery by conducting some reviews such as,
i) Preliminary software review during preliminary program design step.
ii) Critical software review during program design.
iii) Final software acceptance review following testing.
IN PRACTICE:-
- Whatever the advices that are given by the software developers and the theory behind the waterfall model, some
software projects still practice the conventional software management approach.
Projects intended for trouble frequently exhibit the following symptoms:
i) Protracted (delayed) integration
- In the conventional model, the entire system was designed on paper, then implemented all at once,
then integrated. Only at the end of this process was it possible to perform system testing to verify that the

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 fundamental architecture was sound.

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 ii) Late Risk Resolution
- A serious issues associated with the waterfall life cycle was the lack of early risk resolution.
The risk profile of a waterfall model is,

- It includes four distinct periods of risk exposure, where risk is defined as “the probability of missing a cost,
schedule, feature, or quality goal”.

iii) Requirements-Driven Functional Decomposition

-Traditionally, the software development process has been requirement-driven: An attempt is made to provide a
precise requirements definition and then to implement exactly those requirements.
-This approach depends on specifying requirements completely and clearly before other development activities
begin.
- It frankly treats all requirements as equally important.
- Specification of requirements is a difficult and important part of the software development
process. iv) Adversarial Stakeholder Relationships
The following sequence of events was typical for most contractual software efforts:
- The contractor prepared a draft contact-deliverable document that captured an intermediate artifact and delivered
it to the customer for approval.
- The customer was expected to provide comments (within 15 to 30 days)
- The contractor integrated these comments and submitted a final version for approval (within 15 to 30 days)

Project Stakeholders :

 Stakeholders are the people involved in or affected by project activities

 Stakeholders include
 the project sponsor and project team
 support staff
 customers
 users
 suppliers
 opponents to the project

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 v) Focus on Documents and Review Meetings
- The conventional process focused on various documents that attempted to describe the software product.
- Contractors produce literally tons of paper to meet milestones and demonstrate progress to stakeholders, rather
than spend their energy on tasks that would reduce risk and produce quality software.
- Most design reviews resulted in low engineering and high cost in terms of the effort and schedule involved in
their preparation and conduct.

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 Barry Boehm‟s Top 10 “Industrial Software Metrics”:

1) Finding and fixing a software problem after delivery costs 100 times more than finding and fixing
the problem in early design phases.
2) You can compress software development schedules 25% of nominal (small), but no more.

3) For every $1 you spend on development, you will spend $2 on maintenance.

4) Software development and maintenance costs are primarily a function of the number of source lines
of code.
5) Variations among people account for the biggest difference in software productivity.

6) The overall ratio of software to hardware costs is still growing. In 1955 it was 15:85; in 1985, 85:15.

7) Only about 15% of software development effort is devoted to programming.

8) Software systems and products typically cost 3 times as much per SLOC as individual software
programs. Software-system products cost 9 times as much.
9) Walkthroughs catch 60% of the errors.

10) 80% of the contribution comes from 20% of the contributors.

- 80% of the engineering is consumed by 20% of the requirements.

- 80% of the software cost is consumed by 20% of the components.

- 80% of the errors are caused by 20% of the components.

- 80% of the software scrap and rework is caused by 20% of the errors.

- 80% of the resources are consumed by 20% of the components.

- 80% of the engineering is accomplished by 20% of the tools.

- 80% of the progress is made by 20% of the people.

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 Evolution of Software Economics

Project Sizes :

• Size as team strength could be :

– Trivial (Minor) Size: 1 person

– Small Size: 5 people
– Moderate Size: 25 people
– Large Size: 125 people
– Huge Size: 625 people

• The more the size, the greater are the costs of management overhead, communication,
synchronizations among various projects or modules, etc.
Reduce Software Size:

The less software we write, the better it is for project management and for product quality
- The cost of software is not just in the cost of „coding‟ alone; it is also in
Analysis of requirements
– Design
– Review of requirements, design and code
– Test Planning and preparation
– Testing
– Bug fix
– Regression testing
– „Coding‟ takes around 15% of development cost
- Clearly, if we reduce 15 hrs of coding, we can directly reduce 100 hrs of development effort, and
also reduce the project team size appropriately !
Size reduction is defined in terms of human-generated source code.
Most often, this might still mean that the computer-generated executable code is at least the same or even more

- Software Size could be reduced by

– Software Re-use
– Use of COTS (Commercial Off-The Shelf Software)
– Programming Languages

PRAGMATIC SOFTWARE ESTIMATION:

- If there is no proper well-documented case studies then it is difficult to estimate the cost of the

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 software. It is one of the critical problem in software cost estimation.

- But the cost model vendors claim that their tools are well suitable for estimating

- iterative development projects.

- In order to estimate the cost of a project the following three topics should be considered,

1) Which cost estimation model to use.

2) Whether to measure software size in SLOC or function point.

3) What constitutes a good estimate.

- There are a lot of software cost estimation models are available such as, COCOMO,

CHECKPOINT, ESTIMACS, Knowledge Plan, Price-S,

ProQMS, SEER, SLIM, SOFTCOST, and SPQR/20.

- Of which COCOMO is one of the most open and well-documented cost estimation models

- The software size can be measured by using

1) SLOC 2) Function points

- Most software experts argued that the SLOC is a poor measure of size. But it has some value in the
software Industry.

- SLOC worked well in applications that were custom built why because of easy to automate and
instrument.
- Now a days there are so many automatic source code generators are available and there are so
many advanced higher-level languages are available. So SLOC is a uncertain measure.
- The main advantage of function points is that this method is independent of the technology and is
therefore a much better primitive unit for comparisons among projects and organizations.

- The main disadvantage of function points is that the primitive definitions are abstract and
measurements are not easily derived directly from the evolving artifacts.
- Function points is more accurate estimator in the early phases of a project life cycle. In later
phases, SLOC becomes a more useful and precise measurement basis of various metrics perspectives.

- The most real-world use of cost models is bottom-up rather than top-down.

- The software project manager defines the target cost of the software, then manipulates the parameters and
sizing until the target cost can be justified.

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 Improving Software Economics

- It is not that much easy to improve the software economics but also difficult to measure and
validate.
- There are many aspects are there in order to improve the software economics they are, Size,
Process, Personnel, Environment and quality.

- These parameters (aspects) are not independent they are dependent. For example, tools enable size
reduction and process improvements, size- reduction approaches lead to process changes, and
process improvements drive tool requirements.
- GUI technology is a good example of tools enabling a new and different process. GUI builder tools
permitted engineering teams to construct an executable user interface faster and less cost.
- Two decades ago, teams developing a user interface would spend extensive time analyzing factors,
screen layout, and screen dynamics. All this would done on paper. Where as by using GUI, the
paper descriptions are not necessary.
Along with these five basic parameters another important factor that has influenced software
technology improvements across the board is the ever- increasing advances in hardware Performance.

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 REDUCING SOFTWARE PRODUCT SIZE:

- By choosing the type of the language

- By using Object-Oriented methods and visual modeling

- By reusing the existing components and building reusable components &

By using commercial components,we can reduce the product size of a software.

OBJECT ORIENTED METHODS AND VISUAL MODELING:

- There has been a widespread movements in the 1990s toward Object- Oriented
technology.
- Some studies concluded that Object-Oriented programming languages appear to benefit both software
productivity and software quality. One of such Object-Oriented method is UML-Unified Modeling Language.

Booch described the following three reasons for the success of the projects that are using Object-
Oriented concepts:
1) An OO-model of the problem and its solution encourages a common vocabulary between the
end user of a system and its developers, thus creating a shared understanding of the problem being
solved.
2) The use of continuous integration creates opportunities to recognize risk early and make
incremental corrections without weaken the entire development effort.
3) An OO-architecture provides a clear separation among different elements of a system, crating
firewalls that prevent a change in one part of the system from the entire architecture.

He also suggested five characteristics of a successful OO-Project,

1) A cruel focus on the development of a system that provides a well understood collection
of essential minimal characteristics.
2) The existence of a culture that is centered on results, encourages
communication, and yet is not afraid to fail.
3) The effective use of OO-modeling.

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 4) The existence of a strong architectural vision.

5) The application of a well-managed iterative and incremental development life cycle.

REUSE:

Organizations that translates reusable components into commercial

products has the following characteristics:
- They have an economic motivation for continued support.

- They take ownership of improving product quality, adding new features and
transitioning to new technologies.
- They have a sufficiently broad customer base to be profitable.

COMMERCIAL COMPONENTS

It is an Organization‟s policies, procedures, and practices for pursuing

a software-intensive line of business.

The focus of this process is of organizational economics, long-term strategies, and a software ROI.
- Macro process:

A project‟s policies, and practices for producing a complete software

product within certain cost, schedule, and quality constraints.

The focus of the macroprocess is on creating an sufficient instance of the

metaprocess for a specific set of constraints.

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 - Micro process:

A projects team‟s policies, procedures, and practices for achieving

an artifact of a software process.

The focus of the microprocess is on achieving an intermediate product baseline with sufficient
functionality as economically and rapidly as practical.
The objective of process improvement is to maximize the allocation of resources to productive
activities and minimize the impact of overhead activities on resources such as personnel, computers, and
schedule.

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 IMPROVING TEAM EFFECTIVENESS:

- COCOMO model suggests that the combined effects of personnel skill and experience can have an
impact on productivity as much as a factor of four over the unskilled personnel.

- Balance and coverage are two of the most important features of excellent teams. Whenever a
team is in out of balance then it is vulnerable.

- It is the responsibility of the project manager to keep track of his teams. Since teamwork is much more
important than the sum of the individuals.
Boehm – staffing principles:

- The principle of top talent: Use better and fewer people.

- The principle of job matching: Fit the tasks to the skills and motivation of the people available.
- The principle of career progression: An organization does best in the long run by
helping its people to self-actualize.

4) The principle of team balance: Select people who will complement and synchronize with
one another.
5) The principle of phase-out: Keeping a misfit on the team doesn‟t benefit anyone.

In general, staffing is achieved by these common methods:

– If people are already available with required skill set, just take them

– If people are already available but do not have the required skills, re-train them

– If people are not available, recruit trained people

– If you are not able to recruit skilled people, recruit and train people

Staffing of key personnel is very important:

- Project Manager

- Software Architect

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 Important Project Manager Skills:

Hiring skills. Few decisions are as important as hiring decisions. Placing the right person in the right
job seems obvious but is surprisingly hard to achieve.
Customer-interface skill. Avoiding adversarial relationships among stake- holders is a prerequisite
for success.
Decision-making skill. The jillion books written about management have failed to provide a
clear definition of this attribute. We all know a good leader when we run into one, and decision-
making skill seems obvious despite its intangible definition.
Team-building skill. Teamwork requires that a manager establish trust, motivate progress, exploit
eccentric prima donnas, transition average people into top performers, eliminate misfits, and
consolidate diverse opinions into a team direction.
Selling skill. Successful project managers must sell all stakeholders (including themselves) on decisions
and priorities, sell candidates on job positions, sell changes to the status quo in the face of resistance, and
sell achievements against objectives. In practice, selling requires continuous negotiation, compromise,
and empathy.

Important Software Architect Skills:

• Technical Skills: the most important skills for an architect. These must include skills in both, the
problem domain and the solution domain
• People Management Skills: must ensure that all people understand and implement the architecture
in exactly the way he has conceptualized it. This calls for a lot of people management skills and
patience.
• Role Model: must be a role model for the software engineers – they would emulate all good (and
also all bad !) things that the architect does
IMPROVING AUTOMATION THROUGH SOFTWARE
ENVIRONMENTS

The following are the some of the configuration management environments which provide the
foundation for executing and implementing the process:

Planning tools, Quality assurance and analysis tools, Test tools, and User interfaces provide crucial
automation support for evolving the software engineering artifacts.
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 Round-trip engineering: is a term used to describe the key capability of environments that support
iterative development.
Forward engineering: is the automation of one engineering artifact from another, more abstract
representation. Ex: compilers and linkers

Reverse engineering: is the generation of modification of more abstract representation from an existing
artifact. Ex: creating visual design model from a source code.

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 PEER INSPECTIONS: A PRAGMATIC VIEW:

THE OLD WAY AND THE NEW

- Over the past two decades software development is a re-engineering process. Now it is replaced by
advanced software engineering technologies.

- This transition is was motivated by the unsatisfactory demand for the software and reduced cost.
THE PRINCIPLES OF CONVENTIONAL SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

Based on many years of software development experience, the software industry proposed so many
principles (nearly 201 by – Davis‟s). Of which Davis‟s top 30 principles are:

1) Make quality #1: Quality must be quantified and mechanisms put into place to motivate its
achievement.
2) High-quality software is possible: In order to improve the quality of the product we need to involving
the customer, select the prototyping, simplifying design, conducting inspections, and hiring the best people.
3) Give products to customers early: No matter how hard you try to learn user‟s needs during the
requirements phase, the most effective way to determine real needs is to give users a product and let them
play with it.
4) Determine the problem before writing the requirements: Whenever a problem is raised most
engineers provide a solution. Before we try to solve a problem, be sure to explore all the alternatives and
don‟t be blinded by the understandable solution.

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 5) Evaluate design alternatives: After the requirements are greed upon, we must examine a variety of
architectures and algorithms and choose the one which is not used earlier.
6) Use different languages for different phases: Our industry‟s main aim is to provide simple solutions to
complex problems. In order to accomplish this goal choose different languages for different modules/phases
if required.
7) Minimize intellectual distance: We have to design the structure of a software is as close as possible to
the real-world structure.
8) Put techniques before tools: An un disciplined software engineer with a tool becomes a dangerous,
undisciplined software engineer.

9) Get it right before you make it faster: It is very easy to make a working program run faster than it is
to make a fast program work. Don‟t worry about optimization during initial coding.
10) Inspect the code: Examine the detailed design and code is a much better way to find the errors
than testing.
11) Good management is more important than good technology

12) People are the key to success: Highly skilled people with appropriate experience, talent, and
training are key. The right people with insufficient tools, languages, and process will succeed.

13) Follow with care: Everybody is doing something but does not make it right for you. It may be right,
but you must carefully assess its applicability to your environment.
14) Take responsibility: When a bridge collapses we ask “what did the engineer do wrong?”. Similarly if
the software fails, we ask the same. So the fact is in every engineering discipline, the best methods can be
used to produce poor results and the most out of date methods to produce stylish design.
15) Understand the customer’s priorities. It is possible the customer would tolerate 90% of the
functionality delivered late if they could have 10% of it on time.

16) Plan to throw one away .One of the most important critical success factors is whether or not a
product is entirely new. Such brand-new applications, architectures, interfaces, or algorithms rarely work
the first time.
17) Design for change. The architectures, components, and specification techniques
you use must accommodate change.
18) Design without documentation is not design. I have often heard software engineers say, “I have
finished the design. All that is left is the documentation.”
vi) Use tools, but be realistic. Software tools make their users more efficient.

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 vii) Avoid tricks. Many programmers love to create programs with tricks- constructs that perform a
function correctly, but in an obscure way. Show the world how smart you are by avoiding tricky
code.

viii) Encapsulate. Information-hiding is a simple, proven concept that results in software that is easier to
test and much easier to maintain.
ix) Use coupling and cohesion. Coupling and cohesion are the best ways to
measure software‟s inherent maintainability and adaptability.

x) Use the McCabe complexity measure. Although there are many metrics available to report the inherent
complexity of software, none is as intuitive and easy to use as Tom McCabe‟s.
xi) Don’t test your own software. Software developers should never be the primary testers of their own
software.
xii) Analyze causes for errors. It is far more cost-effective to reduce the effect of an error by preventing
it than it is to find and fix it. One way to do this is to analyze the causes of errors as they are
detected.
xiii) Realize that software’s entropy increases. Any software system that undergoes continuous change
will grow in complexity and become more and more disorganized.

THE PRINCIPLES OF MODERN SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT

1) Base the process on an architecture-first approach: (Central design element)

- Design and integration first, then production and test

2) Establish an iterative life-cycle process: (The risk management element)

- Risk control through ever-increasing function, performance, quality.

With today‟s sophisticated systems, it is not possible to define the entire problem, design
the entire solution, build the software, then test the end product in sequence. Instead, and iterative process
that refines the problem understanding, an effective solution, and an effective plan over several iterations
encourages balanced treatment of all stakeholder objectives.
Major risks must be addressed early to increase predictability and avoid expensive downstream
scrap and rework.

3) Transition design methods to emphasize component-based development: (The technology element)

Moving from LOC mentally to component-based mentally is necessary to reduce the

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 amount of human-generated source code and custom development.A component is a cohesive set of
preexisting lines of code, either in source or executable format, with a defined interface and behavior.

Establish a change management environment: (The control element)

- Metrics, trends, process instrumentation

The dynamics of iterative development, include concurrent workflows by different teams working
on shared artifacts, necessitates objectively controlled baseline.

4) Enhance change freedom through tools that support round-trip engineering: (The automation
element)

- Complementary tools, integrated environment

Round-trip engineering is the environment support necessary to automate and synchronize
engineering information in different formats. Change freedom is necessary in an iterative process.

5) Capture design artifacts in rigorous, model-based notation:

- A model-based approach supports the evolution of semantically rich graphical and textual design
notations.
- Visual modeling with rigorous notations and formal machine- process able language provides more
objective measures than the traditional approach of human review and inspection of ad hoc design
representations in paper doc.

6) Instrument the process for objective quality control and progress assessment:

- Life-cycle assessment of the progress and quality of all intermediate product must be integrated into
the process.

- The best assessment mechanisms are well-defined measures derived directly from the evolving
engineering artifacts and integrated into all activities and teams.

7) Use a demonstration-based approach to assess intermediate artifacts:

Transitioning from whether the artifact is an early prototype, a baseline architecture, or a beta
capability into an executable demonstration of relevant provides more tangible understanding of the design
tradeoffs, early integration and earlier elimination of architectural defects.

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 8) Plan intermediate releases in groups of usage scenarios with evolving levels
of detail:

9) Establish a configurable process that economically scalable:

No single process is suitable for all software developments. The process must ensure that
there is economy of scale and ROI.

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 PART-II Life cycle phases and process artifacts

LIFE-CYCLE PHASES
- If there is a well defined separation between “research and development” activities and“production”
activities then the software is said to be in successful development process.
- Most of the software’s fail due to the following characteristics ,
1) An overemphasis on research and development.
2) An overemphasis on production.
ENGINEERING AND PRODUCTION STAGES :
To achieve economics of scale and higher return on investment, we must move toward a software
manufacturing process which is determined by technological improvements in process automation
andcomponent based development.
There are two stages in the software development process
1) The engineering stage: Less predictable but smaller teams doing design and production activities.

This stage is decomposed into two distinct phases inception and elaboration.
2) The production stage: More predictable but larger teams doing construction, test, and deployment
activities. This stage is also decomposed into two distinct phases construction and transition.
These four phases of lifecycle process are loosely mapped to the conceptual framework of the spiral model is
as shown in the following figure.
- In the above figure the size of the spiral corresponds to the inactivity of the project with respect to the
breadth and depth of the artifacts that have been developed.
- This inertia manifests itself in maintaining artifact consistency, regression testing, documentation, quality
analyses, and configuration control.
- Increased inertia may have little, or at least very straightforward, impact on changing any given discrete
component or activity.
- However, the reaction time for accommodating major architectural changes, major requirements changes,
major planning shifts, or major organizational perturbations clearly increases in subsequent phases.
1. INCEPTION
PHASE:
The main goal of this phase is to achieve agreement among stakeholders on the life-cycle objectives for the
project.
PRIMARY OBJECTIVES
1) Establishing the project’s scope and boundary conditions
2) Distinguishing the critical use cases of the system and the primary scenarios of operation
3) Demonstrating at least one candidate architecture against some of the primary scenarios
4) Estimating cost and schedule for the entire project
5) Estimating potential risks
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 ESSENTIAL ACTIVITIES:
1) Formulating the scope of the project
2) Synthesizing the architecture
3) Planning and preparing a business case
2. ELABORATION PHASE
- It is the most critical phase among the four phases.
- Depending upon the scope, size, risk, and freshness of the project, an executable architecture prototype is
built in one or more iterations.
- At most of the time the process may accommodate changes, the elaboration phase activities must ensure
that the architecture, requirements, and plans are stable. And also the cost and schedule for the completion of
the development can be predicted within an acceptable range.
PRIMARY OBJECTIVES
1) Base lining the architecture as rapidly as practical
2) Base lining the vision
3) Base lining a high-reliability plan for the construction phase
4) Demonstrating that the baseline architecture will support the vision at a reasonable cost in a reasonable
time.
ESSENTIAL ACTIVITIES
1) Elaborating the vision
2) Elaborating the process and infrastructure
3) Elaborating the architecture and selecting components
3. CONSTRUCTION PHASE
During this phase all the remaining components and application features are developed software is integrated
where ever required.
- If it is a big project then parallel construction increments are generated.
PRIMARY OBJECTIVES
1) Minimizing development costs
2) Achieving adequate quality as rapidly as practical
3) Achieving useful version ( alpha, beta, and other releases) as rapidly as practical
ESSENTIAL ACTIVITIES
1) Resource management, control, and process optimization
2) Complete component development and testing evaluation criteria
3) Assessment of product release criteria of the vision
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 4. TRANSITION PHASE
Whenever a project is grown-up completely and to be deployed in the end-user domain this phase is called
transition phase. It includes the following activities:

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 1) Beta testing to validate the new system against user expectations
2) Beta testing and parallel operation relative to a legacy system it is replacing
3) Conversion of operational databases
4) Training of users and maintainers
PRIMARY OBJECTIVES
1) Achieving user self-supportability
2) Achieving stakeholder concurrence
3) Achieving final product baseline as rapidly and cost-effectively as practical
ESSENTIAL ACTIVITIES
1) Synchronization and integration of concurrent construction increments into consistent deployment
baselines
2) Deployment-specific engineering
3) Assessment of deployment baselines against the complete vision and
acceptance criteria in the requirement set.
Artifacts of the Process
- Conventional s/w projects focused on the sequential development of s/w artifacts:
- Build the requirements
- Construct a design model traceable to the requirements &
- Compile and test the implementation for deployment.
-This process can work for small-scale, purely custom developments in which the design representation,
implementation representation and deployment representation are closely aligned.
- This approach is doesn't work for most of today’s s/w systems why because of having complexity and are
composed of numerous components some are custom, some reused, some commercial products.
THE ARTIFACT SETS
In order to manage the development of a complete software system, we need to gather distinct collections of
information and is organized into artifact sets.
- Set represents a complete aspect of the system where as artifact represents interrelated information that is
developed and reviewed as a single entity.
- The artifacts of the process are organized into five sets:
1) Management 2) Requirements 3) Design

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 4) Implementation 5) Deployment
here the management artifacts capture the information that is necessary to synchronize stakeholder
expectations. Where as the remaining four artifacts are captured rigorous notations that support automated
analysis and browsing.
THE MANAGEMENT SET
It captures the artifacts associated with process planning and execution. These artifacts use ad hoc notation
including text, graphics, or whatever representation is required to capture the “contracts” among,
- project personnel:
project manager, architects, developers, testers, marketers, administrators
- stakeholders: funding authority, user, s/w project manager, organization
manager, regulatory agency & between project personnel and stakeholders Management artifacts
are evaluated, assessed, and measured through a combination of
1) Relevant stakeholder review.
2) Analysis of changes between the current version of the artifact and previous versions.
3) Major milestone demonstrations of the balance among all artifacts.
THE ENGINEERING SETS:
1) REQUIREMENT SET:
- The requirements set is the primary engineering context for evaluating the other three engineering artifact
sets and is the basis for test cases.
- Requirement artifacts are evaluated, assessed, and measured through a combination of
1) Analysis of consistency with the release specifications of the mgmt set.
2) Analysis of consistency between the vision and the requirement models.
3) Mapping against the design, implementation, and deployment sets to
evaluate the consistency and completeness and the semantic balance between information in the different sets.
4) Analysis of changes between the current version of the artifacts and previous versions.
5) Subjective review of other dimensions of quality.
2) DESIGN SET:
- UML notations are used to engineer the design models for the solution.
- It contains various levels of abstraction and enough structural and behavioral information to determine a
bill of materials.
- Design model information can be clearly and, in many cases, automatically translated into a subset of the
implementation and deployment set artifacts.
The design set is evaluated, assessed, and measured through a combination of
1) Analysis of the internal consistency and quality of the design model.
2) Analysis of consistency with the requirements models.
3) Translation into implementation and deployment sets and notations to evaluate the consistency and
completeness and semantic balance between information in the sets.
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 4) Analysis of changes between the current version of the design model and previous versions.
5) Subjective review of other dimensions of quality.
3) IMPLEMENTATION SET:
- The implementation set include source code that represents the tangible implementations of components
and any executables necessary for stand-alone testing of components.
- Executablesare the primitive parts that are needed to construct the end product, including custom
components, APIs of commercial components.
- Implementation set artifacts can also be translated into a subset of the deployment set. Implementation
sets are human-readable formats that are evaluated, assessed, and measured through a combination of
1) Analysis of consistency with design models.
2) Translation into deployment set notations to evaluate consistency and
completeness among artifact sets.
3) Execution of stand-alone component test cases that automatically c o m p a r e expected results with
actual results.
4) Analysis of changes b/w the current version of the implementation set and previous versions.
5) Subjective review of other dimensions of quality.
4) DEPLOYMENT SET:
- It includes user deliverables and machine language notations, executable software, and the build scripts,
installation scripts, and executable target-specific data necessary to use the product in its target environment.
Deployment sets are evaluated, assessed, and measured through a combination of
1) Testing against the usage scenarios and quality attributes defined in the requirements set to evaluate the
consistency and completeness and the semantic balance between information in the two sets.
2) Testing the partitioning, replication, and allocation strategies in mapping components of the
implementation set to physical resources of the deployment system.
3) Testing against the defined usage scenarios in the user manual such as installation, user-oriented
dynamic reconfiguration, mainstream usage, and anomaly management.
4) Analysis of changes b/w the current version of the deployment set and previous versions.
5) Subjective review of other dimensions of quality.
Each artifact set uses different notations to capture the relevant artifact.
1) Management set notations (ad hoc text, graphics, use case notation) capture the plans, process,
objectives, and acceptance criteria.
2) Requirement notation (structured text and UML models) capture the
engineering context and the operational concept.
3) Implementation notations (software languages) capture the building blocks of the solution in
humanreadable formats.
4) Deployment notations (executables and data files) capture the solution in machine-readable formats.

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 ARTIFACTS EVOLUTION OVER THE LIFE CYCLE
- Each state of development represents a certain amount of precision in the final system description.
- Early in the lifecycle, precision is low and the representation is generally high.
Eventually, the precision
of representation is high and everything is specified in full detail.

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 - At any point in the lifecycle, the five sets will be in different states of completeness. However, they should
be at compatible levels of detail and reasonably traceable to one another.
- Performing detailed traceability and consistency analyses early in the life cycle
i.e. when precision is low and changes are frequent usually has a low ROI. Inception phase: It mainly
focuses on critical requirements, usually with a secondary focus on an initial deployment view, little
implementation and high- level focus on the design architecture but not on design detail.
Elaboration phase: It include generation of an executable prototype, involves subsets of development in all
four sets. A portion of all four sets must be evolved to some level of completion before an architecture
baseline can be established.
Fig: Life-Cycle evolution of the artifact sets
Construction: Its main focus on design and implementation. In the early stages the main focus is on the
depth of the design artifacts. Later, in construction, realizing the design in source code and individually
tested
components. This stage should drive the requirements, design, and implementation sets almost to completion.
Substantial work is also done on the deployment set, at least to test one or a few instances of the
programmed system through alpha or beta releases.
Transition: The main focus is on achieving consistency and completeness of the deployment set in the
context of another set. Residual defects are resolved, and feedback from alpha, beta, and system testing is
incorporated.
MANAGEMENT ARTIFACTS:
of WBS is dependent on product management style , organizational culture, custom
performance, financial constraints and several project specific parameters.
• The WBS is the architecture of project plan. It encapsulate change and evolve with appropriatelevel of
details.
• A WBS is simply a hierarchy of elements that decomposes the project plan into discrete work task.
• A WBS provides the following information structure
- A delineation of all significant tasks.
- A clear task decomposition for assignment of responsibilities.

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 - A framework for scheduling ,debugging and expenditure tracking.
-Most systems have first level decomposition subsystem. subsystems are then decomposed into their
components
• Therefore WBS is a driving vehicle for budgeting and collecting cost.
• The structure of cost accountability is a serious project planning constraints.
Business case:
• Managing change is one of the fundamental primitives of an iterative
development process.
• This flexibility increases the content, quality, and number of iterations that a project can achieve within a
given schedule.
• Once software is placed in a controlled baseline, all changes must be formally
tracked and managed.
• Most of the change management activities can be automated by automating data entry and maintaining
change records online.
Engineering Artifacts
Engineering Artifacts are captured in rigorous engineering notations such as UML,
programming languages, or executable machine codes. Three Engineering Artifacts are:
1. Vision Document.
2. Architecture Description.
3. S/W User Manual.
Vision Document
The source for capturing the expectations among stakeholders.
◦ Written from the users’ perspective.
◦ Focus is on essential features of the system, and the acceptable levels of
quality.
◦ Includes the operational concept

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 Pragmatic Artifacts
 Pragmatic Meaning is dealing with things sensibly and realistically in a way that is based on
practical rather than theoretical considerations.
 People want to review information but don’t understand the language of the
artifact.
 People want to review the information but don’t have access to the tools.
 Human readable engineering artifacts should use rigorous
notations that are complete, consistent and used in a self documenting manner.
 Useful documentation is self defining: It is documentation that gets used.
 Paper is tangible(perceptible by touch ): electronic artifacts are too easy to change.

Model-Based Software Architectures

INTRODUCTION:
Software architecture is the central design problem of a complex software system in the same way an
architecture is the software system design.
 The ultimate goal of the engineering stage is to converge on a stable architecture baseline.
 Architecture is not a paper document. It is a collection of information across all the engineering sets.
 Architectures are described by extracting the essential information from the design models.
 A model is a relatively independent abstraction of a system.

A view is a subset of a model that abstracts a specific, relevant perspective.
ARCHITECTURE : A MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE
 The most critical and technical product of a software project is its
architecture
If a software development team is to be successful, the interproject
communications, as captured in software architecture, must be accurate and precise.
From the management point of view, three different aspects of architecture
1. An architecture ( the intangible design concept) is the design of software system it includes all
engineering necessary to specify a complete bill of materials. Significant make or buy decisions resolved,
and all custom components are elaborated so that individual component costs and construction/assembly
costs can be determined with confidence.
2. An architecture baseline (the tangible artifacts) is a slice of information across the engineering artifact
sets sufficient to satisfy all stakeholders that the vision (function and quality) can be achieved within the
parameters of the business case (cost, profit, time, technology, people).
3. An architectural description is an organized subset of information extracted from the design set model's.
It explains how the intangible concept is realized in the tangible artifacts. The number of views and level of
detail in each view can vary widely. For example the architecture of the software architecture of a small
development tool.

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 There is a close relationship between software architecture and the modern software development
process because of the following reasons:
1. A stable software architecture is nothing but a project milestone where critical
make/buy decisions should have been resolved. The life-cycle represents a transition from the engineering
stage of a project to the production stage.
2. Architecture representation provide a basis for balancing the trade-offs between the problem space
(requirements and constraints) and the solution space (the operational product).
3. The architecture and process encapsulate many of the important communications among individuals,
teams, organizations, and stakeholders.
4. Poor architecture and immature process are often given as reasons for project failure.
5. In order to proper planning, a mature process, understanding the primary requirements and demonstrable
architecture are important fundamentals.
6. Architecture development and process definition are the intellectual steps that map the problem to a
solution without violating the constraints; they require human innovation and cannot be automated.

ARCHITECTURE: A TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE

 Software architecture include the structure of software systems, their behavior, and the patterns that
guide these elements, their collaborations, and their composition.
An architecture framework is defined in terms of views is the abstraction of the UML models in the
design set. Where as architecture view is an abstraction of the design model, include fullbreadth and
depth of information.
Most real-world systems require four types of views:
1) Design: describes architecturally significant structures and functions of the design model.
2) Process: describes concurrency and control thread relationships among the design, component, and
deployment views.
3) Component: describes the structure of the implementation set.
4) Deployment: describes the structure of the deployment set.
The design set include all UML design models describing the solution space.
 The design, process, and use case models provide for visualization of the logical and behavioral
aspect of the design.
 The component model provides for visualization of the implementation set.

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 The deployment model provides for visualization of the deployment set.
1. The use case view describes how the system’s critical use cases are realized by elements of the design
model. It is modeled statistically by using use case diagrams, and dynamically by using any of the UML
behavioral diagrams.
2. The design view describes the architecturally significant elements of the design model. It is modeled
statistically by using class and object diagrams, and dynamically using any of the UML behavioral diagrams.
3. The process view addresses the run-time collaboration issues involved in executing the architecture on a
distributed deployment model, including logical software topology, inter process communication, and state
mgmt. it is modeled statistically using deployment diagrams, and dynamically using any of the UML
behavioral diagrams.
4. The component view describes the architecturally significant elements of the implementation set. It is
modeled statistically using component diagrams, and dynamically using any of the UML behavioral
diagrams.
The deployment view addresses the executable realization of the system, including the allocation of logical
processes in the distributed view to physical resources of the deployment network. It is modeled statistically
using deployment diagrams, and dynamically using any of UML behavioral diagrams.
Architecture descriptions take on different forms and styles in different organizations and domains. At any
given time, an architecture requires a subset of artifacts in engineering set.
- An architecture baseline is defined as a balanced subset of information across all sets, where as an
architecture description is completely encapsulated within the design set.
Generally architecture base line include:
1) Requirements 2) Design
3) Implementation 4) Deployment

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