0% found this document useful (0 votes)

74 views2,118 pages

Political Science Notes

Uploaded by

chandrareshkumar44

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

74 views2,118 pages

Political Science Notes

Uploaded by

chandrareshkumar44

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 2118

01

Plato
• Plato is the author of three large scale Political works :

© Saar Concepts
1. The Republic
2. The Statesman
3. The Laws
• Plato’s early childhood coincided with the period of Political Instability following the defeat of Athens in
the Pelopennesian War of 431 BC to 404 BC.
→ An immediate consequence of the defeat was the overthrow of Democracy in Athens
and establishment of an Oligarchy – ‘Tyranny of Thirty’
– Plato hoped that this Oligarchy will provide Political stability.
– But the rule of ‘Thirty Tyrants’ proved even more brutal.
– A counter revolution took place and democracy was restored
▪ It was this democratic government which gave Socrates death

• Socrates death was the defining moment in Plato’s career :

– In 399 BC Plato leaves Athens and remains in voluntary exile till 386 BC.
– He came to the conclusion that all existing states are bad.
– Plato associate the ills of his time with the group of teachers and orators active in
fifth century Athens – ‘Sophists’
– The Republic is the rejection of Worldview of Sophists.
→ In the dialogue the main sophist is ‘Thrasymachus’.
• The Republic is an enquiry into the nature of dikaisyne – Justice
→ It begins with the question ‘ What is Justice’

• Traditional definition of Justice :

→ Cephalus : Justice is giving each man his due
→ Polymarchus : Justice is doing good to friends and harm to enemies.

• Definition given by Thrasymachus :

© Saar Concepts
→ Justice is nothing else than the interest of the stronger.
– This definition represents the Political amoralism of Sophists
→ Definition rejected by Socrates :
– Ruling is an art of Ruler like medicine is an art of Doctor.
– Doctor practices his art for the benefit of patients similarly Ruler will practice
his art for the benefit of his subjects.

• Thrasymachus reforms his definition and says – It is in the interest of stronger for others to be just and
he himself unjust, Injustice is better than justice.
– Political Immoralism of Sophists.
• Thrasymachus’ line of argument :
→ Good life consists in disregarding all limits and restrictions.
→ Justice means compliance with laws – accepting limits.
→ Laws are rules made by strong and imposed on wreaks – a device to control them.
→ So the interest of the ruler is best served when his subjects are just and he himself unjust.

• So according to Thrasymachus :
→ Injustice is preferable to Justice – Superior man knows that good life is a matter of

• But according to Socrates : -

▪ If we live a life in which all limits are ignored – we will not be to get what we want.
– Example : Musician tuning his instrument or doctor prescribing medicine to
patients Neither too less nor too much.
▪ The successful conduct of human activity depends upon observing limits
– The limits which that activity demands
▪ Justice to individual is what sharpness to knife – it is the virtue that enables soul to
perform its activity properly.
• In order to understand what justice means for an individual we first need to see what justice means at
the level of Polis or State :
– By considering Justice on a larger scale we shall be better able to understand it on smaller
or individual scale ) State is individual writ large.

• What then constitute justice at the level of State ?

– Socrates answers this question by describing the development of an imaginary or
or ‘Ideal State’ which he calls ‘Kallipolis’
→ A simple state would originate in the fact that human beings need to cooperate
© Saar Concepts
in order to meet their basic needs.
→ Meeting of basic needs will produce more sophisticated needs and so more
complex structure will have to be devised to meet those needs.

• At the end point of its evolution state will contain three occupational groups :-
▪ Guardian : embody wisdom of the state
▪ Auxiliaries : military class embody courage of the state
▪ Producers : they will embody temperance or self control.
– They will recognize that it is necessary for them to submit to the rule of
Guradians.
• According to Socrates :-
→ Justice will not be a separate virtue in addition to courage, wisdom and self-restraints.
→ Justice will be the situation when the guardian, Auxiliaries and producer function together
in such a way to secure the good of whole community.
▪ Justice is a matter of everyone doing the job for which they are best suited and
not interfering with anyone else.
▪ Justice will be established when auxiliaries and producer remain within the limits
prescribed to them by the guardian.

© Saar Concepts
• In the similar way Indi vidual soul has three parts or three functions :
▪ Reason
▪ Spirit or emotion
▪ Appetite or desire
• Justice is present in the soul when appetite and spirit are guided by reason in such a way as to
secure the good of the whole body :
→ Our happiness depends upon our having a properly ordered soul.
→ The just man would be happy, contented,well adjusted individual whose desire will not
out strip his needs.
• But there are very few people who are just in this sense :
→ This is because most people lack knowledge about of Justice.
→ People live in a world of opinion and belief and not of Knowledge.
– The world is unstable because opinions and beliefs can easily be changed.
– This is one of the danger of democracy.

• Only true just men are those who have knowledge rather than opinion :
→ They are Philosophers – Lover of wisdom
→ It is the philosophers who have the responsibility of governing the state.

© Saar Concepts
• Knowledge is distinct from opinion :
→ Socrates agrees that world of common experience is full uncertainties
▪ But away from this changing world there exist a world which does not change
▪ This is world of forms or world of ideas – where there exist a perfect version
of everything – Theory of forms
• Only through philosophical education one can know the world of forms and thus get knowledge.
▪ Rousseau called the Republic ‘ a finest treatises on Education’
•Things that we see and ideas or belief that we have in the ‘world of sight’ are only imperfect copies of
the ‘Forms’ :
→ Philosophers are those who have understood the ‘Forms’ , they thus have true
knowledge and not opinion.

• For Socrates , the best state would be an aristocracy presided over by those who have understood the
‘Forms’ through philosophical education :
→ These people will do what is good because they know what is good.

• The educational and social system of the ideal state will require them to live in such a way as to
abolish from their mind any thought of private gain or glory :
→ Communism of Wives and Property – They will have no families and private property.
→ Children will have common parents – state will organize mating seasons.
• According to critics :
→ Plato does not believe in the capacity of ordinary human being to organize their lives without
paternalistic supervision – Karl Popper calls him ‘Enemy of Open society’
→ Plato advocate for a totalitarian state
– Guardian will use ‘myth’ as a device to control the public.
– They will spread the ‘Noble Lie’ or ‘Myth of the metal’
▪ God have made men of gold, silver and bronze and each should know his

•But Plato is quite clear in his concern that whatever will be done it will done to achieve collective long
term good and not to benefit the rulers :
– Guardians will do such things because they have to shape the virtue of those who are
not equipped with the resource to be virtuous themselves.
• The Statesman
→ The Statesman is a Conversation that is actually part of three of dialogue triology
▪ Theatetus
▪ Sophist
▪ The Statesman
→ In Statesman, Socrates does not play a principal role, main role is played by

© Saar Concepts
‘Eleatic Visitor’
→ Statesman examines the art of Political Leadership.
→ Plato is still committed in principle to the notion an ideal statesman
▪ But his theme now is that such a statesman is unlikely to be found and that,
in his absence the second best form of government will be that of rulers
whose actions are restricted by laws.
• The Laws :
→ This is Plato’s longest work comprising of 12 books .
→ The main role here is of “Athenian Stranger”
→ Plato returns again to the method of imagining an ideal city – but in this case – It is the
second best city – ‘Magnesia’.
▪ This city is governed by laws devised and administered by a
‘Nocturnal Council’.
▪ He says, best attainable kind of state is one governed by laws – embodying a kind of
collected or accumulated wisdom.
▪ It will be a mixed constitution – combination of monarchy and democracy.

© Saar Concepts
• Theory of Political Decay :
→ From Ideal State to Oligarchy
→ From Oligarchy to Democracy
→ From Democracy to Tyranny

© Saar Concepts
• The philosophy of Plato has the curious property of being delivered almost entirely through the mouth
of someone else :
– Nearly all his surviving works are ‘Dialogues’
→ Transcription of real or imaginary conversation – in which chief protagonist is his
teacher – Socrates

• Socrates is the exponent of the doctrine which Plato wishes to convey :

→ We know about Socrates from Plato’s Dialogues, Writings of Xenophone and
© Saar Concepts
Aristophones
→ He discussed philosophy but wrote nothing – used a dialectic method – ‘Elenchos’
→ Clarified concepts by a process of question and answers – called himselsf a ‘Gadfly’.

• Plato is the author of three large scale Political works :

1. The Republic
2. The Statesman
3. The Laws
02
Aristole
• Aristotle was born at Stagira, a Greek Colony
→ He became member of Plato’s Academy in 367 BC.
→ After Plato’s death he left Athens.
→ In 343 BC he accepted a post at the court of Philip of Macedon, as tutor to the future
Alexander the Great.
→ In 335 BCE he returned to Athens and opened his own school – Lyceum.
→ His connection with Alexander made him unpopular in Athens.
→ After Alex ander’s death in 323 BC he again left the city – in 322 BC he died at Chalcis.

© Saar Concepts
• His most important work related to Politics are :
▪ Nichomachean Ethics
▪ Politics
• Aristotle’s general view of the world is called ‘Teleological’.
— Everything in the Universe has a ‘telos’ – an ‘end’ or ‘purpose’ – unique to itself.
— Everything is having a state of full or final development towards which it is their nature
to unfold :
→ Telos of a mango seed is to be a mango tree.
— The process by which an object achieves its telos is called ‘ergon’ – the work or task
— The natural capacity for engaging in this process is called ‘Dynamis’.

© Saar Concepts
• Something is ‘Good’ if it has achieved its telos successfully.
→ What is the telos or good of Man?
— It is the achievement of the state of Eudaimonia.
— The word denotes a lifelong state of active well
being : it is not a feeling but activity

• How do we know that ‘happiness’ is man’s end or telos :

→ Happiness is desired for its own sake.
• How we can accomplish this end or our goal ?
→ By identifying some mode of activity in which no other creature is equipped to engage.
→ We therefore need to find a ‘Capacity’ that we and only we have.
▪ The capacity cannot be just living because plants can also live.
▪ It can not be living and feeling because animals can also do.
▪ It must have to do with ‘Reason’ and ‘Speech’ , the capacity which no other creature
has – to engage in connected and purposive thoughts.
— Our goal should lie in using rather than just possessing reason.

© Saar Concepts
— It can not lie in mere use of reason , but using it well.
— Using reason well means using it with excellence
and using it with excellence means using it according virtue.

• Virtues are of two types :

→ Moral Virtue
→ Intellectual Virtue
▪ Intellectual virtue is of two types
— Phronesis
— Sophia
• Happiness is associated in different way with the deployment of both types of virtues :
— Happiness in the fullest sense lies in the contemplation of abstract ideas and theories
→ Such activity require deployment of intellectual virtue called ‘Sophia’.
→ Sophia means – Theoretical Wisdom – This wisdom has no practical outcome , no
connection to the material world
→ Human activity resemble activity of God.
→ The happiness of philosophical contemplation can not be the normal condition of
anyone’s life – No one can permanently live in this state.

© Saar Concepts
• We want to discover a happiness capable of being achieved by mankind in general and throughout life
→ This type of happiness is related to moral virtue
→ Happiness for common people is to be found not in abstract reasoning, but in the
practice of good or honorable behavior in everyday's life.

• Secondary or everyday happiness consists in the practice of moral virtues

— moral virtue example : Courage, generosity etc
• What specific kind of actions does the practice of moral virtues consists :
→ Doctrine of Mean
— Morally virtuous activity is a habit of choice lying in a mean ‘relative to ourselves’
between two vices – the one excess and the other of deficiency.
— An important part of the definition is the phrase ‘relative to ourselves’.
▪ Relative to the kind of person we are, the practice of moral virtue is a
matter of doing what is suitable to a person in the given time and place.
▪ One cannot prescribe hard and fast rules in advance.

© Saar Concepts
• The practice of moral virtue brings into play an in tellectual virtue – Phronesis .
→ Phronesis means practical wisdom
→ In order to find the mean , one needs to be a ‘man of practical wisdom’ ,
‘practical reasoning’ or ‘prudence’.
→ This is the type of thinking that we engage in when we debate with ourselves what to do
in any given situation.
• Our ‘end’ then is ‘Eudaimonia’, ‘happiness’ :
— We accomplish it by living well throughout life as a whole.
— Living well is a matter of rational activity performed well.
— Happiness lies in the consistent practice of moral virtue, calling upon the intellectual virtue of
phronesis to guide us .

• But what is the connection between our natural goal of eudaimonia and the fact that man is by nature a
political animal : “Man is by nature a Political Animal”

© Saar Concepts
• As a preliminary to an y kind of moral activity we need material conditions of life :
→ No individual can supply himself with all the necessaries of life.
→ All forms of natural association are natural because they meet a particular level of
material need
▪ The Household is natural
▪ The Village is natural
▪ The Polis or State is natural
• But it is the Polis that is most completely sufficient and therefore most completely natural.
— Polis enables all our needs to be met in their entirety – both economic and moral
“The state comes into existence so that men may live, it remains in being so that they may live well”
• Polis provides the economic prerequisite of morality
— Economic and moral needs are intertwined.
• Polis provides the educational conditions upon which the cultivation and realization of moral virtue
depends :
→ State help in acquiring habitual modes of behavior through training and repetition.
→ an important function of law is to make men good by requiring or encouraging them to
form good habits.

• Polis is thus a natural community that meets all our needs : moral as well as material.
© Saar Concepts
• Because the Polis is an all sufficient community
→ Study of politics is the master science.
→ It is the study of the common good.
• Aristotle’s ‘Comparison and Classification of Constitution’
→ He does not wish to argue for one ideal constitution.
→ He knows that states have devised many ways of organizing themselves and we have to deal
with what exist rather than what ought to exist.
— Aristotle is said to have written treatises on 158 Greek City States, although
only one of them – The Constitution of Athens has survived.

© Saar Concepts
Rule for Public Interest Rule for Self Interest
Pure form Perverted form
One Monarchy Tyranny
Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Many Polity Democracy
• Aristotle is also concerned with technical question of stability and change :
→ The stability of a constitution is secured by balancing elements of ‘fewness’ and ‘manyness’
in such a way as to ensure that as few people as possible are excluded or alienated.
▪ More moderate and more broadly based constitutions are more stable.
→ Oligarchies will antagonize the poor, who are numerous, democracy will antagonize the rich
who are few but influential.

• The most stable constitution will be one in which political power rests with a large middle class.

© Saar Concepts
→ The government of neither the wealthy few nor of the property less many
but somewhere in between.
→ The member of the wealthy class are wealthy enough to be resented by poor, but they are
sufficiently well off not to want to dispossess the rich.
→ This is the political expression of Aristotle’s doctrine of mean.
• The best achievable kind of political association will be those that involve as many people as possible in
the process of government.
— Best kind of polity will be large enough to be self sufficient but small enough for
everyone to be able to participate.
— All should play a part in bringing about the good of whole community.
— The virtue of good man and good citizen will be same.
03
Nicolὀ Machiavelli
• Nicolo Machiavelli was born in Florence Italy
→ He entered the service of the Republic of Florence in 1494 and was deployed on
diplomatic missions to various places.
→ When the Republic was overthrown by Medici family in 1512, he was briefly imprisioned
and tortured.
→ He retired into private life and devoted himself to political analysis and study of history.
→ He produced three major political works :
▪ The Prince in 1513

© Saar Concepts
▪ The Discourse in 1516
▪ The Art of War in 1520
▪ History of Florence
→ One reason to write ‘The Prince’ was to come back to Politics and Government
the book was dedicated to ‘Lorenzo de Medici’ – written under the tradition called
‘Mirror of the Prince’.
— But it was not until 1525 that he was recalled to government.
— With the overthrow of the Medici in 1527, Machiavelli was again
excluded from office.
• Machiavelli’s Political thought marks a break from medieval political thinking :
— He is not interested in religious and ecclesiastical issues of medieval thought.
— He is against the Christian virtues of meekness andsubmission.
▪ He says these virtues could not help us survive in the world of politics.

• He argues for the establishment of a strong state which can face foreign aggression and domestic
upheavals :
→ The Prince – Machiavelli’s concern is with how one man can control

→ The Discourse – How a Republic can be made to survive and prosper by channeling the
fundamentally selfish nature of its citizen in publically beneficial ways.

• Machiavelli’s method is historical and comparative :

— His purpose is to understand how events took place in the past.
▪ He believed that lessons of history are permanently valid
▪ Since human nature is constant so what happened in past will again happen in future
— Following the practice of Italian Renaissance, Machiavelli examined the works of Classical
authors for their political lessons.
• Throughout his writings – Machiavelli subscribe to consistent theory of human nature :
→ Most important assumption is that human nature is changeless
▪ It is this that enables him to make generalizations about politics.
→ Human beings exhibit the same essential characteristics , and these characteristics are
not of the kind traditionally admired :
— Men are basically evil
— The root cause of this is their selfishness
— This selfishness express itself primarily in the desire of self-preservation
and security.

© Saar Concepts
— When Security has been achieved, people now have single minded devotion to
power
▪ It is because power means freedom
▪ It can be used to dominate but also to prevent others from dominating you

• Desire for power is so prominent that Political life is always characterized by conflicts :
• Politics necessarily involves struggle for power .

• The struggle can be seen more clearly in the case of the Prince who has just seized power
— He is not supported by the customs or people’s respect for him and his family.
— He has to maintain and consolidate his position by his own skillfulness.
→ ‘The Prince’ is a book on he may do this.

• Machiavelli suggests that the Prince must rely chiefly on the use of force and deceit

© Saar Concepts
→ He must assume that man is the slave of his own selfish nature :
▪ So it is pointless and unsafe to suppose that subjects can be ruled by obtaining
their rational consent or by setting them a good moral example.
▪ Whenever there is a choice, men will respond to dictates of passion rather than
requirement of morality or reason.
▪ It is therefore only by manipulating the passion of others that they can be made to
do what one wants them to do.
• According to Machiavelli, there are four passions that govern human behavior :
— Love
— Hatred
— Fear
— Contempt or Despise
• Love and hate are mutually exclusive : It is not possible to love and hate someone simultaneously.
• Similarly fear and despise are also mutually exclusive.
• However following combinations are possible :
→ Love and Fear
→ Fear and Hatred
© Saar Concepts
• The passions which Prince will try to invoke are – Love and Fear
— If people hate and despise their ruler, they can not be controlled
— Love and Fear to be induced but hatred and contempt to be avoided
• But if Prince has to choose between Love and Fear, he must choose fear because “ it is better to be
feared than loved”
→ So it is not essential to be loved , but it is essential to be feared and it is more essential
not to be despised or hated
▪ Prince must not touch the property and women of his subjects
▪ He must not perform violent acts himself – Delegate such works to others
• So the foundation of Prince’s Power is force and his willingness to use it ruthlessly :
→ The only art prince needs to acquire are military arts.
▪ Medieval political thinkers required the Prince to be a patron of Arts, Godly, Just, Wise
moral, Virtuous and so forth.

→ For Machiavelli the proper study of the Prince is the Art of War.
→ For Machiavelli Politics is a kind of Warfare.
— The relation between ruler and subjects are the same as those between sovereign

© Saar Concepts
states.
— Prince’s general policy is to ensure that there i s no one who has sufficient power to
challenge him both internally and externally.
— If Prince is to injure others, then he should do it in such a way as to deprive them of
power permanently.
• Machiavelli’s concept of ‘Virtu’
→ ‘Virtu’ is not a moral virtue, it is a particular kind of skill or aptitude which the Prince must have.

• Relationship between ‘Virtu’ and ‘Fortuna’

→ Fortuna means fortune:
▪ Experience teaches us that there is no necessary connection between traditional moral
moral virtues and the incidence of good and ill fortune.

© Saar Concepts
▪ There is no necessary connection between what one deserves and what one gets
especially in Politi cs.
▪ The world is unpredictable and unstable – here unexpected things happen.
→ In contrast to the unstable and unpredictable world of practical affairs :
▪ Human being generally have a fixed and constant mode of behavior.
▪ It is the traditional moral virtues that call upon us to have such fixed character.
→ For Machiavelli – Always acting in the same way regardless of the circumstances one finds
oneself in is a recipe for disaster – Particularly for a new Prince.
• So for Machiavelli :
→ Virtu is that quality that enables an individual to encounter the blows of fortunes and overcome
them by whatever means necessary.
→ Prince must be adaptable – must be willing to use both the lion and fox in him.
→ Prince must do what the circumstances require and if the requirement is to disregard
traditional virtues then it is also good.
→ Prince can face the fortune only by being infinitely flexible
▪ Everything he does is done because circumstance require – he does not do something

© Saar Concepts
because his character is bad or morally wrong.
▪ Prince can be described as ‘Amoral’ and not ‘immoral’ because for him there is no fixed
definition of good or bad.
→ Machiavelli admires Cesare Borgia – an individual who by all ordinary standard is a cruel and
vicious tyrant – Machiavelli admires him for his effectiveness and not for his character.
• The Discourses
→ In part a commentary on first ten books of Titus Livy’s history of Rome.
→ In part a series of essays on Machiavelli’s familiar themes : how states rise and fall, how they can
preserve their liberty etc.
→ Discourses is written in Praise of Republic
▪ Here he is more directly concerned with the ‘Virtu’ of people
▪ He says great Republics are those where its people are free and politically active.
→ It is a quite different work from Prince but resting on the same pre suppositions about human

© Saar Concepts
nature :
▪ In Monarchy one man – The Prince – has supreme power.
▪ In a Republic – Every individual is a Prince.
— Every Individual is able to develop and deploy his own Virtu in defense of his
security, freedom and property – thereby producing a Public Virtu.
▪ In a Monarchy only one man is free, in a Republic all are free.

→ Republics are better than Monarchy because:

▪ Republics will be more stable than monarchies.
▪ They will be better able to defend themselves – because of Citizen’s Army
▪ They will be more successful at extending their territories by war.
• The Republic should be based on Citizen Army : It develops patriotism and Civic Virtue.

• There should also be a state religion or civic religion

→ He views religion from instrumental perspective
→ Religion plays an important role in maintaining civic virtue.

• Prince and Discourses are not radically different – nor are they contradictory :
→ Both share a view of human nature as individualistic, competitive, and where necessary

© Saar Concepts
ruthless and unscrupulous.
→ The Prince is about how one individual is to control the forces of human nature to his own
advantage.
→ The Discourses is about how these forces can be harnessed in such a way so as to secure Unity
and Public Safety.
04
Thomas Hobbes
How to achieve Peace, Stability
English Civil War
and Security
Hobbes
Scientific Revolution

By Scientifically Observing
Society and Politics
Hobbes Approach to Politics is
Scientific
Arrive at a Scientific Theory of
Politics and Government
• Resolutive Compositive method :
Borrowed from Galilieo and Francis Bacon

• Geometrical and Demonstrative

Reasoning : From Euclid
© Saar Concepts
Hobbes : Major Works

• 1630 – A Short Tract on First Principles

• 1650 – The Element of Law Natural and Politic
• Hobbes considered his following three books as his magnum opus
→ 1642 – De Cive )Society
→ 1655 – De Corpre )Body
→ 1658 – De Homine) Human Nature
• In the year 1651 Hobbes published following major works :
→ English translation of De Cive called :
Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and
Society
→ His most important work : Leviathan
→ His analysis of English Civil War : Behemoth

First Break the Society into

its Constituent Parts

Constituent Parts of Society :

Then analyze the Parts
Individual

Then Draw Conclusion about

the best social and political
Hobbes is considered Organization
a Proto Liberal

His premise is liberal but not

his conclusions

Materialist or Mechanist
Theory of Human Behavior

Human Body is a Complex Main Work of Human Body

Machine : Respond to Stumuli

Some Stimuli Pleasurable : They

Attraction Desire
are good : enhance vital motions

Some Stimuli Painful : They are

Repulsion Aversion
Bad : impede vital motions

Two Types of Motion Human Reason help us Pleasure and One of the Early account
Being are Capable of
© Saar Concepts
avoid Pain of Utilitarianism
What we Fear Most ?

Death :
No Further Pleasure Possible
Sudden and Violent Death

Individual Act for Self-Preservation

Gives permission to an Individual
to Act for his Self-preservation
Right of the Nature : Natural Right

“ to use his own power for the preservation of his self”

Chaos, Disorder, Insecure and Unstable

Three Reasons for Conflict

Competition : For Resources and Power

Truly Hellish Condition Glory : One’s power is relative to others

Fear : No Security, one is always fearful of Violent Death

Natural Right becomes
Right to Everything

Discoverable by
Human Reason
It is rationally necessary to seek Peace
Total Nineteen Laws
The way to secure peace is to enter into an
of Nature
agreement with others not to harm one
another.

Not breaking the agreement once its made

Society is created by way of a

‘Social Contract’
© Saar Concepts
Social Contract

Society is created by an agreement but who

will enforce the agreement

‘Covenants without the swords are but words, and of no strength to secure a man at all’

A Sovereign is appointed through the Contract

People surrender their

Right to Everything to the Power of the Sovereign is Absolute
Three Limitations to
Sovereign and Unlimited
Sovereign’s Power

Sovereign is not a Party to the

• He must effectively protect people Contract : he is outside the Contract
• People retain the right to defend Themselves
• If he loses in war people will not obey him © Saar Concepts
05
John Locke
John Locke

Born in 1632 Educated at Oxford

Under his influence Locke Came in contact with

became an Opponent of Stuart Lord Ashley :
Monarchy in England Earl of Shaftesbury

Locke became is
He got involved in Plans to Stop After James II accession to Medical Advisor and
James II from coming to Throne Throne Locke fled to Holland then his Secretary

He came back in 168nine after

Glorious Revolution of 1688 Glorious Revolution
made England a
Constitutional Monarchy © Saar Concepts
John Locke : Major Works

• Books published in 168nine

→ Essay Concerning Human Understanding
→ Two Treatise of Government
→ Letter Concerning Toleration

• 16nine3 : Thoughts on Education

• 16nine5 : On the reasonableness of Christianity

Professor Peter Laslett proved that this work was

Two Treatises of Government
written at least 10 years before Glorious Revolution

Attack on Robert Filmer’s ‘Divine Right Theory of

First Treatise
King’ as propunded in his book ‘Patriarcha’

“An Essay concerning the True, Original extent and

Second Treatise
end of Civil Government”

Locke Presents his own

Philosophy
© Saar Concepts
Locke’s Main Arguments

All men are born Equal

Workmanship Ideal
Each Individual is a sovereign Ruler of
his own body

No one can become subject to anyone Creator is the Owner of

else – except by his own consent what he creates

How can we explain the existence and

legitimacy of the present day government ?

© Saar Concepts
State of Nature :
Why we need a To answer this – Locke uses the
Condition where there
Government ? device of State of Nature
is no Government

“ a state of peace, goodwill, mutual Locke’s State of In the absence of

cooperation and preservation” Nature government problems
will arise
It is Social but not Political Human being are
It is a state of Liberty not license Subject to Law of Nature To solve this problem
we will need
government

It teaches that all beings are equal and independent no one to

harm others in life, liberty and property
How to Enforce the
Law of Nature
Law of Nature gives individual natural right to life, liberty and
property
© Saar Concepts
How to Enforce the Locke says People are themselves
Law of Nature Enforcer of Natural Laws

People have a Natural Right to enforce the laws

of nature and Punish the Violators

But Punishment should be

This Common Right to Punish legitimate and in proportion
will not work properly to the crime

There will be disagreement on the right

quantity of Punishment This will create conflicts
which will turn state of
People will be partial while awarding nature into a State of War
Punishments
© Saar Concepts
How to Come out of People will make a Contract will have
State of Nature Social Contract 3 Stages

People will surrender their right to enforce Law of Political Community is

nature to the Community Established

• Political Community appoints government and

gives it the responsibility to enforce natural laws
Government is
• First Legislature-Feduciary Trust- is established
Established
which makes laws according to natural laws.
• Legislature makes Executive to implement laws

• Government would need to supported by taxation

• But property is a natural right Authorization for
• Taxation will depend upon the agreement among
property owners © Saar Concepts Taxation
• According to Locke
→ The relationship between government and people is contractual.
▪ People give government certain power and in return of this they promise
their obedience to the government.

→ Government is based on the consent of the governed .

▪ But the problem is ‘How and when is consent given?’
— Express or Actual or Explicit Consent :
When person clearly accepts his obedience to government
— Tacit Consent : We indirectly give our consent through our activities
like voting in election, using government services, participating
in political debates.

© Saar Concepts
• Locke’s Theory of Private Property
→ Locke holds that law of nature confers upon mankind natural right of life,liberty
and property.
▪ But it is the natural right to property that interests him the most.
→ Labor is the origin and justification of private property.
▪ Private property arises when individual mix their labor with what is
available for everyone in common.
→ Locke recognizes that natural law places specific limits on what one may acquire
in the state of nature
1. Spoilage Limitation
▪ An individual can not take more than what he can use.
▪ Wasting natural goods is like violating other people’s right to it
2. ‘Enough and as good’ clause
▪ One must not take more than his share.
▪ One must make sure to leave as much and as good for others

© Saar Concepts
• Locke’s Theory of Revolution
→ Locke’s Political theory is also a theory of Revolution.
→ Men establish government to defend their natural rights and uphold the
natural law. So :-
▪ Government can not supersede the natural law.
▪ Government can not violate natural rights of the people.

→ A government that violate natural right is a breach of trust.

▪ If this happens then people have the right to revolution.
▪ People have the right to take back authority originally conferred on
government.

→ After revolution, sovereignty reverts back to the community that was created
by the original contract.
▪ Then the process of creating government can begin again.

© Saar Concepts
06
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Rousseau Born in Geneva in 1712
• Had little formal education
• At the age of 15 ran away
Became opposed to from home and reached Paris
prevailing mode of thought • Came in contact with
Enlightenment Thinkers

Became a Critic of
Enlightenment

The Main Enlightenment argument was

: Science and Religion can improve
man’s condition

“ Man is naturally good but corrupted by Society”

• “Discourses on Science and Arts” (1750)

→ Written for an essay competition organized by ‘ Academy of Dijon’
→ He argued that advancement in civilization is making human being
corrupt, dishonest and unhappy.

• Second Discourse : ‘Discourse on Inequality’ (1754)

• Social Contract (1762)

→ Problem caused by the civilization can be overcome by a new kind
social organization

Rousseau has a three stage model

Social Contract Theory

State of Nature where man is very good

and happy
Discussed in “Discourse on Inequality”
Man moves into a corrupt society with
corrupt government

Man reforms the society through the

Discussed in “Social Contract”
Social Contract
© Saar Concepts
Rousseau’s State of Nature

There is absence of Reason

Needs are basic and limited : they

are physical needs
Desire for Self Preservation
Self Love Man is naturally free,
(amour de soi)
independent, Satisfied and Happy
Ability to experience other’s
Sympathy
sufferings Man lives a Solitary life

But men will be different from There is no reason means there is

animals in two respects no Law of Nature here

© Saar Concepts
As a tool it helps us achieve our goal
Reason Performs
two Functions It affects our desire by making us
want more and more

Process begins with the arrival Scarcity of Resources will make Necessity to adapt
of Reason in state of nature people think and use reason give birth to Reason

From State of Nature to Corrupt

Society
The Process gets completed in
3 Stages

Appearance of Family First Stage

People will realize the importance Rousseau says desire of vanity can never
of association and group work be satisfied – becomes a cause of
unhappiness

They will start coming closer

It is a desire to be seen superior to others

This will give rise to Vanity or Pride

Vanity or Pride is different from self love
among people

Society gets divided into Introduction of Private

Second Stage
Rich and Poor Property

Conflict begins between Rousseau is considered as an

Rich and Poor inspiration for Socialists

But Rousseau is not against

Private Property but against
Poor Desire the Property of Rich negative effect of Private
property
Rich wants to protect their property
from poor
© Saar Concepts
From State of Nature to Corrupt Process gets completed in 3
Society Stages

Establishment of Government Third Stage

Through First Social Contract

Rich will tell poor that a government is needed to protect life

and property of all

Poor will feel This social contract will be plan by the rich to
cheated actually protect their own property

Society will become

even more corrupt © Saar Concepts
How to come out of this corrupt Not possible to go back to state
Society of nature

We can only reform the existing

society
This is Possible through a New
We can try to restore man’s natural Social Contract
freedom and eliminate inequality,
dependence and subordination
Main Objective of the Social
Contract

To establish Equality and

For Rousseau Freedom means

Self Government
Collective Interest

Higher Self
Rousseau's An Individual is free if he his ruled
Theory of Self by laws made by himself
Lower Self
Self Government – direct
Self Interest participation in legislation – Direct
Democracy

He said ‘will’ can not be Rousseau was against

represented
© Saar Concepts Representative Democracy
Rousseau’s
Social Contract

People give all their In return they receive equal share in

rights to the community sovereignty or decision making process

What if Laws are made on Laws of the community are actually

majority basis ? laws made by people for themselves

This will not be self-rule for the

This meets the requirement of self-
minority
government (freedom)

To Solve this problem Rousseau

introduces the concept of
“General Will”
© Saar Concepts
The General Will
State Individual
It is the good for the whole
community
General Will Will Will

Aim at well Aim at

being of entire Individual well
community being

Two Features of General Will

All citizen should participate in making

General in Origin
General Will

All the people together make the

People
Legislature

But majority decision

Unanimous decision People make laws on the basis of
can also represent
is required General Will
General Will

If majority thinks for Sovereign will appoint the

collective interest Government to implement the
laws
Minority (those who
don’t approve the laws)
“Forced to be free”
can be forced to follow
the law © Saar Concepts
07
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham Born in London in 1748

Founder of Utilitarianism

He was influenced by accomplishments of natural

He was an Enlightenment Thinker
Sciences

He wanted same development in social sciences

More than a Philosopher he was a Wanted to develop simple practical principle that
Reformer can be implemented

© Saar Concepts
He proposed many legal, Political and Criminal
reforms : (his famous Model Prison – Panoptican)
Jeremy Bentham : Major Works

• A Fragment on Government (1776)

• An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and legislation (1789)

Psychological All human being seek to maximize Pleasure and

Hedonism minimize Pain

• People seek Pleasure as an End in itself

Pleasure is Supreme • People seek greatest quantity of pleasure not quality
Good • Quality of Pleasure is more important than quantity
(Pushpin is as good as poetry)

• Pleasure and pain are only criteria that determine

Pleasure is the basis of
what we ought to do
Morality
• What is Right is what is Pleasurable

Bentham is concerned with increasing the

Pleasure of entire community

Community is the sum total of Individual

We need to add together the individual

Pleasure of all

Felicific Calculus

© Saar Concepts
Felicific Calculus
1. Intensity
2. Duration
3. Propinquity
Pleasure and Pain to be measured along
4. Certainty
7 Dimensions
5. Fecundity
6. Purity
7. Extent

Using this Legislators and Policymakers can

achieve the true aim of Legislation

Phrase coined by
“Greatest Happiness of greatest number”
Francis Hutcheson

Utilitarianism Teleological Moral Theory

First we define the meaning of “Good”

(For Utilitarianism Good = Pleasure)

Right action is that which brings about

greatest amount of good (Pleasure)

Teleological Theory focus on the

Consequence of Actions

Right is defined independent of the

What is Right ?
consequence of action

Something that follows a predefined

moral Principle or Law (eg. Natural Law)

Right action is that which is consistent

with Natural law or Moral Principle

Bentham calls Natural Laws and Natural Rights are meaningful only if they
Right a fiction – ‘Simple Nonsense’ established and enforced by
“Nonsense Upon Stilts” a Legal System

Legal Positivism
• Laws are command issued by
appropriate authority.
• Rights are real if supported by a legal
system

• Bentham supports Representative Democracy

→ In Representative Democracy Leaders
are accountable to the People
→ This accountability is ensured through
periodic elections and limited tenure
• Bentham Proposes following reforms
• Universal Adult Franchise
• Secret ballot
• Annual election
• James Mill helps Bentham develop his ideas on democracy.
→ Mill’s Famous work is
• “Essay on Government” (1820)

Son of James Mill

Major Works

• On Liberty (1859)
• Utilitarianism (1861)
• Considerations on Representative Government (1861)
• Subjugation of Women (1869)

Mill’s Main Objectives

• Provide a defense for Utilitarianism

• Provide a Theory of Liberty .

Both believe that Pleasure is Supreme good

Both believe in Psychological Hedonism which means that men

always desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

Both believe that Pleasure is the basis of Morality :

What is right is what causes pleasure.

Both believe that Public Policy and Laws should

aim at “greatest happiness of greatest numbers”

For Mill, not all Pleasures are Equal

Quality of Pleasure is more There are Superior or Higher quality

important that quantity of Pleasure and Inferior or Lower quality
Pleasure Pleasure

Mental Pleasure or Pleasure of Minds are

“It is better to be a human higher quality or superior pleasure
being dissatisfied than a Pig
satisfied, better to be Socrates
Physical Pleasure or Bodily Pleasure are
dissatisfied than a fool
lower quality or inferior pleasure
satisfied.

Mill introduces a qualitative dimension to

Bentham’s Utilitarianism
Mill calls Bentham’s Philosophy
One-Sided It makes the simple doctrine of Bentham
a Complex one
It ignores the emotional side of
Human Life Moral debates, value judgment and
ethical question enters Utilitarianism

The Mental Depression that Mill Faced in his Felicific Calculus of Bentham
early 20s helps him arrive at this Conclusion becomes difficult to use

He comes out from this Depression by reading

poetries of Wordsworth and Coleridge © Saar Concepts
Mill dedicates his work ‘On Liberty’ to his
Mill’s concept of Liberty
wife Harriet Taylor

What is Freedom for Mill?

It is the ability to pursue our own good in

our own way, provided that we do not
impede other people’s effort to do so.

Society can restrict our freedom only to

Harm Principle
prevent harm to others

Self Regarding Sphere No Interference

It means Harm to others
and not to self
© Saar Concepts
Other regarding sphere Interference allowed
Two most important types of
Freedom for Mill

Freedom of Thoughts and Expression

Freedom of Thoughts and Expression must not

Society will lose by If the Opinion is be suppressed
suppressing it Correct
Even if the thought or opinion is correct or
Debate can incorrect
If the Opinion is
reestablish the
Incorrect
legitimacy of truth

Clash of Opinion and ideas

extremely Important © Saar Concepts
Two most important types of Mill dedicates his work ‘On Liberty’ to his
Freedom for Mill wife Harriet Taylor

Freedom of Thoughts and Expression

Freedom of to live as one chooses

This is called ‘Individuality’

People should be allowed to

make their own choices

© Saar Concepts
Two most important types of Mill dedicates his work ‘On Liberty’ to his
Freedom for Mill wife Harriet Taylor

Freedom of Thoughts and Expression

Freedom of to live as one chooses

These two types of freedom brings higher

quality pleasure

• According to Mill, Representative form of government is the best form of

Government :
→ Elected members are responsible to public
• Mill says that every citizen should be given vote.
→ He advocates for voting rights for women.
• Subjugation of Women (1869)
• What Mill fears most in a Representative Government is Tyranny of Majority
→ He proposes some solutions
• Provision for Plural Voting
• Proportional Representation
(this method of Voting was developed by
Thomas Hare)

Born in 1870 in Moscow, Russia

Best known for his two Theories

• Theory of Vanguard Party

→ Presented in his short work “What is to be done?”(1902)

• Theory of Imperialism
→ Presented in his famous book:
“ Imperialism : The Highest stage of Capitalism”(1916)

This party was illegal During his student life, Lenin joined RSDP –
in Russia Russian Socialist Democratic Party

Lenin’s zeal and organization ability helped

him become a leading figure in the party

But soon Lenin began to differ from the

strategy of RSDP Leadership

RSDP Leadership believed Lenin believed that

Russia must pass through high Capitalist Revolution should begin as soon as
Stage before Revolution Possible

RSDP wanted to build a mass party like Mass Party is not required
that of German SDP

Lenin presents the alternative in his

work “What is to be done?”(1902)

Lenin’s Arguments

If worker class is left to itself

What is actually needed is a ‘Revolutionary

They will only develop
Consciousness’ which worker class can not
‘Trade Union Consciousness’
develop themselves.

Workers need Leadership

This Party should have Revolutionary Consciousness

They should have the theory and Tactics of Revolution

A New Type of Party is
needed

Vanguard Party © Saar Concepts

Lenin’s Theory of Vanguard Party

What Lenin is Proposing

Creation of a small party of dedicated professional revolutionaries

trained in revolutionary activity and Marxist Theory.

“Vanguard of the Proletariat”

This organization is based on Democratic Centralism

This party will not be separate from the working

class – it will be the most class conscious part of it.

Split in the RSDP

Bolsheviks Mensheviks

This faction led by Lenin

Later becomes Official Ideology of this Party is

“Communist Party of Soviet Union” called ‘Marxism-Leninism’

Lenin wanted to give a Theoretical explanation for the

failure of Marx’s Prediction

Contrary to Marx’s Prediction

Capitalism had not shown any sign of collapse in advanced

capitalist countries

• Classes were not polarizing.

• Middle Class growing Answer Lies in
• Working class becoming prosperous Imperialism

© Saar Concepts
Lenin says that Marx could not see this
Stage of Capitalism
Imperialism is an another
Stage of Capitalism
Lenin’s Theory of Imperialism

Lenin presents this theory in his famous work

“Imperialism : The Highest Stage of Capitalism” (1916)

Capitalism Exploits the Underdeveloped Part

of the world

Workers have not been It uses the profit to ‘buy off’ the domestic
‘Bought Off’ here working class

Russia is not as economically The exploited mass of the colonial world

advanced as west becomes new Proletariat

Lenin says Russia is Ready for Thus Communist Revolution will not start
Communist Revolution
© Saar Concepts
from the advanced Capitalist west
10
Edmund Burke’s Conservatism
Edmund Burke

Born in 1729 in Dublin, Ireland

His major works

1765 - Got elected to House of

• A vindication of Natural Societies (1756)
Commons
• A philosophical Enquiry into the origin of
our ideas of sublime and beautiful (1757)
• An appeal from new to old Whigs (1791) Remained an MP till his death
• Thoughts on French Affairs (1791)
• Letters on Regicide Peace (1796-97)

His most famous and Important work

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

Politics cannot be conducted according to

abstract Principles

Abstract Principles are those that are not based on

or rooted in Past Experience and Practice

Need to conserve past experiences and practices

Social and Political Result of slow and gradual Men evolve to accommodate
Institutions that men live in process of Evolution to changing circumstances

Society is not based on a

It is a slow process of trial
Contract that any one
and error and learning
Generation has made

It is a vast historical partnership between those who are living,

those who are dead and those who will born

It is so complex that it can not be understood by any one individual

or Generation or Group

To try to destroy it and build another from scratch is a big Mistake

Revolution or Sudden Change is destructive

There should only be reforms and in a

Gradual Manner

This reform should not be based on abstract

Principles but on the need of situation.

Present state of things is the sum total of all

developments

It is too complex to Understand

Interfering with it is dangerous

The arrangement that works should be left alone

• Burke was against French Present state of things is the sum total of all
Revolution developments
•He criticized British
Misgovernment in India and It is too complex to Understand
America.
•He was largely responsible for Interfering with it is dangerous
the impeachment of Warren
Hastings in 1788 The arrangement that works should be left alone

Gramsci and Luckas : Western Marxism

Eduard Berstein’s Revisionism

Karl Marx and
Marxism
Louis Althusser : Structural Marxism

Nicos Poulantzas’s Structural Marxism

Ralph Miliband’s Instrumental Marxism

Eduard Bernstein

He belonged to German Social Democratic Party (SDP)

In the beginning he was an orthodox Marxist like

other members of SDP

Death of Friedrich Engels in 1895 gave Bernstein

freedom to differ from core assumptions of Marxism

Single great leap or a sudden change from Capitalism

to Socialism is not possible

Capitalism is not going to Collapse under its own

Contradiction : there is no sign for it

Socialism will come about through gradual reforms

and democracy and not through sudden a revolution

Bernstein thus modified number of Marxism’s basic

ideas.

From 1896, he published his ideas in a

His ideas were criticized by Karl
series of Articles in
Kautsky, Rosa Luxemberg and others
the journal “The New Age”

Bernstein clarified his ideas in his later

works
• The Precondition of Socialism and
the task of Social Democracy (1899)
• Evolutionary Socialism : A Criticism
and Affirmation (1899)

• These works gave rise to what is called evolutionary

Marxism splits into two Parts

Orthodox Marxists

Karl Marx’s Theory was right, Revolution is needed

to overthrow Capitalism and establish Socialism
Main Proponent : Rosa Luxemberg

Revisionist Marxists

Socialism can be established even without Violent

Revolution , through gradual reforms and democracy
Main Proponent : Eduard Bernstein

Major Works
He was against Marxist Humanism
• For Marx (1965)
• Reading Capital (1965)
What is Humanism ?
• Ideology and Ideological
State Apparatus (1970)
Any system of thought that places human
being at the center of the analysis

Marxist Humanism is
Marx’s work “Economic and Philosophical Manuscript” (written in
associated with
1844 and published in 1930s) is considered a Humanist text
Critical Theory

© Saar Concepts
Althusser says that real Marxism (one based on Historical
materialism) can never be Humanist.
Louis Althusser

Structuralism

Human beings are not free to

It is an anti-humanist method
create the world according to
of analysis
their own will

Society is not a collection of

Individuals but a System or
Structure

It is this system or structure that determines the

lives and thoughts of individuals living in it.

Base Economic System

Althusser rejects economic
determinism of Marx Factors of Production

Relations of Production
Structure of the Society consists
of relatively autonomous levels
Capitalist Class Working Class

Ideological System

Economic System These systems function separately and can be

analyzed independently of economic system
Political System © Saar Concepts
19
Sir Karl Popper
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)

Known for his three important concepts

Theory of Falsification : ‘The Logic of Scientific Discovery’ (1934)

Historicism : ‘The Poverty of Historicism’ (1957)

Open Society : ‘The Open Society and its enemies’ (1945)

© Saar Concepts
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)
For Popper , Induction is not a Proper
Theory of Falsification method to build theory or Knowledge

Method of Induction is based on

Verification and Confirmation

Induction method
Collection of Evidence → Generalization (theory building) → Verification

Generalizations based on large number of observed past evidenced

is a valid or correct theory or law.

© Saar Concepts
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)
For Popper , Induction is not a Proper
Theory of Falsification method to build theory or Knowledge

Its core assumption is that Method of Induction is based on

past will repeat itself in future Verification and Confirmation

No amount of Verification and confirmation of what we currently believe

can show that our beliefs will go on being true in future

It is better to base our Theory on Falsification rather than Verification

All scientific knowledge are Even a single counter example

© Saar Concepts
Provisional : They are true as long as can show that a given
they are not falsified generalization is wrong
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)

Theory of Falsification
Marxism

Intellectual Systems that are

Pseudo-Science
not falsifiable

They do not allow evidence

against them

Concept of Historicism ‘The Poverty of Historicism’ (1957)

It is a belief that it is possible to discover ‘Laws’ of Historical

Development

On the basis of such law, predict future and make social and
political plan according to that

Karl Popper rejects ‘Historicism’

We can not know what the future might be

Concept of Open Society ‘The Open Society and its enemies’ (1945)

Two requirements for a Good Society

People are able to express their Criticism against government

effectively

It is possible to change a corrupt government which is acting

against people

A Society which fulfills these requirements is

It is because they present a totalitarian
called an Open Society
vision of state in their theories

Karl Popper calls Plato, Hegel and Marx

‘Enemy of Open Society’ © Saar Concepts
20 & 21
Vilfredo Pareto and
Robert Michel
Vilfredo Pareto

An Italian Economist and

Social Theorist

Famous for his Theory of ‘Circulation of

Elites’

This Theory is presented in his book “The

Rise and Fall of the Elites” (1991)

Other works :
The transformation of Democracy (1984)
The Mind and Society (1935)
© Saar Concepts
Vilfredo Pareto

Human Activity

Logical Activity

Means and ends are objectively related

Non-Logical Activity

Where means and ends are not objectively

All Non-Logical Social and Political life comprises of

Activity non-logical activities

But human being try to make their

actions appear Rational

They try to Rationalize their activities by

making Theoretical Constructs
or Theories

Society’s General
Theories or Theoretical
belief system
Constructs

Constant Elements Residues

Derived Elements Derivations

Constant Elements Residues

Class I Residues Class II Residues

Instincts of Combination Persistence of Aggregates

Capacity to create and Natural human tendency to

invent new things conserve and consolidate

Associated with personality Associated with personality

trait of fox
© Saar Concepts trait of lion
Human Activity

Basis of Social and

Logical Activity Non-Logical Activity
Political Life

Try to rationalize it by
making theories

Constant Derivates

Residues

Class I Class II
‘Instinct of Combination’ ‘Persistence of Aggregates’

FOX © Saar Concepts LION

Population

Elite Non Elite

Non-Governing Elite Governing Elite

FOX LION

Good at manufacturing consent and Good at using force and theses People
striking are straightforward

© Saar Concepts
When situation favors them they will When situation favors them they will
come to power come to power
Robert Michel

He is best known for his theory of

‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’
A European Sociologist
The idea is developed in his book
Born in Germany but spent much ‘Political Parties’ (1911)
of his time in Italy

He is associated with Italian Elitist

thinkers : Mosca and Pareto

© Saar Concepts
Robert Michel Without Organization Weaker groups in
Society can not challenge the stronger and
‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’ powerful

In a Democracy , We need to
It is Organization that give rise
build Political Organization or
to Oligarchy of leaders
Political Party

As the Organization grows , Responsibility gets delegated to groups

management becomes complex of specialists (Natural Leaders)

Struggle for power takes place In the beginning, leaders serve the
among the elites interests of Party members

For these leaders the most important

things become maintaining their power © Saar Concepts
Gradually leaders become more
Professionalized and form an Oligarchy
Robert Michel

‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’

Democracy requires Organization

Oligarchy Organization requires

‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’

‘Who says Organization, says Oligarchy’

Robert Michel gives an Elitist Critique

of Democracy

• Parliamentary Democracy is a Fraud

• Once Leaders are in Power, they use power for their
own interest.
• In democracy there is struggle for power between
and among Elites.
• Democracy at best offers choice between Elites.

His major themes are

• Racism, its effects and how it can be overcome.

• Relationship between Racism and Colonialism.

His important works

Black Faces, White Masks (1952)

The Wretched of the Earth (1961)

Relationship between black and white

Black Faces, White Masks
people in colonial situation

Colonized people are educated to believe

Civilization and everything that is good White Represents

Everything that is bad, Uncivilized Black Represents

Status depends on Color

They adopt White man’s manners

Black despise their own color
and behaviors

Black people lose their Identity © Saar Concepts

But they are still seen as Inferior
Frantz Fanon

The Wretched of the Earth

Independence from Colonialism for

It is a fraud
African Countries

Power went from White

Freedom has no meaning if granted to Black Capitalists
by the colonial power to the
colonized people
Exploitation continues
under Black capitalist
True independence comes only
through Revolution

He is also regarded as Conservative

Communitarian Thinker

His Major Works

He wrote a long introduction to David Hume’s

‘Treatise of Human Nature’

Lectures on Principles of Political Obligation (1882)

Prolegomena to Ethics (1883)

He rejected the idea that society can be understood as a collection of self

interested individuals dedicated to the pursuit of happiness and pleasure.

The relation between Individual and Society is Complex

The Individual is a Social Being, the self is a Social Self

Individual can not be separated from the group

We achieve happiness and fulfillment as a part of community

Individual Interest can not be more important that Collective good.

© Saar Concepts
Rights and Duties are equally important
Thomas Hill Green’s Chief purpose of Government is
View of Freedom to maximize freedom

Constraints is not mere physical external Maximizing freedom by removing

restriction (Negative Freedom) Constraints

For T H Green : Constraint is

understood in broader sense

Green gives a Positive Conception of freedom

(Positive Freedom)

Freedom is Rational Freedom

It is doing what is ought to be done

Freedom is Self-Realization

It is about realizing one’s true potential

It is the freedom to become the best that one can be

Whatever stands in the way of self realization is a

‘Constraint’
© Saar Concepts
Thomas Hill Green’s View on the
Role of Government

Green gives many functions to

Government

Function of government is not just to remove external

barriers to freedom

Government must provide means and opportunities for

self realization

Here Green lays the foundation of Welfare State

Government should provide education and health care service

© Saar Concepts
It should inculcate good habits : eg by banning Alcohol etc
40
Benito Mussolini
and Fascism
Benito Mussolini and He was a Key figure in the
Fascism development of Fascism

Fascism is different from

Hitler’s Nazism (also called National
Socialism) in one way

Hitler’s Nazism was also a ‘Racist

Ideology’

Nazism = Fascism + Racism

Mussolini was born in

He began as a Socialist and Marxist
1883

Later he became part of a small group

In 1945 he was captured and murdered of Extreme Nationalist

Hitler rescued him and installed him as ruler The group demanded that Italy should
of Northern Italy Participate in World War I

In 1943 he dismissed and arrested

Later Mussolini built a Fascist
In 1936 he entered an alliance with Hitler Paramilitary Organization called
‘Rome – Berlin Axis’ ‘Black Shirts’

He seized power in 1922 and ruled Italy for

next 21 years © Saar Concepts
Benito Mussolini and
Fascism

The term ‘Fascism’ is derived from Fascist Theory is to be found in the writings of
Italian word ‘fascio’ meaning ‘bundle’ Mussolini and his followers
or ‘bound together’
Mussolini’s most important follower and
Fascism is also related to a Latin word Fascist thinker was Giovanni Gentile
called ‘fasces’ : which represent
bundle of Rods and an Axe Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile wrote
‘ Fascism : Doctrine and Institutions’
This was the symbol of Roman
authority which was also adopted by
Mussolini
© Saar Concepts
Features of Fascism

First : Fascism Glorifies State

• State represents the Unified People

• Individual is subordinate to the state.
→ If necessary individual can be sacrificed for the
State
• Fascism does not tolerate any division and diversity
→ There should be no diversity and divisions in
society.

Second : Fascist economy is based on Corporatism

•The economy should be organized on corporatist

basis.
• Different sectors of economy are represented by
corporations of workers and employers.
• Corporations will plan everything cooperation with
the state.

Third : Fascism Glorifies its leaders

•Mussolini called himself ‘il Duce’ and Hitler ‘der

Fuhrer’ – both the term meaning leader.
• The leader is the symbol of people and their strength
• The leader is best of his people and has proved this
by having struggled to the top.

Fourth : Fascist leaders are not Autocrat but Demagogues

• They appeal directly to the masses of the people.

• They arouse mass passion and maintain a high degree
of mass solidarity.
• They control and use mass media for propaganda
• Great emphasis is put on symbolism

Fifth : Glorification of War

•It is in the war that a nation is most united and

disciplined.
• During war people have a sense of purpose and pride
• Fascist regimes tend to be highly militaristic

Marry Wollstonecraft ‘Vindication of the Rights of Women’

Simon de Beauvoir ‘The Second Sex’

She was born in London in 1759

Her most important work is

‘A Vindication of the Rights of the Women’ (1790)

‘A Vindication of the Rights Foundational text of First

of the Women’ (1790) Wave Feminism

Liberal Feminism

Wollstonecraft applies standard liberal values and arguments to

the specific case of women

Human beings are Their Rationality Justifies their claim to rights of

rational Creatures liberties and self-determination

Women are also Human They are also They must be entitled the same
beings Rational rights and liberties as men

The assumed Their submissive nature, Feminity of

irrationality of women emotional and meekness Women

These characteristics are socially created, women are taught to be like this

© Saar Concepts
If given equal opportunities, rights and liberties then Women will equally capable then men
Simon de Beauvoir

She was born in Paris in 1908

Her most important work is

‘The Second Sex’ (1949)

This book gave rise to Second Wave Feminism

Before the Publication of First Wave Equal legal and Political Rights
‘The Second Sex’ Feminism were achieved by the women

The relationship between Men and Women But Women were still treated as
remained that of Superior and Inferior Inferior and subordinate

Women were always seen as subordinate, second

rate citizen and submissive beings

To explain this , Beauvoir uses

Reason behind this lies in the Mentality of the
‘Existentialism’ Philosophy in her
Societye
book ‘The Second Sex’

Existentialism was developed by Jean Paul Sarte in his book

Existentialism
‘Being and Nothingness’

The purpose of
existence is to achieve Self Understanding is achieved through defining oneself
Self-Understanding
People define themselves in terms of

Subject who is being defined ‘Self’

Subject or Self defines himself by

‘Other’
creating a category of ‘Other’

Existentialism

• Self needs ‘Otherness’ in order to define itself as a subject.

• The category of otherness is necessary in the constitution of
the Self as a ‘Self’.

•While it is natural for humans to understand themselves in

opposition to ‘Other’ – the Process becomes problematic
when applied to the relations between Men and Women

Existentialism

They represent the ‘Self’

Men6 Men will define themselves
or ‘Subject’

Men will define themselves

in opposition to Women

Women become ‘Other’ or

‘Object

Women can not define themselves The ‘Object’ depends on ‘Subject’

, they are defined by Men for its Identity

All that is good and Masculine Man represents all that is positive
Dominant Quality and good

All that is bad and Feminine Women represent all that is bad
Subservient Quality and inferior

She argues that feminine qualities are not natural to women

Civilization, not biology, had constructed the feminity

Feminity and Gender is a Social Construct

Feminity was artificially created by customs and imposed from

outside. Women are taught to assume Gender Roles

“One is not born but rather becomes a Woman”

What is the Solution to the Problem ?

Men and Women should recognize as Equals

They should naturally recognize each other as Subjects

He is credited with the revival of

His Major Works
Normative Theorizing in Political Science

A Theory of Justice (1971)

Political Liberalism (1993)
Laws of People (1993)

Rawls develops theory of Justice which

‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971)
he calls ‘Justice as Fairness’

To arrive at his theory, Rawls uses the

old device of Social Contract
But Rawls Contract theory is different
from that of Hobbes and Locke’s theory

Rawls does not use the social contract device to arrive at a Theory of Government as is
done by Thomas Hobbes and Locke in their version of Social Contract theory

The objective of Rawls’ Theory

To provide a criticism of Utilitarian theory of Justice

According to Utilitarianism , we can sacrifice the

interest and liberty of an individual for the overall
happiness of the community

Rawls says Individual liberty can not be sacrificed

He wants to build a theory of Justice that will not

Rawls Method
Original Position is located
Original Position
behind ‘Veil of Ignorance’

The aim is to design the kind of

It is characterized by a
society into which we will move after
lack of knowledge
leaving the Original Position

• People don’t know about their talents and abilities

• they don’t know which position they will occupy in What people don’t know
the society

• People will know about scarcity of resources

• It will be good for them to have as much Primary What people know
© Saar Concepts
Social Goods like : Rights,Liberties,Income, Wealth etc
John Rawls Original Position

Everyone is self-interested and want as much of the

Primary goods as possible

They do not know the position they will occupy in the

society they are going to create

r
People will arrive at Two Principles of Justice

Liberty Principle First Principle

Second Principle

Two Principles of Justice

Each Person is to have an equal rights to the most extensive

Liberty Principle
liberty compatible with similar liberty to others

This kind of liberty may give rise to

socio-economic inequality
Second Principle

Social and economic inequalities are justified if they are based

on these two principles

Equal Opportunity Principle

© Saar Concepts Difference Principle

John Rawls

Two Principles of Justice

Second Principle

Social and economic inequalities are justified if they are based

on these two principles

Equal Opportunity Principle

Inequality attached to the positions and offices open to all

under condition of fair equality of opportunity

Difference Principle

Two Principles of Justice

Second Principle

Difference Principle

It is a Principle of Distributive Justice

This Principle becomes the basis of the

idea of ‘Welfare State’

Poor should be provided with a minimum acceptable

standard of living by taxing the wealth of the rich

Two Principles of Justice

Lexical Order

Liberty Principle

Equal opportunity
Principle

Difference Principle

These Principles can be tested and modified if necessary by a process of

Rawls on Civil Disobedience

Once Principles of Justice have They need to be

been decided Institutionalized

We need to create Majoritarian

Political Institutions

Minority have the right to This majority may disregard the

practice Civil Disobedience Rights and interests of minority

Through Civil Disobedience they can appeal to the

‘A Theory of Justice’ has been subjected to a great deal of

analysis and Criticisms

Rawls reacts to these criticism in his

book “Political Liberalism”
Laws of People
•Rawls tries to apply his theory of Justice to International
Relations
• Rawls distinguishes between four types of societies
→ Liberal Societies
→ Decent Non-Liberal Societies
→ Outlaw States

© Saar Concepts
→ Burdened Societies
• The Laws of People contains 8 Principles
45
Michael Sandel
and Communitarianism
Communitarianism

Aristotle, Aquinas, A broad tradition of Political Thought that emphasize

Hegel, Rousseau the moral and political value of Community

1980s – Communitarian thinkers reacted to liberal

Political Theory of John Rawls, Robert Nozick and
Ronald Dworkin

Prominent Communitarian Thinkers Include

Michael Sandel
Alsdair MacIntyrte
Charles Taylor
Michael Walzer
© Saar Concepts
Communitarianism Rights are natural and
not given by society
Communitarian Critique
of Liberal Theories Based on the ideas of
Natural Rights
Excessively Individualistic Liberalism

It neglects the essential roles that Virtues, traditions

and communal belongings play in our lives

People derive their identity from being members of

community

Liberalism prioritizes the ‘Rights’ over ‘Good’

Morally neutral between different

For Liberalism Principles of Justice
view of what a good life means

Aim of Liberalism is to construct an Impartial No one way of life is considered

and Neutral framework of ‘Rights’ good over others

Liberal State is Neutral and Impartial

Only aim is to Enforce Individual

rights
State refrain from supporting one conception
of ‘Good’ over other
© Saar Concepts
Communitarianism Communitarian Critique of Liberal Theories

Liberalism prioritizes the ‘Rights’ over ‘Good’

For Communitarians

The idea that State is Neutral ‘Rights’ can never be prior to

is an Illusion ‘Good’

Because Function of Rights is

The scheme of ‘Rights’ always to Protect certain Interest
advance some conceptions of
‘Good’ at the expense of
others ‘Interests’ are nothing but a
version of good

Michael Sandel

Major Works

• Democracy and its Discontents (1998)

• Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (1998)
• Public Philosophy (2005)
• Justice : What is the right thing to do (2010)
• What Money cant buy ? (2012)

Michael Sandel Criticizes Rawls idea of Original Position

Michael Sandel Michael Sandel Criticizes Rawls idea of Original Position

According to Rawls

In order to arrive at Principles of We must place ourselves in Original Position

Justice and Under Veil of Ignorance

Behind the ‘Veil of Ignorance’ we do not

have knowledge about who we are
Michael Sandel criticizes this
whole process
Each participant will want to ensure that
everyone has fair share of primary goods
He says that Rawls theory is based
Then his whole
upon an Idea of Self called
‘Unencumbered Self’ © Saar Concepts
If Rawls Premise that is
Original Position is wrong theory of justice is
wrong
Communitarianism

Michael Sandel Michael Sandel Criticizes Rawls idea of Original Position

Unencumbered Self

People can stand back from all of their inherited values and
communal attachment and freely make decisions

We can stand outside the Community framework

Human nature can be understood independent of the

community

This is the basic assumption of Rawls that Sandel rejects

Michael Sandel Michael Sandel Criticizes Rawls idea of Original Position

According to Sandel

Human beings are ‘Encumbered Selves’

Human Beings are The beliefs, desires and relationships that make us who
‘Situated Self’ we are – are all social and communal

They are not The ‘Self’ is constituted by the very community

‘unanchored’ but are attachments that Rawls wants us forget
always anchored to their

Charles Taylor

His major works

• The sources of the Self (1989)

• The Malaise of Modernity (1991)
•Multiculturalism : Examining the Politics of
recognition (1994)
• A Secular Age (2007)
• Essay “The Diversity of Goods” (1982)

Charles Taylor

A communal context is precondition of Individuality

Liberal theorists Only focus on Individual and Negative Liberty

They ignore the communal context required for

the enjoyment of individual liberty

They put more emphasis on Rights than Duties

His most important contribution in Political theory is in

the field of Distributive Justice

He is a Communitarian Thinker

Major Works

Thick and Thin (1994)

Spheres of Justice (1983)

Thick and Thin

There are two types of Moral Arguments

Thin Moral Arguments

Moral Principles that are shared by everyone and all cultures.

Eg. Political Tyranny is wrong, Oppression of poor is wrong

Thick Moral Arguments

Moral Values that are particular to given Culture

© Saar Concepts
These moral values depend o the history and culture, practices
and traditions of the members of a particular community
Michael Walzer

Spheres of Justice

This is Walzer’s most important

Work

Critique of Rawls Theory Pluralist account of theory of

of Justice Distributive Justice

Complex Equality

Just Distribution of Social Must take into account Cultural Particularities and
Goods moral values of a particular community

Principles of Justice should This argument is against Rawls’ argument who

reflect shared understanding of wants us to forget the influence of community.
members of a community

Different Social Goods have different values

There must be Plurality

Each Social Good occupy its own Sphere of Justice
of Distributive Principles

© Saar Concepts
No one should be favored in the distribution of Social Goods in one sphere on
account of a dominant distribution of goods in another sphere
Michael Walzer Spheres of Justice Complex Equality

Health care Economic Wealth Education

Need Hard Work Merit

Nobody should receive better healthcare – simply because they

have more money or higher educational qualification

Robert Nozick says

Liberty vs. Equality Liberty and Equality are Libertarianism
incompatible

For John Rawls and Liberty and Equality are

Ronald Dworkin compatible

Liberal Egalitarianism

They try to bring

‘Equality’ more central

Inequality arising out of natural lottery

Rawls is not concerned
with them
Inequality in Natural Endowments

Rawls include many

undeserving poor in the
Who is really least category of disadvantaged
advantaged ?

By Choice : Disadvantaged as a
No Compensation needed
result of their own action

By Chance (Luck) : Disadvantaged as

In his book
‘Sovereign Virtues’

Ethical Individualism

Principle of Equal Importance

→ Everyone is important and human life should
be successful rather than wasted

Principle of Special Responsibility

→ The responsibility of success depends on the
individual himslef.
© Saar Concepts
Ronald Dworkin

Equality of Recourses

How Resources to be Distribution must distinguish between

distributed in society deserving and undeserving poor

Thought experiment : Shipwrecked Survivors

They agree to divide the resources

Case I Everyone has same natural talents
of the Island equally among them

Price of a Resource depends on

Everyone is given 100 Clam shells
the collective preference

Ambition Sensitive Distribution Goods people receive depends upon their choices

No one receives preferential treatment

The Distribution is Just if
All started with 100 clamshells
If it Passes the ‘Envy Test’

“No Division of resources is an equal division

, if, once the distribution is complete,
any one survivor would prefer someone else’s
bundle of resource to his own bundle”

Envy Test Fails

“Endowment-sensitive” Distribution
when the Distribution is

Distribution that is affected by the difference in

ability and natural talents

This will produce Income and other inequalities

Just
Endowment Insensitive Distribution
Distribution will be

We can ensure this by creating a

People are denied information about

Prior to the Auction
their natural talents

People given opportunity to purchase Insurance

against ‘Bad Luck’ and other Handicap

People spend some Clam shells to buy the

Insurance

They will compensation in Those who will have Bad

the form of extra resources Luck

Just Distribution

Ambition Sensitive

Endowment Insensitive

Nozick’s Political ideas are presented in

his most famous work

Other important Works “Anarchy , State and Utopia” (1974)

• Philosophical Explanations (1981)

• The Examined Life (1990)
• The Nature of Rationality (1993)
• Socratic Puzzle (1997)
• Invariances in the Structure of Objective World (2001)

“Anarchy , State and Utopia” (1974)

An attempt to reaffirm the Values and Beliefs of

Classical Liberalism

Central Premise of Classical Liberalism

Libertarianism Doctrine of Inalienable Natural Rights

Each Individual is endowed by nature with Rights

that no Government may infringe without their
Consent

Criticizes Rawls Theory of Welfare

“Anarchy , State and Utopia”
State and Theory of Justice

Theory of Minimal State

Entitlement Theory of Justice

Theory of Minimal State

Only Kind of state that is justifiable is

‘Minimal State’

State would be required to do no more than

Protective Functions

State will have no rights to make welfare or Social

Security Provisions for some citizens by taxing others

Nozick presents a modernized version of Locke’s

Theory of Minimal State
Social Contract Argument

Feel the need of protection against

People in the State of Nature
crime and invasion

People would mutually protect themselves Mutual Protection Agency

People will pay Specialists to protect them Commercial Protection Agency

There will be competition between

Dominant Protection Agency
different Protection Agencies

This will acquire monopoly over legitimate use

of violence over a given territory © Saar Concepts Minimal State
Robert Nozick

Entitlement Theory of Justice

Nozick adopts an Entitlement

Is it Just for You to have X, Y or Z ?
conception of Justice

The answer should not be based on whether you need X, Y or Z

The answer should be whether you deserve it or not

Whether you are Entitled Whether you have acquired the right to use them in Just
to it or not manner and in Just situation or not

Entitlement Theory of Whatever arising from just situation from just step is
Justice
© Saar Concepts itself Just
Robert Nozick

Right to Property

For Nozick Right to liberty is same as Right to Property

Right to Property arise in two ways

1. Just or Legitimate Acquisition

→ When someone peacefully acquires something that
is not already owned by someone else.

2. Just or Legitimate Transfer

→ When property is transferred from one owner to
another by some established legitimate process

Right to Property

Any distribution of property that does not violate these two condition is Just

No body can have any other claim against property of another, no matter how
great actual inequality is

If poor are to be assisted by the Rich, this must come

from act of Private Charity

It can not come through Social Welfare mechanism

Nozick’s Entitlement Theory of Justice

It Includes three principles

1. Principle of Just Acquisition

2. Principle of Just Transfer
3. Principle of Rectification of Injustice

She is a Libertarian Thinker

She gives the Philosophy of Rational Selfishness, Limited

Government, Individualism and Moral Capitalism

Her Philosophy is known as

“Objectivism”

The Fountainhead (1943)

Atlas Shrugged (1957)

Objectivism

It is Philosophy that Justifies Capitalism

Capitalism is a Moral System

Capitalism enables the rational individuals

to reap full benefits of his or her labor

Redistribution of wealth through tax and

welfare program is immoral

It Penalizes the headworker

It rewards the unproductive © Saar Concepts

50
Michele Foucault
and the Concept of Power
Michele Foucault

He was born in 1926 in France

He began as a Marxist thinker but in 1950s got strongly influenced

by the philosophy of Nietzsche and French Structuralism

Structuralism

Our natural assumption about our freedom to think and act as we

wish is illusionary

Human Activity is governed by deep internal structure, complex

sets of rules – which unconsciously work to severely constrain

His Major Works

• Madness and Civilization (1961)

• The Birth of Clinic (1963)
• The Order of things
• The Archeology of Knowledge
• Discipline and Punishment
• History of Sexuality

Genealogy

Foucault calls his method of study as Genealogy

Concepts such as justice, rights, good etc are not

discerned by reason – but are rather the result of
power struggle

Genealogy studies the way in which what we

count as knowledge is the result of power struggle
between different proponents of an idea

© Saar Concepts
This is called Genealogical analysis of Ideas
It flows from Top to Bottom
Michele Foucault
Power is Repressive
Capillary Power
Traditional Definition of Power

Old Model of Political Power based on Centralized Sovereign is no more applicable

Power was Direct

The King’s Head has been ‘Cut-Off’
and Visible

Sovereign was not involved in In Pre modern and early modern society –
Individual’s life beyond certain limits Power flowed from sovereign to subjects

This Type of Power is called Modernity has reconfigured the flow of

Capillary Power
© Saar Concepts
Power – It now originates from everywhere
Michele Foucault

Capillary Power

This Type of Power is called Modernity has reconfigured the flow of

Capillary Power Power – It now originates from everywhere

Power is not something concentrated in one Place

Power erupts from different points of Social Network

Capillary Power means power over life – ‘Biopower’

Power is Productive
and Constitutive
A constant pressure is applied on Individual at Every point

Power is not only

Repressive © Saar Concepts
We are shaped by Power – Our Life is determined by power
without our own knowledge about it
Michele Foucault

Governmentality

• It is also called ‘Conduct of the Conduct’

• These are the techniques required for regulating and controlling
people’s behavior.
• It is made with two words :
Government + Rationality = Governmentality
• Governmentality involves techniques like :
→ Keeping records for citizens birth and death
→ Knowing the preference of people through surveys
→ Using Statistical methods for predicting people’s
behavior.

She was born into a middle class Jewish family

in Hanover (Germany) in 1906

She studied philosophy under two major Existentialist

Thinkers – Karl Jasper and Martin Hedger

In 1933 she moved from Germany to Paris (France)

When War broke out between France and Germany –

She emigrated to USA

The Approach is very different from prevailing

traditions of Political Thoughts

She had a very different understanding of the

nature of Politics

Major Weakness in Modern Political Thinking

It is seeing Human Existence In the way as we view Nature

Objectively Objectively to understand it

In Nature there is vast

We try to identify the
Complexity
underlying aspect of human
nature and then shape society
to fit that nature We still try to find underlying
pattern and order in nature

Totalitarianism is an extreme
Version of this attempt
© Saar Concepts
Hannah Arendt

The Origin of Totalitarianism (1951)

Totalitarianism is bureaucratization of terror in the

enforcement of an ideology

Eichmann in Jerusalem :
A Report on the Banality of Evil

She portrays the Nazi War Criminal Adolf Eichmann as a

thoughtless, unimaginative bureaucrat than a Monster

Hannah Arendt gives the meaning of Politics in her famous work

The Human Condition (1958)

There are two types of Human

Activities

Vita Contemplativa or Theoretical Activities

→ Act of Thinking, Willing, Judging etc

Vita Activa or Practical Activities

→ Politics comes under this category

Vita Activa or Practical Activities again

divided into three Parts

Action

Work

Labor

Vita Activa or Practical Activities again divided into three Parts

Labor

Everything that we do to maintain our physical existence .

Eg Eating food

Work

In this type of activates we make things. The things that we

make should be made on more permanent basis
Eg. Creative Works of Craftman
Or Building some Institutions

Action It occupies the top position in the Hierarchy

It is the human capacity to publically intervene in the world and

initiate something new

It is the capacity to come out of the daily routine and change the way
we do things

Bring Changes Through :

Either through Words

This is how we will realize our true freedom

Mistake of most Theories Keeping Politics in the category of ‘Work’

Politics is understood in terms of devising and

creating Institutions that fit human nature

But for Hannah Arendt – Politics is a

Way of life

She can be put in the category of proponent

of Civic Republicanism

• Civic Republicanism values Public Life over Private life,

• It sees politics as an arena to work for the interest of community
© Saar Concepts
• It stresses on the idea of Patriotism
52
Jean Francois Lyotard and
Postmodernism
Jean Francois Lyotard

He was born in Versailles (France) in 1924

His most Important

Publication

The Post Modern Condition : A Report on

Knowledge (1979)

It was with this book that Postmodernism

came to be applied in Social and Political
Theories

The period of Modernity is The Enlightenment Project

Over has failed badly

The Project aspired to create a more Rational World with

Freedom, prosperity and happiness fro all

With the help of Reason we transformed Sci-Tech, This is called

We developed ideas like Liberalism, Capitalism, Bureaucracy Postmodernism

The Outcome of Enlightenment Project has been We have lost our faith in
Disappointing Universal Grand Theories

© Saar Concepts
It gave us – Industrialization, Urbanization, Environmental
Problems, Two World Wars, Nuclear Threat
This has undermined our
faith in Reason
Jean Francois Lyotard defines Postmodernism as

Incredulity towards Meta-Narratives

Loss of faith in Meta-Narratives

It includes – Religion , Meta-Narratives or Grand Theories or Ideologies are

Ideologies like capitalism, – big Stories that we use to justify our activities,
Liberalism, Socialism etc institutions and values

We have lost our faith in Universal Belief Systems and

Grand Theories

We have rejected the claims of Universal Truth – this

How a Postmodern Society It is a Post-Industrial, Consumer Driven, Media

looks Dominated, Globalized Society

This has become a matter

Who and What We are
of Personal Choice

Postmodern Age is Diversity, Fragmentation

an Age of and Multiple point of View

One of the pioneer of Western or Humanistic Marxism

It is a tradition that opposes orthodox Marxism fro its economic

determinism and materialistic conception of history
(Dialectical Materialism)

Orthodox Marxism

Give Priority to economic organization of society

Economic Determinism

Society is driven by economic system

Human Agency is important

Creative human actions play a role in historical development

Studied in University of Turin

While in University, became aware of Northern

Prejudice among South Italian Like him

Joined Italian Socialist Party (PSI0 in 1911

Found his own Italian Socialist Party(PSI) in 1921

Under Mussolini reign – Got arrested in 1926

Prison Notebooks Remained in Prison for life, released just before his death
in 1937

Prison Notebooks

Presents arguments against ‘Dialectical Materialism’

Argued that economic determinism can not explain why

Capitalism persists even after its contradiction

Orthodox Marxists have paid less attention to power of myth

and ideas

Physical Domination is not enough

Capitalists remain in Power because of

Hegemony

Spiritual and Cultural Supremacy of Ruling Class

Hegemony is created through manipulation of Civil Society

By Controlling and Using agent of Socialization – Media ,

Church, Schools, Colleges etc

Such values and beliefs are instilled in the Population

which favors Capitalists

© Saar Concepts
For Gramsci – the moral and cultural integration of the masses into a system operating
against their interests has made physical force unnecessary
Antonio Gramsci

Two steps to remove the Capitalist from power

1. War of Position

• Abolishing the whole system of Capitalists ideas and attitudes

• Creating a Counter Hegemony
• Gradual and peaceful transformation of mass consciousness

1. War of Manouvre

• Use of Force against the state apparatus

Two Types of Intellectuals

• Traditional Intellectuals
→ Artists, Scholars, Priests – Those who are directly related
to Politics

• Organic Intellectual
→ Civil Servants, Political Activists, who are more closely
tied to state

© Saar Concepts
32 & 33
Prince Peter Kropotkin
and Frantz Fanon
Prince Peter Kropotkin Born into a Russian noble
(1842 - 1921) family in Moscow in 1842

He was an Anarchist Thinker

He was influenced by the Kropotkin wanted to give a more

writings of Proudhon and scientific account of anarchist society
Bakunin than his Predecessors

His most important work

“Mutual Aid” (1902)

Other works
• The Conquest of Bread (1891)
© Saar Concepts
• Fields, Factories and Workshops (1899)
Prince Peter Kropotkin

A violent Revolution is necessary to give rise to

According to Kropotkin
an Anarchist world

State will be abolished After the General

immediately Uprising

State will be replaced a federation These communes will have

of self-governing communes no means of coercion

Kropotkin calls this system a ‘System of Free Communism’

No Private property and wealth means there will be no crime

His major themes are

• Racism, its effects and how it can be overcome.

• Relationship between Racism and Colonialism.

His important works

Black Faces, White Masks (1952)

The Wretched of the Earth (1961)

Relationship between black and white

Black Faces, White Masks
people in colonial situation

Colonized people are educated to believe

Civilization and everything that is good White Represents

Everything that is bad, Uncivilized Black Represents

Status depends on Color

They adopt White man’s manners

Black despise their own color
and behaviors

Black people lose their Identity © Saar Concepts

But they are still seen as Inferior
Frantz Fanon

The Wretched of the Earth

Independence from Colonialism for

It is a fraud
African Countries

Power went from White

Freedom has no meaning if granted to Black Capitalists
by the colonial power to the
colonized people
Exploitation continues
under Black capitalist
True independence comes only
through Revolution

He is also regarded as Conservative

Communitarian Thinker

His Major Works

He wrote a long introduction to David Hume’s

‘Treatise of Human Nature’

Lectures on Principles of Political Obligation (1882)

Prolegomena to Ethics (1883)

He rejected the idea that society can be understood as a collection of self

interested individuals dedicated to the pursuit of happiness and pleasure.

The relation between Individual and Society is Complex

The Individual is a Social Being, the self is a Social Self

Individual can not be separated from the group

We achieve happiness and fulfillment as a part of community

Individual Interest can not be more important that Collective good.

© Saar Concepts
Rights and Duties are equally important
Thomas Hill Green’s Chief purpose of Government is
View of Freedom to maximize freedom

Constraints is not mere physical external Maximizing freedom by removing

restriction (Negative Freedom) Constraints

For T H Green : Constraint is

understood in broader sense

Green gives a Positive Conception of freedom

(Positive Freedom)

Freedom is Rational Freedom

It is doing what is ought to be done

Freedom is Self-Realization

It is about realizing one’s true potential

It is the freedom to become the best that one can be

Whatever stands in the way of self realization is a

‘Constraint’
© Saar Concepts
Thomas Hill Green’s View on the
Role of Government

Green gives many functions to

Government

Function of government is not just to remove external

barriers to freedom

Government must provide means and opportunities for

self realization

Here Green lays the foundation of Welfare State

Government should provide education and health care service

• Confucius(Chinese name : Kongzi) was a fifth century BC Chinese thinker

- All information about Confucius’ life and teachings is known from
the text known as
• Analects (Chinese : Lunyu)

• Confucius (551-479 BCE) was born in the small state of ‘Lu’ on the Shandong Peninsula
in the northeastern China.
- He was born in a period known in Chinese History as :
• ‘Spring and Autumn Period’ (770-481 BCE)

- Most of the texts mentioning Confucius belong to another period of

Chinese history called :
• ‘Warring State Period’ (403-221 BCE)

• Pre Confucian China had two important dynasties/Civilization

- Shang Dynasty / Civilization
• This dynasty was theocratic, believed in superstition, practiced
human sacrifice. It was totally based on irrational principles

- Zhou Dynasty / Civilization

• Zhou Civilization was much more rational and humanistic
• Zhou People worshipped universal deity called ‘Tian’ (Heaven)
• Later it conquered Shang dynasty and Zhou rulers developed a
‘Kin Based Feudalism’
• They governed on the basis of rituals of Kin laws rather than force
or Violence.
• They called their statecraft as rule by virtue

• By eight century Zhou dynasty began to decline

- It was challenged by rising feudal lords
- Kingdom was frequently invaded by foreigners

• By late fifth century Zhou’s authority had completely declined

- This phase of Chinese history is called ‘Spring and Autumn Period’ and it is
in this period that Confucius was born.
- It became the life mission of Confucius to revive the old days
Zhou dynasty.
• This goal is what gets reflected in Confucius political philosophy.

• After the complete collapse of Zhou dynasty comes the ‘period of warring states’
- In this period importance of the teachings of Confucius is realized.

• Teachings of Confucius :

- Confucius did not believe that his teaching was an innovation,

• He said what he tried to do was just to transmit the wisdom of the past
with special focus on the rituals of Zhou Dynasty

- The importance of ritual propriety (li) and its role in harmonizing human
relationships is the central teaching of Confucianism

- Ritual Propriety requires that individuals of different rank and status act
appropriately according to their role in a given relationship

• Teachings of Confucius :

- Confucius identified five relations at the core of a harmonious community

• Ruler - Subject
• father - Son
• Husband-wife
• Elder-younger brother
• friend-friend

- The senior partner of these relationships are obliged to show care and concern
- Whereas the junior partners are obliged to be obedient and respectful

• Teachings of Confucius :

- Thus a harmonious social order can be created by :

• Filial Piety (Xiao), obedience, and concern towards parents and loyalty
towards rulers.

• Ren/Jen : It refers to the inner moral power that can be attained through continuous
practice of moral virtues.
• It is an inward personal attribute of goodness

• Li : Ritual propriety, it is through the practice of ‘li’ the society can be harmonized
• It is related to one’s outward behavior

• Junzi : An exemplary person, it also refers to aristocratic ruling class.

• The Warring state era , produced two thinkers of great importance for Confucian
tradition :
• Mengzi (372-289 BCE)
• Xunzi (312-230

• Born in 1893 into a Peasant family in the village of Shaoashan (Hunan Province)
• In 1918 he went to Beijing to work in the University Library.
• He began reading Marxists Texts
• Later he came under the influence of the founders of Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
→ Most importantly Li Dazhao also known as Li Ta Chao
• Mao attended the first meeting of CCP in 1921
•For many years CCP was persecuted and its members massacred by the Koumintang Govt.
(under Chiang Kai Shek)
• During one of the Chiang’s Campaign in the period 1930 – 5, Mao abandoned his base in
Kiangsi and set off fro Northern Shengsi, which was about 6000 miles away.
→ This Journey came to be known as ‘The Long March’
• Initially Mao’s force allied with the Koumintang to fight their common enemy – The Japnese
• After the Japanese were defeated , China witnessed two years of Civil war (1947-49)
→ The Civil war ended with the Chiang’s withdrawal to Taiwan

• The Chief Features and events of Mao’s Rule :

→ The Great Leap Forward (1958 to 1962)
→ The Cultural Revolution (1966 to 1976)

• Mao’s major writings :

→ On Practice (1937)
→ On Contradiction (1937)
→ On New Democracy (1940)
→ On Correct Handling of Contradiction among People (1957)
→ Where do correct ideas come from (1963)

• Mao’s Political Philosophy is a modified version of the dialectical materialism of Marx and
Lenin :
→ Mao’s Philosophy was strongly rooted in the political reality of his time.
→ He said that the type of revolutionary Politics that worked in Russia will not work in
China – According to him, mo two societies are alike.
→ It is this belief that made him unwilling to regard even the most fundamental Marxists
belief as unquestionable

• The most important aspect of his Philosophy is his concept of ‘Contradiction’

- Contradiction is the most fundamental of all the properties of reality.
- Everywhere there is Contradiction. Each phenomena is made up of Contradiction
- To understand reality we have to understand its internal contradiction
- It is because of the internal contradiction that changes occur

• His next concept is :

→ Principal Contradiction
→ Principal aspect of Contradiction

• Principal Contradiction :
- Real world situations are made up of two or more contradictions
- Out of these one will be more important than the others
- The most important contradiction is ‘Principal Contradiction’ and this is what we need
to identify
• Principal Aspect of Contradiction
- Within an individual contradiction, one of the element will be of greater importance
than the other – this is called Principal Aspect of Contradiction
- Ultimately our aim should be to identify this principle aspect of Contradiction

• Mao says that, change at all level of reality is constant :

- Role of Principle and Subordinate aspect of contradiction is not fixed
• Mao also talks
- Theabout
Principal aspect can
Antagonistic become
and subordinateContradiction
Non Antagonistic
• Divergence from orthodox
→ Contradiction betweenMarxism
the exploited and exploiting exists in all forms of society –
→owning
slave Karl Marx argued
society, that Society
Feudal relationor
ship between
Capitalist economic base and
Society
→ But superstructure
for most of the is
time contradiction remain non antagonistic in these societies
→ Only atfixed
some point of time the tension will become antagonistic and develop into
→ Superstructure always determine the base
a revolution

• Lenin had argued that all aspects of culture should be manipulated to serve political end
→ Mao argued in contrast that in these areas differences are best settled by free
discussions and debate
→ He regarded administrative intervention as counter productive
→ This is the policy of “Letting a hundred flower blossom and hundred school of thought
contend”

His real name was Charles-Louis de Persian Letters (1729)

Secondat The Cause of the greatness and
decline of Romans (1734)
He inherited a land from his uncle
near the village of Montesquieu His most important work :
“The Spirit of Laws” (1748)
Thus became known as Baron de
Montesquieu

He was an important figure of French

Enlightenment
© Saar Concepts
Montesquieu

His main arguments

Form of the Government and type of the laws depend on

the circumstances in which the nation is present

Circumstances include – Climate, Geographical location,

history, culture, religion etc

Montesquieu was one of These circumstances are called

the earliest writer in ‘General Spirit of nation’
Political Sociology

The study of effects of culture, religion and other social

His Theory of Government

• Arbitrary government by one person

Despotism
• Here Law is absent

Republic

Monarchy •It is a blend of Democracy and

Aristocracy
• Citizens must have strong Civic Virtue
• Montesquie does not like Republic
because he thinks that in a Republic
individual liberty is sacrificed for the

His View on Monarchy

Monarchy is Government by one Man

Montesquieu favors But his power is checked by other institutions like

Monarchy Parliament, Nobility, Clergy

Individual Liberty is safe where there There is no concentration of

is no concentration of Power Power

This is called ‘Separation of Power’ : There is a balanced

Montesquieu’s most famous concept
© Saar Concepts
distribution of Power
Thomas Paine

First important work

“Common Sense” (1776)

• It was an anti-monarchical Pamphlet.

•The article advocated for Revolution in
America against British Colonial Govt.
• Thomas Paine popularized the idea of
Locke of ‘Right to Revolt’
•The work provided an Ideological
support to the revolutionaries.

Second Important Work

The work was written as a Critique to Edmund Burke’s
‘The Rights of Man’ (1791)
‘Reflection on the Revolution in France’ (1790)

Paine criticized all forms of hereditary government and

demanded for equal political rights for all

Government must be limited ‘Government is a Necessary Evil’

• Confine itself to the Necessary because we can not do without it

protection of Rights of people.
•Must be responsible to Evil because it restricts our freedom
people
© Saar Concepts
Thomas Paine (1737 – 1809)

Other Important Work

‘The Age of Reason’ (1794)

Known for his three important concepts

Theory of Falsification : ‘The Logic of Scientific Discovery’ (1934)

Historicism : ‘The Poverty of Historicism’ (1957)

Open Society : ‘The Open Society and its enemies’ (1945)

© Saar Concepts
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)
For Popper , Induction is not a Proper
Theory of Falsification method to build theory or Knowledge

Method of Induction is based on

Verification and Confirmation

Induction method
Collection of Evidence → Generalization (theory building) → Verification

Generalizations based on large number of observed past evidenced

is a valid or correct theory or law.

© Saar Concepts
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)
For Popper , Induction is not a Proper
Theory of Falsification method to build theory or Knowledge

Its core assumption is that Method of Induction is based on

past will repeat itself in future Verification and Confirmation

No amount of Verification and confirmation of what we currently believe

can show that our beliefs will go on being true in future

It is better to base our Theory on Falsification rather than Verification

All scientific knowledge are Even a single counter example

© Saar Concepts
Provisional : They are true as long as can show that a given
they are not falsified generalization is wrong
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)

Theory of Falsification
Marxism

Intellectual Systems that are

Pseudo-Science
not falsifiable

They do not allow evidence

against them

Concept of Historicism ‘The Poverty of Historicism’ (1957)

It is a belief that it is possible to discover ‘Laws’ of Historical

Development

On the basis of such law, predict future and make social and
political plan according to that

Karl Popper rejects ‘Historicism’

We can not know what the future might be

Concept of Open Society ‘The Open Society and its enemies’ (1945)

Two requirements for a Good Society

People are able to express their Criticism against government

effectively

It is possible to change a corrupt government which is acting

against people

A Society which fulfills these requirements is

It is because they present a totalitarian
called an Open Society
vision of state in their theories

Karl Popper calls Plato, Hegel and Marx

‘Enemy of Open Society’ © Saar Concepts
13 & 14
Nicos Poulantzas and
Ralph Miliband
Nicos Poulantzas and Both are best known for their contribution
Ralph Miliband to Marxist Theory of State

Both are concerned with the nature They want to analyze the relation between
of State in Capitalist Society Ruling Class and Capitalist Class

Nicos Poulantzas

Structural Theory of State

“Political Power and Social Class”(1968)
“Poulantzas-Miliband
Ralph Miliband Debate”
(began in 1970s)
Intrumental Theory of State

© Saar Concepts
“State in Capitalist Society” (1969)
His other major works :-
Nicos Poulantzas’ State Power and Socialism (1978)
Structural Theory of State Class in Contemporary Capitalism (1974)
Fascism and Dictatorship (1974)
Core of Marxism

It will appear that State is

State serve the interest Neutral and not Controlled by
of Capitalist Class any Class Interest

But ruling class need not be the

Capitalist Class Relative Autonomy of
State
Capitalist Class do not participate
directly in government

•But whoever occupy the state will serve the interest of capitalist class

© Saar Concepts
•Those in charge of state are structurally constrained to advance the
interest of Capitalists
His other major works :-
Parliamentary Socialism (1961)
Ralph Miliband’s Marxism and Politics (1977)
Instrumental Theory of State Class power and state power (1983)
Divided Societies (1989)
Socialism for a Skeptical Age (1994)

In a Capitalist Class that owns and controls

Ruling Class
Society means of Production

With the help of Economic Power, Capitalist Class use

State as an instrument to advance their interest
Power resides in those who
control the State
State is an Instrument that can be used by different
social groups for different purpose

© Saar Concepts Power does not reside in any

structure or system
32
Herbert Spencer
and Social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer
His major Works
(1820 - 1903)
Social Statics (1850)
The founding Principle of Spencer’s The Man vs The State (1884)
Philosophy is the idea of Evolution The Principle of Ethics (1892)

It is the nature of all organism to move from

condition of Simplicity to Complexity

Nature Evolves in this way

There should be no Artificial
Interference in this process of Society evolves in this way
Evolution
Individual evolves in this way

Social Darwinism

Society has a natural tendency

to Evolve

History is a Progress

We need not interfere in this

natural process of Evolution

Social Darwinism

Society has a natural Society comprises of Individual also grows and

tendency to Evolve Individuals develops naturally

No Artificial Restriction or Each individual is free to develop according

Interference is required to Law of Equal Freedom

For this we need a Negative or Minimum State and a

Free Market Laissez Faire economy

Social Darwinism is against Welfare state

People will get what they deserve

© Saar Concepts
Nothing should be done to protect incompetent and failed people
31
Alexis de Tocqueville
Alexis de Tocqueville
He was born in 1805 in France
(1805 – 1859)

He is known for his book Published in two parts in 1835 and 1840
‘Democracy in America’ after 9 months study of America

He was a passionate advocate

of Liberty

He sees no necessary
He regards democracy as a
connection between democracy
threat to Liberty
and Liberty

Dangers of Democracy

Tyranny of Majority Democracy

Based on the Principle of Social and

Equality of status and worth Political Equality

What is thought and Democracy becomes threat when it tries to promote

done intellectual equality

Decided by Tyranny of Differences and Diversity

Dangers of Democracy

Threat to Individual Liberty Centralization of Power

In order to protect
Individual Liberty

Power must be divided and

spread between various
institutions
There must be institutions of checks and
balance

There must be decentralization of power

through strong local government © Saar Concepts
Karl Marx
Karl Marx
Dialectical Materialism

• Karl Marx and Hegel, both use the method of Dialectics to arrive at their conclusion
- Method of Hegel is called : Dialectical Idealism
- Method of Marx is called : Dialectical Materialism
∙ Marx never used the phrase Dialectical Materialism for his method
∙ The Phrase was first used by a Russian Socialist called Georgi Plekhanov.
∙ Marx called his method ‘Materialistic Conception of History’
∙ Engels shortened it to ‘Historical Materialism’

• What is Dialectics ?
- A method of arriving at Truth (Absolute Truth)

• What is Truth ?
- Something that is complete and has no internal contradiction and opposites.
- Nature of truth : Being complete, being whole, being 100% true.

• There are two approaches to arrive at Truth

→ By Discovery
- By applying your reason and logic, you arrive at the truth in one go.
- The truth that is discovered is 100% true

→ By a Gradual Process
- We can not find the absolute truth at once
- We move towards truth gradually, step by step.
∙ It is this approach that we call dialectics

Statement A
(40% True)
Opposite Statement B
(30% True)
Concepts
Anti-Thesis (Negation of Position)

Synthesis Statement C Statement D

(Negation of Negation) (70% True) (70% True)
New Thesis New Anti-Thesis

Statement E
(100% True)

Final Synthesis (Sublation)

Karl Marx
Dialectical Materialism

• Dialectics works through the reconciliation of opposites

- It combines the portion of truth present in both thesis and anti thesis to reach a higher level
of truth
- It continues till we reach a point where there is no opposites or contradictions

There Exist an Absolute Idea This Idea represents the

(Reason, Spirit or Geist) Ultimate Truth (100%)

The Driving force of History is the urge of The Idea wants to gets
the Universal Idea to manifest itself Manifested on Earth
completely on Earth completely
The Idea Manifests itself
History is the story of the development of Through
the Universal Idea on Earth

• Social and Political Institutions

These Institutions develop from
• Art, Culture, Religion and
0% to 100% of the Idea
Philosophy
Karl Marx Marx’s Dialectical Materialism
© Saar
Reality is not a manifestation of some idea
Concepts
For Marx Reality is Material

Reality is made by Practical Human Activity

Motor of History : Development of (Material means practical human activity)
material productive forces
Most important human activity is
New Force of production leads to a new Act of Production
stage in human history
Act of Production is carried out through
Each Stage of Human history represents Force of Production
a particular level of development of (How Production is carried out ?)
Productive forces

History is the Story of development

of Productive Forces
Karl Marx
Human Nature and Alienation

• Basic Human Nature – Species Being

- Labor or Work : Conscious life activity or Purposeful creative work
∙ What we produce or create become our extension
∙ Act of Creation and Owning our Creation brings the natural feeling of happiness and
satisfaction

• Under Capitalism, this natural feeling of satisfaction is diminished

- People are separated from the product of their labor.
- People are separated from their basic human nature
∙ Marx calls this separation of human being from their basic nature as Alienation.

• According to Marx, People under Capitalism suffers from four kinds of Alienation

→ Alienation from the product of once labor

∙ Product does not belong to the one who produce it

→ Alienation from the Act of Production

∙ Work is a forced labor

→ Alienation from Species being

∙ People separated from their basic human nature

→ Alienation of Man from Man

∙ People treat each other as objects in this commodity producing world

• According to Marx, the basic fact of any Human Society is :

→ Nature of its Economic Organization (1st Element of any society)

- How something is produced ?

∙ Tools of production, method and technology used for producing material means
of existence
∙ Collectively it is referred to as ‘Force of Production’ or ‘Means of Production’

- Who Owns the Means of Production and Who performs what job
∙ Collectively this is called ‘Relations of Production’

Class Group of People standing in similar relation to the means of production

Group which owns the means of Dominant Class

Production They are rich and control the ruling power

Group which do not own the Dominated Class

means of Production They are poor, property less and powerless
Karl Marx
Economic Determinism
© Saar Concepts
All the societies comprises
of two Classes

A Class which Works and own This Class is in Majority but it lives in a poor
nothing and pathetic condition

A Class which is the Owner and This Class is in minority, it does not work but
feeds on the work of others lives a luxurious and rich life
Karl Marx
Economic Determinism

• Class Relation between the two classes

- Antagonistic
- The poor oppose their condition and try to resist
- Poor class try to raise voice against their exploitation
- Class struggle is a constant feature of all human society

• But Dominant Class devise various methods to control the Poor Class and suppress their resistance
→ Establishment of Political Institutions
∙ State, Law, Police – everything is developed to suppress the poor class

→ Ideas, Values, Religions and Culture

∙ Ruling class try to control the minds of the poor class by making them believe that
everything in society is justified and they occupy the position in society which
is naturally suitable to them
- This is called ‘False Consciousness’

Ideological Structure of
Society Culture, Ideas,
Values,
Secondary Elements of
Religions
Society

Political Structure of State, Government, Laws,

Society Police, Army

Relations of Production
Primary Element of Economic Structure of
Society Society
Force of Production

New Superstructure will be

established
New Relations of Production is
established

Economic Base
When new Forces of Production
develops in society
Relations of Production

Forces of Production Overtime Forces of Production evolves

Mechanism of Social Change

• With the passage of time, forces of production in society will evolve

• A new force of production will come into being along with a new class to
control it
• The new force of production will not be compatible with the old relations of
production and legal and political structure
• The new technology bearing class will come into conflict with the old ruling
class
• When new class with new force of production will come into power, a new
relations of production and new superstructure will get established.

Class less, Common Ownership

Pre-
histor

Primitive Communism No Exploitation

and Primitive
y

Master and Slave

Slave Society
Means of Production : Slaves

Exploitation of
History

Feudal Lords and Serfs one class by the

Feudal Society
Means of Production : Land other – Class
struggle
Capitalists and Workers
Capitalist Society
Means of Production : Factory
Post-

Classless, Common Ownership

histor

Communism No Exploitation
and Advanced
y

© Saar Concepts
Karl Marx © Saar Concepts
Force of Production : Land
Feudal Society
Relation of Production : Feudal Lords and Serfs

Development of the Feudal Economy will lead to

growth in Trade

A Third Class will come into existence This Class will have better
Commercial-Merchant Class (Bourgeoise) means of Production : Capital
These Revolutions were
Bourgeoise revolutions
Their advancement will be blocked by the old
Ruling Class : Feudal Lords
English Revolution
American Revolution Eventually Bourgeoise class will gain enough
French Revolution power to revolt against the Feudal Lords

After coming to power Bourgeoise class will set up new

relations of production and new legal, political, cultural
superstructure
Karl Marx
Critique of Capitalism

Stages of History according to Marx

Primitive Communism

Slave Society

Feudal Society
Evils of Capitalist Society can not be
corrected, Rulers can not be Capitalist Society Second Last Stage of history
reformed
Communist Society
Both the rise and fall of Capitalism
is part of destiny – it is historically This will be last stage of human
inevitable history free from all forms of
exploitation
Marx praises capitalism for the
development it has brought in the
force of production © Saar Concepts
Karl Marx
Critique of Capitalism

• Capitalism
- Capitalism is an economic system
- Under capitalism, commodities are produced and sold for profit

- Capitalist is different from Pre-Capitalist economic Systems

Pre-Capitalist Economic System

C M C

Commodit Money Commodit

y y

• Capitalism
- Capitalism is an economic system
- Under capitalism, commodities are produced and sold for profit
Capitalist Economic System

M1 C M2 © Saar
•
Money Commodit
y
Money
Concepts
Money is invested by the capitalist to produce commodities which are then exchanged for more money

M2 M1 Profit or Surplus Value

Final amount of money Initial amount of

money

• Capital is the money that goes into circulation to produce more money
Karl Marx
Theory of Surplus Value

• According to Marx, there are two types of values

- Use Value
∙ It is the utility or usefulness of a commodity
∙ Eg Sugar – Sweetness is its use value

- Exchange Value
∙ It is a value of a commodity expressed in terms of other commodity
∙ Eg 1kg Sugar = 2 Kg Honey
∙ Exchange value are dependent on Market forces Concepts
∙ Under Capitalism – Exchange value of a commodity is expressed in terms of money
∙ Money has no us value, it has only exchange value
Karl Marx
Theory of Surplus Value

• How does value gets created ?

Worker is paid only that much
When a worker works and invests
with which he can reproduce his
his labor into the raw material
labor power
He produces a Value ‘V1’

For producing this value worker is

Concepts
paid a wage of value ‘V2’ Capitalist in return of Wage

V2 (Value Paid to Labor) V1 (Value Produced by Labor)

V2 (Value Paid to Labor) V1 (Value Produced by Labor) Surplus Value

Surplus Value is the source of

profit and Capitalist’s wealth
Karl Marx
Theory of Surplus Value

• How does value gets created ?

Worker is paid only that much
When a worker works and invests
with which he can reproduce his
his labor into the raw material
labor power
He produces a Value ‘V1’

For producing this value worker is

Concepts
paid a wage of value ‘V2’ Capitalist in return of Wage

V2 (Value Paid to Labor) V1 (Value Produced by Labor)

V2 (Value Paid to Labor) V1 (Value Produced by Labor) Surplus Value

• Necessary Labor : Time spent to produce value equal to wage

• Surplus Labor : Time spent to produce surplus value for capitalist Surplus Value is the source of
profit and Capitalist’s wealth
Karl Marx
Contradictions within Capitalist System

• The Capitalist can increase the surplus value in two ways

→ By making Working day longer

→ By innovating and investing in Machinery

© Saar
∙ There will be fierce competition among capitalists
∙ Every Capitalist will try to maximize profit by producing more goods at lower cost.

• Fierce Competition among Capitalist produces Winners and Losers

→ Capitalists loosing in the competition join the proletariat
→ Capitalist gets concentrated in fewer and fewer hands. Concepts
→ Capitalist Class grows smaller and richer while the proletariat grows larger and more poor
∙ More Proletariat means more unemployment and more competition for jobs

• Wages suppressed downward towards lowest subsistence level

∙ Jobs are less, workers are more so wages automatically go down
∙ Poor becomes poorer.
Karl Marx
Contradictions within Capitalist System

• In Capitalism – there is always tendency of overproduction

- The ever greater production of goods is based on ever greater exploitation of workers
- More Exploitation means lower wages means capacity of the workers to spend also decreases
∙ Economic Crisis and Depression becomes common

• Capitalism trains its own future destroyer

© Saar
→ Unlike other mode of production, industrial capitalism concentrate workers in factories and
work places and teach them discipline and mutual dependence.

situation. Concepts
→ Workers have the opportunity to organize and achieve a common understanding of their

→ Progressive immiseration of the workers forces them to see their own situation more clearly
- Workers come out of the ‘False Consciousness’
- Workers become a ‘Class for Itself’ rather than just remain a ‘Class in Itself’
Karl Marx
Contradictions within Capitalist System

• At some point – an economic recession will hit which will be the worst in history
→ Laid Off Workers refuse to leave factory
→ Violence Spreads and revolution starts
→ Military will take side of revolutionaries

• Revolution is not a brief event, it will occur in stages

Proletariat Will Come to Power

Concepts
Dictatorship of Proletariat

Withering away of State

Establishment of Communist
Society
Karl Marx
Communist Society

• Communist Society
→ Classless Society
∙ No Dominant and Dominated Class – means there will be no exploitation

© Saar
→ No Division of Labor
∙ No one will be confined to an exclusive sphere of activity
∙ People can choose whichever field that they want
- ‘Possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the

Concepts
morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticize after dinner
……. without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, shepherd or critic’

→ Distributive Principle
∙ From each according to his ability to each according to his needs
∙ Marx does not talk about absolute equality

→ No Government – No Politics
∙ Govt and politics will be replaced by Administration
Swami Vivekanand
Indian Political Thought
Swami
SwamiVivekanand
Vivekanand
Swami Vivekanand (1863 - 1902)

19th Century : Establishment of Christian Missionaries and British

British rule in India Historians

Severely Criticized the practices of

Raja Ram Mohan Roy Hindu Religion

Arya Samaj of Swami Dayanand

A Renaissance of Hinduism was
needed
Prarthna Samaj and Satyashodhak
Samaj of Jyotiba Phule

Ramkrishna Mission and Neo

Vedanta of Vivekananda © Saar Concepts
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
Swami Vivekanand (1863 - 1902)

Life and Works

• His real name was Narendranath Dutta

- Born into upper caste Kayastha family of North Calcutta.
- His father : Biswanath Dutta
• A Lawyer by profession and had Progressive views about society
- His mother : Bhuvaneshwari Devi , had great influence in the life of young
Narendra.

• Narendra had a simple educational background

- He had deep interest in contemporary western Philosophy :
specially : Utilitarianism, Comte, J S Mill and Spencer
- He was influenced by the agnosticism of Mill
- But he never gave away his faith and belief in God and Religion
© Saar Concepts
Swami Vivekanand (1863 - 1902)

Life and Works

• In his young days, Narendra met his Guru, Sri Ramkrishna Paramahamsa (1836-86)
- Ramkrishna made Narendra realize his potential for greatness
- He made him believe that he has great purpose in his life
- Bonding between the two grew during 1881 to 1884
- In 1884, Narendra Father died and he has to face great economic
difficulty.
• Narendra joined Sri Ramakrishna at the temple complex of Dakshineshawar
- Sri Ramkrishna selected Narendra for carrying forward his philosophy
of ‘Advaita Vedanta’
• All differences of the world are unreal, Man and God are alike.
- Before his death in 1886, Sri Ramakrishna initiated 11 men into Sanyas,
Narendra was one among them.
© Saar Concepts
- From here onwards, Narendra became, Swami Vivekananda.
Swami Vivekanand (1863 - 1902)

Life and Works

• Till 1890, Vivekanada and the other 10 Sanyasis stayed at a small Monastry in
Kolkata.
- From 1890, Swami Vivekananda began his tour for the country
• This 7 years tour is called ‘Parivrajya’
- During this tour he came face to face with the problems of India.
• Poverty, Superstition, Colonial Exploitation, Disease, Disability.

• According to Vivekananda, what his countrymen needed most was a gift of

knowledge : both secular and spiritual.
- Rather than blaming Religion, we need to reform it and make it practically
useful and a source of strength.
- Religious figure need to impart elementary education to masses.
© Saar Concepts
Swami Vivekanand (1863 - 1902)

Life and Works

• Vivekanada realized that his ambitious project needed resources and he can not
depend on Indians to provided these resources.
- He undertook his first journey to America in 1893.
- He gave a memorable speech at the World Parliament of Religion at
Chicago in 1893.
• His profound knowledge on Indian and Western Philosophy
impressed everyone.
• He returned India in 1897.

• In 1897, he started Ramkrishna Math and Mission at Bellur

- In 1899 he set up ‘Advaita Ashram’ in the Himalyas.
- In 1899 only, he went for his second jurney to Europe and America.
• © Saar Concepts
He died on 4th July 1902 at his Bellur Math.
Swami Vivekanand (1863 - 1902)

Philosophy of Neo Vedanta

• Vedanta is one of the ancient philosophy of India

- God alone is real and the visible world is unreal
- Absorption of Individual Soul into the supreme soul is the ultimate goal
of every human being.
- This liberation could be achieved only with the help of true Knowledge.

• Vivekanada followed the Vedanta philosophy as preached by his Guru, Sri

Ramkrishna Paramhamsa.
- Vivekanada did not believe in the path of renunciation.
- Rather he asked people to perform their duties in the sense of
selflessness

Philosophy of Neo Vedanta

• Neo Vedanta philosophy of Vivekananda is based on three principles

- Vedanta believed in the oneness between God and Man and the solidarity of
the Universe.

- It did not stand for life of renunciation but self less action in the service of
humanity.

- It propagated the faith of religious tolerance and believed that different

religious faith were different path to reach the goal of liberation.

• So Neo Vedanta Philosophy stood for : Service, Sacrifice and Freedom

Nationalism

• He is considered one of the prophet of Indian Nationalism

- He wanted to see the emergence of strong and self confident India
which will give the message of Vedanta to the World.
• He said that Indians should be proud of their culture, history and religion
- Awakening of the spirit of India was needed by young people.

• He criticized British rule :

- They have destroyed the self confidence of Indians.
- They have brought poverty and famines .
- They continuously exploit the economy of India.

Nationalism

• India there is difference based on caste, race, language, culture and regions
- The only thing that is common is religion.
- Nation should be built on the basis of common religious identity of
Hindu religion.
- National Unity can not be achieved through conflict. Upper Class and
Upper caste should come together with lower caste and class.

• Four component of Vivekananda’s theory of Nationalism

- There is unity and oneness of Indian people despite diversity
- To inculcate solidarity, it was necessary to remove caste difference
- Teaching of all religions are similar, and India comprised of all religions
- National spirit could be developed by young people.
© Saar Concepts
Swami Vivekanand (1863 - 1902)

Theory of Social Change

• Vivekananda wanted an overall development of India and eradication of poverty

and degeneration of people.

• Vivekananda’s theory of history : Cyclic theory of history and social change

- First stage of human development : Rule by Brahmins
- Second Stage of human development : Rule by Kshatriyas
- Third Stage of human development : Rule by Vaishyas (traders)
- British rule is represented by this stage.
- Fourth Stage of human development : Rule by Shudras
• Shudras will become great not by acquiring the qualities of
Brahmins, Kshatriyas or Vaishyas but retaining their own
quality.
© Saar Concepts
Swami Vivekanand (1863 - 1902)

Books by Vivekananda

• Karma Yoga (1896)

• Raja Yoga (1896)
• Vedanta Philosophy (1896)
• Lectures from Colombo to Almora (1897)

Books published posthomoulsy

- Addresses on Bhakti Yoga (1902)
- Bhakti Yoga (1902)
- The East and West (1902)
- Inspired Talks (1909)

Life and Work

• The time period of Zia Barani was : 1283-1359

- He was the most important Political Thinker of Delhi Sultanate, partucularly
during the reign of Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firoz
Tughlaq.

• His political ideas are presented in two of his most important works :
- Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi
- Fatawa-i-Jahandari

• His ‘Fatawa-i-Jahandari’ is a classic book on Statecraft.

- Here he offers Advices (Nasihat) to Muslim Kings
- It can be compared to Kautilya’s Arthshastra and Machiavelli’s Prince

Ideal Polity

• Who is an Ideal Sultan ?

- An ideal Sultan is one who is ‘Noble Born’, ‘have an innate sense of Justice’
‘Wise enough to understand deception and conspiracies’ ‘following the path
of Sharia in Personal and Public life’
- He should be the most powerful person in the kingdom, he should have terror,
prestige, high status, domination and superiority.
- He should not have these five mean qualities : falsehood, Changeability,
deception, wrathfulness and injustice
- He should be expert in delivering Justice
• It is on the quality and ability of giving Justice that the entire power
and status of Sultan depends.
• It involves protecting the lives of the people and providing them
welfare support.
© Saar Concepts
Zia Barani

Ideal Polity

• Laws :
- Barani categorized laws into two types
• Shariat : Laws derived from Holy Quran and Teachings of
Prophet Mohammad.
• Zawabit : Laws made by the state.

• In order to make Zawabit ideal laws, it must have four qualities

- It should not go against the Shariat
- It must increase the loyalty of Nobility and Common people towards Sultan
- Its source and inspiration should be Shariat.
- If it goes against Sharia, it must include provision for charities in order to
compensate for the breaching of Sharia.

Ideal Polity

• Army :
- Army was one of the four main pillars of administration.
- It was divided into four parts :
• Infantry (foot soldiers)
• Cavalry (Horsemen)
› Mumattab (without horse)
› Sawar (Single Horse)
› Do aspab (Two Horses)
• War elephants
• Auxilary
• Soldiers were paid either in cash or were assigned the revenue of a particular village
• Barani advised the king to great care in maintain an efficient army.

Ideal Polity

• Bureaucracy
- The bureaucracy was another necessary component of the sultanate.
- Its basic function was to measure the land and fix and collect the taxes.

• Bureaucracy operated at three levels :

- Centre : Diwan-i-Wazarat headed by a Wazir (head of revenue & finance)
- Province : Diwan headed by Provincial Wazir
- Village level : Muqaddam and Chaudhari

• The tax was fixed and was collected on each unit of area irrespective of the produce
of the current year’s harvest.

Ideal Polity

• Judiciary
- To dispense justice, the courts were divided into Civilian and Criminal
category.
- The judges were appointed by the Kings with himself being at the top of
Judiciary .(Highest Court of Appeal)
• Quazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Judge)
› Amir-i-Dad-Bek-i-Hazarat (Central Judicial Officer)
• Sadr-us-Sadur (Provincial Judge)
› Amir-i-Dad (Provincial Judicial Officer)
• Muhtasib (Municipal Level officer)

Life and Work

• He says that there are two types of laws :

- Shariat : Laws derived from holy Quran and teachings of Prophet Mohammed
• Everyone, be it King or administrators or nobility or common people,
all are required to follow Shariat.

- Zawabit : These are the laws made by the state

• Here he allows some flexibility from following Shariat.

• According Barani, the most important objective of any State or Ruler was
- To ensure the survival of the State and to ensure that Power and Strength
of the State continuously increase.
- In order to achieve this Goal, any means or methods can be adopted.

Life and Work

• Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, popularly known as Veer Savarkar, was born in a marathi
Chitpawan Brahmin family in 1889 in Bhagur, a village close to Nasik

• He lost his mother and father at a very young age.

- He grew up under the protection and care of his elder brother Ganesh.

• When he was 12, he was married to Yamunabai, daughter of Ramchandra Triambak

Chiplunkar.

• The philosophy and life of Savarkar can be studied in two phases :

- Early Revolutionary years of his life
- His ideology of Hindutva and Hindu Rashtra

Revolutionary Years

• Factors responsible for the development of Revolutionary ideas in Savarkar

- First decade of 20th century had a revolutionary atmosphere
• The main reason behind this was the partition of Bengal in 1905
- Extremists were launching Swadeshi movements and Savarkar was also
involved in the boycott of foreign goods.
- In Maharashtra, revolutionary ideas of Tilak were spreading very fast through
his weekly, ‘Kesari’
• Savarkar considered Tilak his Guru and was very much influenced
by his revolutionary ideas.

• The revolutionary life of Savarkar began in 1902 when he joined Fergusen College in
Pune.

Revolutionary Years

• At Fergusen college he formed a political group called ‘Abhinav Bharat’

- The group consisted of revolutionary and nationalist students.

• Shyamji Krishna Verma helped Savarkar come and settle in England for higher studies.
- Shyamji Krishna Verma had established ‘India House’ in London to promote
nationalist feeling in students.
- Savarkar stayed at ‘India House’ and thus came in contact with many
revolutionaries in London.
- Savarkar soon became the Key man of all activities at India House
- Savarkar set up ‘Free India Society’ in London to mobilize students.
- Savarkar was influenced by the ideas of Mazzini and he also came in contact
with Russian revolutionaries and learnt many tactics from them

Revolutionary Years

• Savarkar had a vision of free India and wanted to use all kinds of means in order to
achieve freedom.
- He was mostly in favor of armed revolt

• He found that British deliberately tried to project Indian culture and heritage as
inferior.
- The best example was calling the Revolt of 1857 as just a ‘Sepoy Mutiny’
- Savarkar was the first person who called the Revolt of 1857 as
‘First War of Independence’
• He presented his views in the famous title
‘The History of the War of Indian Independence’ (1909)
› The book was translated from Marathi to English by VVS Aiyar

Revolutionary Years

• Savarkar was arrested on 13th April 1910 in the charge of the murder of Curzon Willie
and collector of Nasik City, AMI Curzon
- He was deported to India
- First he was sent to Yervada Jail in Pune and then after a quick trial he
was given an Imprisonment of 50 years.
- He was shifted to Andaman Cellular Jail in 4th July 1911.
• He was severely tortured in the jail.
- He spent 11 years in the jail.
- In 1921 he was shifted first to Alipore Jail and then to Ratnagiri Jail and
finally to Yervada Jail.
- He was released from jail in 1924.

The Ideology of Hindutva

• After coming out of jail he joined active politics and founded ‘Ratnagiri Hindu Sabha’
in 1924.
- It was later merged with ‘Hindu Mahasabha’ which was founded as a
Political party in 1915 by Madan Mohan Malvia.

• Savarkar became the president of Hindu Mahasabha in 1937 at its 11th session in
Karnavati. He remained its head for 7 years.

• What Savarkar wanted was to build a ‘Hindu State’

- He regarded Hindus to constitute a Nation and this nation must be
Politically United.
• The ideology for making India a Hindu State is called ‘Hindutva’.

The Ideology of Hindutva

• The ideology of Hindutva was articulated in a small book written by Savarkar when he
was in Ratnagiri Jail in 1923 :
- ‘Hindutva : Who is a Hindu ?’ (1923)

• This book became a guide for all those who advocated Hindu Nationalism.

The Ideology of Hindutva

• Savarkar began his ideology of Hindutva by giving an answer to the question that
- Who can be considered a ‘Hindu’?
• Any one who considered the land of Bharatvarsha as his
‘fatherland’(Pitrebhumi) and ‘holyland’ (Punyabhumi) can be
called a Hindu.

• He talks about three fundamental bonds that unite all Hindus as a nation :-
- Rashtra (territory)
- Jati (Race)
- Sanskriti (Culture)

The Ideology of Hindutva

• Rashtra (Territory)
- A Hindu is one who feels being attached to the geographical tract extending
from Sindhu to Brahamputra on one hand and from Himalyas to Cape
Comorin on the otherhand (Common Territory)

• Jati (Race)
- He did not use race in biological terms.
- All the people are descendent of common forefathers.
(Common Blood relations )

• Sanskriti (Culture)
- Here Sanskriti refers to ‘Hindu Culture’ or ‘Hindu Civilization’

The Ideology of Hindutva

• In his presidential address to the Hindu Mahasabha in 1937 he said

- ‘We are one because we are a nation, a race and own a common civilization.’

• He had accepted that his doctrine of ‘Hindutva’ was exclusionary in nature.

- His definition of Hindutva excluded all the faiths and beliefs that had an origin
outside the territorial geography of India.
- Christianity, Judaism and Islam failed to fulfill the criteria laid down by
Savarkar :
• Fatherland (Pitrebhumi)
› A Chritian or Muslim can be born in the soil of India and share
the cultural and social elements of the country (like language)
• Holyland (Punyabhumi)

© Saar Concepts
› But their holyland lie outside India
› Muslims : Mecca and Madina, Christians : Vatican City
V D Savarkar

The Ideology of Hindutva

• So one the one hand he tried to bring Hindus together but on the other hand he tried
to exclude religion from the definition of Hindutva.

• Savarkar clearly stated that the India was primarily a Hindu Land :
• Hindus were original inhabitant of the land.
• It is the Hindus who created a distinct culture and civilization here.
• The British and Muslims came from outside and established their rule.

• Savarkar did not identify India in terms of territorial or political nationalism.

• He identified India in ‘Religious and Cultural’ terms as having a
distinct civilizational boundary.
• He located Indian Nationalism in the ancient cultural and religious
heritage.
© Saar Concepts
Rabindranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore

Life and Work

• Rabindranath Tagore was not a Political Thinker in strict sense of terms.

- He was basically a literary figure having profound interest in Music, Art,
Painting, Poetry etc.
- His social and political thoughts were in reaction to the incidents that
were happening around him.

• But Tagore’s view on some of the important social and political issues were
extremely influential and no one can ignore them :
- Tagore’s Theory of Freedom and Self Realization
- Tagore’s Critique of Nationalism

Life and Work

• Rabindranath Tagore : A biography

- His time period : 1861 to 1941
- Born on 7 May, 1861 to an affluent family in Calcutta
- He was the youngest son of Debendranath Tagore
- Initially educated at home and at the age of 17 sent to England for further
studies. But he returned without completing his studies.
- In 1901, Tagore started an experimental school at Shantineketan.
- In 1913, he received Noble Prize for his work ‘Geetanjali’
- In 1921, he established Vishwabharti University at Shantiniketan
- Tagore died on 7 August, 1941.

Theory of Freedom

• Tagore was an exponent of what is called ‘True Freedom’

- Freedom does not mean mere Political Independence.
- For Tagore, Freedom means achieving Perfection in life.
• It is the availability of opportunities in a person’s life so that
they can develop their personality to the level of perfection.
- Tagore said freedom is ‘complete awakening and full self expression’
• The idea was taken from the concept of
‘Satyam,Sivam and Advaitam’ of Manduka Upnishad

Critique of Nationalism

• The idea of Nationalism develops in the societies of Western Europe

• Cause of the rise of nationalism in west :

- Birth of Modern Science and technological advancement
- People came together to maximize the benefits of Industrial Revolution.
- The driving force behind western nationalism was Politics and Economics.
- Nation was the ‘Organized self interest of whole people’
• Social Relationship is instrumental

Critique of Nationalism

• Negative Effects of Nationalism :

- Nationalism breeds intense and unending lust for power and money.
- It leads to more and more devaluation of the dignity of human being.
- Social relations between people become mechanical.

- When the lust for power and money takes a concentrated form
• It gives birth to the desire to explore and exploit the natural
resources of other regions of the world.
• Thus Nationalism ultimately results in Colonialism which further
causes fierce war between two or more nations.
.

Critique of Nationalism

• Tagore’s work on Nationalism :

- What is a Nation ? (1901)
- Nationalism (1915)
• Nationalism in Japan
• Nationalism in West
• Nationalism in India
- Novel : Home and the World
- His three Novels were based on his idea of nationalism
• Gora
• Char Adhyay
• Ghare Baire

Critique of Nationalism

• Despite being critical of nationalism and its transformation into colonialism and
imperialism, Tagore appreciated Western Societies for other reasons :
- He appreciated what he called ‘Spirit of the West’

• According to Tagore ‘Spirit of the West’

- Did not represent the western nationalism.
- It represented the western values like freedom, equality, liberty,
fraternity.
- It represented the remarkable achievement in the field of art and
literature.

• So the idea of ‘Nation of West’ and ‘Spirit of West’ are opposite to each other.
© Saar Concepts
Rabindranath Tagore

Critique of Nationalism

• Tagore and Gandhi both accepted that

- The idea of Western nationalism can not be applied to India.
- They agreed that nationalism was the byproduct of European Nation State
System.

• Instead of nationalism they advocated for the establishment of a Plural Society

- They supported the idea of Universalism and Cosmopolitanism.

• Tagore and Gandhi, both respected each other and their were many similarities in
their thoughts :
- Tagore called Gandhi a ‘Mahatma’ and Gandhi gave Tagore the title of
‘Gurudev’
© Saar Concepts
Periyar
Periyar

Introduction

• His real name was Erode Venkatanaiker Ramaswamy (E V Ramaswamy)

- He is popularly known as Periyar (the word means ‘The Great Man’)

• He was born in a rich business family of backward class of Naikars in Erode, a small
town in the former Madras Presidency (Now Tamil Nadu)
- His time period : 1879 to 1973

• Periyar’s Political ideas can be discussed under following headings

- Critique of Hinduism, Brahamanical Domination and Caste System
- Critique of Congress and Mahatma Gandhi
- Periyar as a Social Reformer
- Dravidian Mobilization

Critique of Hinduism, Brahamanical Domination and Caste System

• Why Periyar had negative perception of Hinduism and Brahmins ?

- The answer depends on the Socio-Political condition of colonial Tamil Nadu
• Like in other parts of the country, in Tamil Nadu also Brahmins
enjoyed a Dominant Position.
• Their domination was backed by scriptures : Varnavyavastha
› Brahmin
› Kshatriya
› Vaishyas
› Sudras
• Brahmins consisted of just 3 % of the Tamils, yet they occupied all the
positions of power in the society.
• Even during the colonial era, Brahmins continued to enjoy
© Saar Concepts
predominant position in society.
Periyar

Critique of Hinduism, Brahamanical Domination and Caste System

• According to Periyar
- Hinduism was a tool of Brahmin domination.
- Hindus belonged to different racial groups of ‘Aryans’
• In order to maintain their dominance they have introduced an
unjust and oppressive social system in the country.

• Periyar said that Dravidians (People of South) must realize their potential and defend
their rights against ‘Aryan’ domination.
- He said that, ‘a hindu may be a Dravidian, but a Dravidian in the real sense
of term can not be and shall not be a hindu’

• Periyar called hindu scriptures as fairy tales and not only imaginary but also immoral
and irrational.
© Saar Concepts
Periyar

Critique of Congress and Mahatma Gandhi

• Periyar joined Indian National Congress in 1919 and became a follower of Mahatma
Gandhi.

• In the early days, Periyar participated actively in the freedom struggle led by Congress
- He participated in non cooperation movement and Satyagrahas.
- In 1924 he led the famous ‘Vaikkom Satyagraha’ in Kerela.
• Low caste people were not allowed to enter the streets around
the Vaikkom temple.

• But Periyar himself faced caste discrimination inside congress party.

- When he was elected as the first non Brahamin President of Tamil Nadu
Congress Committee, a no confidence motion was passed against him by the

Critique of Congress and Mahatma Gandhi

• From 1919 to 1925, he tried to get Tamil Nadu Congress adopt a resolution in favor of
Caste Quotas in Political Representation.

• When he could not get the resolution passed, he left Congress in 1925.
- He called Congress as the Fortress of Brahmin Imperialism

• There after he joined Justice Party.

- He became the head of Justice Party in 1938.
- After six years, he converted the party into a non political social organization.
• He named it ‘Dravidar Kazhagam’
• Present day Tamil parties like DMK, AIADMK and MDMK have grown
from this organization only.
© Saar Concepts
Periyar

Critique of Congress and Mahatma Gandhi

• Periyar also criticized Mahatma Gandhi

- He interpreted Gandhi’s nationalism as an effort to maintain the dominance
Brahmins in Indian society.

• Periyar said : ‘God should be destroyed. Religion should be destroyed. Congress

should be destroyed. Gandhi should be destroyed.’

• Periyar expressed his views against Congress in the weekly magazine published by
him . The name of the magazine was “Kudi Arasu”.

• In 1925 he organized ‘Self Respect Movement’

- The movements were designed for the self-upliftment of Dravidians.

Periyar as a Social Reformer

• Portraying Periyar as just anti-Brahmin or anti-God would not be doing justice to him.

• Periyar was also a Radical Social Reformer :

- He transformed the landscape of Tamil Nadu
- He started ‘Self Respect Movements’
- He campaigned to remove all superstitious belief based on religion and
tradition from society.
- People were encouraged to boycott Brahmin Priests in ceremonies.
- He championed for widow remarriage and inter caste marriage.
- He called his brand of Politics as ‘Radical Liberalism’
- He dreamt of a Society which would be modern, secular and there will be
no divisions on the basis of Caste

Periyar as a Social Reformer

• Portraying Periyar as just anti-Brahmin or anti-God would not be doing justice to

him.

• Periyar was also a Radical Social Reformer :

Dravidian Mobilization

• All the non Brahmin people of South India including Tamil, Telegu, Kannada and
Malyalam were regarded as ‘Dravidians’
- According to Periyar, Dravidians comprised of different racial and cultural
group which were separate from North Indian Aryan Brahmins.

• In 1937, Hindi was introduced in South India as a compulsory subject in school.

- This was regarded by Periyar as an attack on the Tamil Culture.
- Periyar campaigned against the introduction of Hindi in South.

• In 1938, Periyar was elected as the President of Justice Party.

• In 1939, he organized a ‘Dravida Nadu Conference’ and called for the establishment of

Life and Time

• Ramabai was born to a liberal Brahmin Pandit family in 1858.

- Her father, Ananta Shastri, was an unorthodox and liberal Brahmin who
supported education for women.
- She had an unconventional upbringing.
• She was saved from the curse of no education and child marriage
• This helped her reject gender specific role which were considered
naturally attached to a women.
• By the mid 1870s, her parent and a sister were dead and she had to travel along
with her brother to Calcutta in 1878.
- She was invited to deliver lecture before few learned Pandits.
- Every one was impressed with her knowledge of Sanskrit scriptures.
- She was conferred the title of ‘Saraswati’ and ‘Pandita’
© Saar Concepts
- She was introduced to Brahmo Samaj.
Pandita Ramabai

Life and Time

• This marked the beginning of her life as a Liberal Feminist.

• In her personal life, she married a man of shudra varna, Bepin Bihari Medhavi, an
active member of Brahmo Samaj.
- After 18 months of marriage, her husband died, leaving behind a little
daughter Manorama.

• Ramabai moved to her native land Poona in 1882.

Life and Time

• Ramabai founded the Arya Mahila Samaj in 1882 in Pune.

- This may be termed as the first feminist organization.

• She expressed her feminist ideas more broadly in her first Marathi book.
- Stri Dharma Niti (1882)

• She wanted to establish a Widow Home in India, but she was not getting any help
from Indians.
- She moved to England for help.
- She met Sir Bartle Frere, former Governor of Bombay Presidency.
• She presented her appeal in the form of a book
‘The Cry of Indian Women’ (1883)
© Saar Concepts
Pandita Ramabai

Life and Time

• While in England, she got attracted to Christianity.

- On 25th September 1883, She converted to Christianity and became
Marry Rama

• In 1886, she went to United States on an invitation from Women’s Medical College
of Pennsylvania.

• While in USA, she published her first masterpiece : ‘The High Caste Hindu Women’
(1887)
- This book was published with the help of Women’s Christian Temperance
movement.
- The book offered a feminist critique of Indian Women’s condition.

© Saar Concepts
- She showed how women were treated as Inferior beings and that too
with the sanction of scriptures
Pandita Ramabai

Life and Time

• Her fund raising efforts became successful after the formation of ‘Ramaba
Association of Boston’ in 1887.
- She was pledged financial support for 10 years.

• In February 1889 Ramabai returned to India and in March 1889 she established a
Secular Residential School for High Caste Widows in Bombay.
- The name of the Institute was, ‘Sharda Sadan’

• In 1908 Ramabai started her ambitious project of translating Bible into Marathi.
- She also started a newsletter called ‘Mukti Prayer Bell’

Life and Time

• In 1919, British Government awarded her ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ medal for her distinguished
service to the Indian Education System and Upliftment of Widows.
- The award was accepted by Ramabai’s daughter on her behalf as she was
ill.

• Ramabai died in 1922.

Feminist Thought

• Roots of her feminist thoughts :

- Liberal upbringing by her parents.
- Her observation of discriminations and disabilities faced by women in
Indian society.
- Her exposure to the relatively free gender relations of western societies.

• Ramabai’s objective was to find out and eradicate the source of inequalities and
disabilities for women.
- Pandita Ramabai tried to highlight the Gendered nature of Hindu
Society and Hindu Religion
- Her aim was to evolve concrete programs and policies for emancipating

Institutional steps taken for Emancipation of Women

• She began by establishing ‘Arya Mahila Samaj’ in Pune in 1992 to mobilize and unite
women to seek social reforms.

• She went abroad for the search of funds to execute her plans for women
emancipation :
- Her efforts led to the formation of ‘Ramabai Association of Boston’ which
provided financial support to her projects.

• She set up ‘Sharda Sadan’ for Widows of high caste hindus in Mumbai but later
moved it to Pune.

• She opened a Christian body called ‘Mukti Sadan’ in 1896 to help the victims of
Gujrat famines of 1896.
© Saar Concepts
Pandita Ramabai

Institutional steps taken for Emancipation of Women

• All her Sadans were later grouped into one body called, ‘Christian Mukti Mission’
which was later renamed as ‘Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission’

Life and Work

• Jawaharlal Nehru have had a huge impact on the politics and society of this country.
- He was the first Prime Minister of India.
- He led this country in its initial post independence years.
- The country was under his direction and control from 1947 to 1964

• Jawaharlal Nehru was born in Allahabad in 1889.

- He was the only son of Motilal Nehru, who was a wealthy and successful
lawyer.
- He got his early education at home

Life and Work

• In 1905 he went to Harrow School in London where he stayed for 2 years.

• From Harrow, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge where he earned his degree in
Natural Sciences.
• Later, he spent two more years in England and qualified as a Barrister.

• On his return to India, Nehru tried to establish himself as a lawyer but he failed.
- He joined Indian National Congress and started participating in various
activities of Congress.
- Nehru met Gandhi for the first time in 1916 at the Annual Meeting of
Indian National Congress at Lucknow

Life and Work

• In 1929, Nehru was made the president of Indian National Congress during the historic
Lahore Session of Congress :
- It was in this Lahore Session that it was proclaimed that Complete
Independence was India’s Political Goal.
- Until the Lahore Session, Party’s objective was to attain just Dominion Status

• Nehru’s close association with Congress began in 1919

- He would serve 4 terms as President of Congress
- He went into jail for 9 times, first time being in 1921.
- In 1931, he got the resolution on Fundamental Rights passed by the
Karachi Session.
- He guided the election of 1937 and 1946, both held under colonial rule

Life and Work

• Nehru Published three major books :

- Glimpse of World History (1934)
- An Autobiography (1936)
- The Discovery of India (1946)

• Letters to Chief Ministers

- From October 1947 to December 1963, in every 15 days, he wrote letters to
Chief Ministers of various states.
- These letters were later published in 5 Volumes .

• He also founded and for a time edited a daily Newspaper called ‘National Herald’

•
© Saar Concepts
Jawaharlal Nehru died in New Delhi on 27 May, 1964.
Jawaharlal Nehru

Political Ideas : Democratic Socialism

• Democratic Socialism :
- Of all his political ideas, the most important one is his formulation of
the concept of Democratic Socialism for Indian society.

• Democratic Socialism is an ideology that advocates Political Democracy alongside

social ownership of means of production.
- The word ‘Democratic’ is added to distinguish it with ‘Marxist-Leninist’ brand
of socialism that is considered as non democratic.

• Democratic Socialism and Social Democracy are not same.

- Democratic socialism advocates social ownership of means of production
whereas social democracy does not.

Political Ideas : Democratic Socialism

• One of the main proponent of Democratic Socialism in India was J L Nehru

- He said that Democratic Socialism can solve all the problems of third world
countries.

• Nehru wanted to achieve the objectives of Socialism gradually within a democratic

framework.
- Nehru was very much influenced by the British Socialist of his days
- English version of Socialism was called ‘Fabian Socialism’

• In a 1963 address to All India Congress Committee he said :

- ‘Political Democracy has no meaning if it does not embrace economic
democracy, and economic democracy is nothing but Socialism.’

Political Ideas : Democratic Socialism

• Political Aspect of Democracy includes :

- Conducting free and fair periodic elections
- Granting right to vote very adult person without any discrimination

• Goal of Democratic Socialism includes :

- Nationalization of means of production
- Raising the minimum wage
- Removal of Poverty
- Securing a national health plan
- Not allowing concentration of wealth
- Social Welfare Schemes

Political Ideas : Democratic Socialism

• How Nehru Became a Socialist thinker :

- While staying in London he was attracted towards Fabians.
- In 1927, as a representative of INC, Nehru attended the
• Congress of Oppressed Nationalities at Brussels (Brussels Congress)
› This is also called First Anti-Imperialist Conference
• Here he observed the poor condition of third world countries
- In 1927, Jawaharlal Nehru visited USSR along with his father Motilal Nehru.
• Nehru was greatly influenced by the changes taking place in USSR
• He got attracted towards Socialist model of Economic Development

• According to Nehru, for Economic Development Socialist Model was best.

Political Ideas : Democratic Socialism

• Implications of Nehru’s Socialism :
- He rejected Gandhi’s Model of Economic Development
• Gandhi was against Industrialization, he has called for decentralized
village based economies.
• For Nehru, Industrialization was the only option for development
He wanted the process of Industrialization to be led by State.

- Adoption of Mixed Economy Policy for Independent India

• Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 presented Nehru’s idea of
Mixed Economy.
• The 1931 Karachi Congress adopted Resolution on State Ownership of
Key Industries and Services, Mineral Resources, Railways,etc

© Saar Concepts
• Heavy Industries will be owned by Government while Private Sectors
will also be allowed to compete in the Market.
Jawaharlal Nehru

Political Ideas : Democratic Socialism

• Implications of Nehru’s Socialism :

- Planned Economy Model
• Planning Commission was established in 1950
• Economic Development and growth was to be planned by the State.

- In his 1936 Faizpur Presidential Address, Nehru strongly favored

heavy Industrialization through State Planning.

Political Ideas : Nehru’s Foreign Policy

• One of the most important aspect of Nehru’s Political Thought was his approach
towards International Issues :
- During the Nationalist Phase he participated in various International
Conferences to Champion India’s cause for freedom.
• He tried to create pressure on Britain by producing
International Opinion in India’s favor.

- Nehru became Independent India’s First Foreign Minister .

• Nehru was one of the mind behind the concept of Non Aligned Movement
- The Policy of Non Alignment, means avoidance of alliance with
either of the Power Bloc : USA or USSR.

Political Ideas : Nehru’s Foreign Policy

• The guiding Principle of NAM was ‘Panchsheel’ or 5 Principles of Peaceful Coexistence

- Panchsheel emerged out of an agreement between India and China in 1954
- It includes following 5 Principles :
1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and soverignity
2. Mutual Non Aggression
3. Mutual Non Interference in Internal Affairs.
4. Equality and Mutual Benefit
5. Peaceful Co existence

• Non Aligned group made first public appearance in the 1955 Bandung Conference.

Political Ideas : Structure of Governance

• In Independent India, the Indian Administrative Services (IAS) succeed the Indian Civil
Services (ICS)

• Among the leaders who did not want to continue with the ICS Bureaucratic structure,
the most prominent one was Jawaharlal Nehru
- Nehru was a critique of ICS.
- He said ICS represented the legacy of past Imperial Order

• Other leaders of Congress like Sardar Vallabhai Patel supported the idea of continuing
with the ICS.
- According to Patel, ICS was the Steel Frame of colonial Governance structure
- After Independence India would need a strong bureaucracy to implement

Other Political Ideas

• Democracy :
- Nehru was clearly a Democrat and a strong champion of Civil Liberties .
- He said that full realization of human potential was possible only in a
Democracy.
- But along with Political Democracy he emphasized the importance of
Economic Democracy.

• Secularism :
- Nehru had no attraction towards any religion
- He regarded religions to be based on unscientific propositions.
- Nehru laid the foundation of a Secular India
- He said that State, Politics and Education should be kept separate from

Other Political Ideas

• Nationalism :
- Nehru was not an advocate of Cultural nationalism
- He believed in Unity in Diversity.
- He supported the idea of Political Nationalism.

• Manbendra Nath Roy, popularly known as M N Roy was Bengali Indian

Revolutionary, Philosopher, Political Theorist, activist and exponent of the
philosophy of Radical Humanism .

• The life and philosophy of M N Roy can be studied under following topics :
- Life
• Militant Nationalist Phase
• Towards Communism
• Return to India : Prison Years
• Beyond Communism : Towards New Humanism
- National and Colonial Question
- Concept of Radical Humanism or New Humanism

Life and Works

• M N Roy’s Original name was Narendra Nath Bhattacharya

- He was born on March 21 , 1887 at Arbalia, a village in 24 Pargana district
of Bengal
- His father was, Dinabandhu Bhattacharya. He was head Pandit of a local
school.
- His mother’s name was Basanta Kumari

Life and Works

• Militant Nationalist Phase

- Roy began his Political Career as a Militant Nationalist at the age of 14.
- He joined an underground called ‘Anushilan Samiti’
• When this organization was banned, he along with other members
founded another group called ‘Jugantar Group’
› The leader of this group was : Jatin Mukherji

- In 1915, after the beginning of WW I, Roy left India for Java in search of
arms and ammunitions that were being sent from Germany to India.
• Roy did not find the arms.
• From this time onwards Roy kept moving different countries, using
fake Passports and different names.
© Saar Concepts
M N Roy

Life and Works

• Militant Nationalist Phase

- After wandering through Malay, Indonesia, Indo China, Phillipenes, Japan ,
Korea and China.
• In June 1916, he finally reached San Francisco (USA)
- Reaching San Francisco marked the beginning a New Phase of M N Roy’s life

Life and Works

• Towards Communism
- After reaching San Farncisco, Roy changed his name.
- Earlier he was known as ‘Narendra Nath Bhattachra’ or ‘Naren’
• His name became ‘Manbendra Nath Roy
- Here he also met Evelyn Trent, a student of Stanford University, who would
help Roy in his Political and Literary work.

- In New York, Roy met the well known nationalist leader of India :
Lala lajpat Rai.
• Roy developed friendship with several American Radicals.
- Roy began a systematic study of Socialism, originally with the intention of
combating it.
© Saar Concepts
• Later Roy himself became a Socialist.
M N Roy

Life and Works

• Towards Communism
- In 1919, Roy was involved in the formation of Communist Party of Mexico
- In Mexico, he met Michael Borodin, who was an emissary of Communist
International.
- In 1920, Roy was invited to Moscow to attend the second conference of
Communist International.
• Here Roy differed with Lenin on the role of local Bourgeoisie in
nationalist movement (On Colonial and National Question)
• Along with Lenin’s, Roy’s theses on the topic was also adopted
- By the end of 1925, Roy was elected to the four official policy making body
of the Comintern
• The Presidium, The Political Secretariat, The Executive Committee
The World Congress © Saar Concepts
M N Roy

Life and Works

• Towards Communism
- In 1927, Roy was sent to China as a Representative of
Communist International.
• But Roy’s Mission in China failed
- In 1929, he was expelled from the Communist International

Life and Works

• Return To India : Prison Years
- Roy returned to India in 1930.
- He was arrested in 1931 and tried for his role in Kanpur Communist
Conspiracy Case
• He was sent for six years of imprisonment.
- The forced confinement in Jail gave Roy time for systematic study and
reflection.
- He planned to use the prison years for writing a systematic study of the
‘The Philosophical Consequences of the Modern Science’
• It was to be a re-examination and re-formulation of Marxism
- The writings of Roy in jail came to be known as ‘Prison Manuscripts’
• They were about 3000 pages long

Life and Works

• Parts of his Prison manuscripts that have been published as books :
- Fascism (1938)
- The Historical Role of Islam (1939)
- Materialism (1940)
- Science and Philosophy (1947)
- Science and Superstition (1940)
- Ideal of Indian Womanhood (1941)

Life and Works

• Beyond Communism : Towards New Humanism
- After his release from jail in 1936, Roy immediately joined Indian National
Congress along with his followers.
- He organized his followers into a body called : League of Radical Congressmen
- In December 1940, Roy and his followers left Congress.

- Roy formed his own Party : Radical Democratic Party

- India Conference of Radical Democratic Party was organized in Bombay in 1946
• Roy prepared a draft of the basic principle of Radical Democracy.
• As a result of the Bombay Conference what emerged was :
› ‘22 Theses of Radical Democracy’
› Roy’s speeches given in the conference was published in the

Life and Works

• Beyond Communism : Towards New Humanism
- In 1947, Roy published ‘New Humanism – A Manifesto’ which offered an
explanation of 22 Theses.
- Later Roy concluded that the Party Politics was inconsistent with the idea
of Democracy.
• This led to the dissolution of Radical Democratic Party at the
Calcutta Conference in 1948.
• At the Calcutta Conference itself, Roy launched a new movement called
Radical Humanist Movement

Life and Works

• Final Years of his life
- In 1946, Roy established Indian Renaissance Institute at Dehradun
- In1952, Roy published his most important work
• Reason, Romanticism and Revolution
- Roy established contact with several humanist groups across Europe and
America.
- The inaugural Congress of International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU)
was to be organized in Amsterdam in 1952
- Roy could not attend the Congress because he met with a serious accident in
in Dehradun in 1952.
- The inaugral Congress of IHEU elected Roy as its Vice President in his absence
- M N Roy died on 25 January, 1954

Life and Works

• His major works :
- Revolution and Counter Revolution in China
- Beyond Communism (1947)
- New Humanism : A Manifesto
- Reason, Romanticism and Revolution
- Scientific Politics (1942)
- New Orientations (1946)

- India in Transition (1922)

- Future of Indian Politics (1929)

Life and Works

• Magazines and Weeklies published and edited by M N Roy
- Independent India : Started in 1937
• In 1949, name changed to : The Radical Humanist
- The Marxian Way
• Name changed to ‘The Humanist Way’

The Radical Humanist is still being published by Indian Renaissance Institute on

monthy bsis.

National and Colonial Question

• Communist Movements throughout the world faced with this problem

- What is the role of Anti-Colonial National Liberation Movements in the
Socialist Movements ?
- Should Communists participate in the anti-colonial national liberation
movements which were mostly led by the local Bourgeoisie of the country
• Should communists extend their support to the Bourgeoisie in the
anti-colonial national movements.

• Both Lenin and Roy had different view over these ‘National and Colonial Questions’.

National and Colonial Question

• Lenin’s Thesis on ‘National and Colonial Questions’

- According to Lenin’s Theory of Imperialism
• Colonial expansion strengthened the foundation of Capitalist System in
Europe.
• As long as there is colonialism, Capitalism can not be destroyed.

- Revolution in Backward Colonial countries will pass through two stages

• Bourgeois Democratic Revolution (Anti-Colonial Revolution)
• Socialist Revolution.

- According to Lenin, Communists of Colonial Countries has two task to perform

• They have to support the Bourgeoisie Democratic Revolution, means

© Saar Concepts
they have to be involved in anti colonial struggle
• They have to prepare for the final socialist revolution.
M N Roy

National and Colonial Question

• M N Roy’s Supplementary Theses on National and Colonial Question

- M N Roy had difference of Opinion with Lenin
- According to Roy
• Fundamental contradiction existed between national liberation
movement led by Bourgeoisie and the workers’ and peasants movement
• Revolutionary movements of the oppressed had nothing in common
with the national liberation movement.
• He appealed that Communists should not support the national
liberation movement.
• It is the socialist movement that has to be given priority in the colonial
countries.

Radical Humanism

• The most important contribution of M N Roy to Political Theory is his philosophy of

Radical Humanism or New Humanism

• This Philosophy have been summarized by Roy is ‘22 Theses’ and elaborated in in
New Humanism : A Manifesto.

• New Humanism has both critical and Constructive aspect

- Critical Aspect : It describes the inadequacies of Marxism and Parliamentary
democracy.
- Constructive Aspect : Giving highest value to freedom of Individual,
Presenting a humanist interpretation of history.

Radical Humanism

• The most important contribution of M N Roy to Political Theory is his philosophy of

Radical Humanism or New Humanism

• The core of Radical Humanism of Roy :

- Emphasis on the personality of Individual as human being
- Human being is the focal point of analysis
• Roy criticized all those theories that did not take Human Being as
the focal point of analysis.
• Roy criticized Marxism because it focused on mainly on
Class struggle and gave an economic interpretation of history
• Roy also criticized framework of nationalism because here Nation
is given more importance than Individual.

Radical Humanism

• Radical Humanism thus talks neither about ‘Class’ nor about ‘Nation’
- It is concerned with human being and his freedom.

• According to Radical Humanism

- Human being are not dependent on anything.
- Human being derive all their virtues and powers from their own creativity.
- Nothing is beyond the reach of the creativity and effort of man.

• Every human being contains three fundamental elements

- Rationality
- Morality
- Freedom

Radical Humanism

• These elements are present among all human beings

- So Roy says that ‘New Humanism is Cosmopolitan’

• Economic Dimension of New Humanism

- New Humanism requires the establishment of cooperative economy
which will be based on Cooperation and Decentralization
- Society should be free from exploitation of one man by another.
- The role of state will be only to maintain order and stability in the Economy
• Like Classical Liberals, he argues that the intervention of state
in the lives of people should be minimum

Radical Humanism

• Political Dimension of New Humanism

- Roy introduces the concept of ‘Organized Democracy’
- He criticizes the concept of Parliamentary democracy
• Democracy should be based on maximum participation of citizens
but in case of parliamentary democracy participation is minimum
- Roy also criticized communist democratic model which is based on the idea of
Democratic Centralism.

• Organized Democracy or
- Real power will be there with the people.
- People will participate in politics by forming small committees
- People will have right to use ‘Refrendums’ and

Radical Humanism

• Party less Democracy

- Party based political activities serve the interest of privileged class.
- He advocated the abolition of Political Parties.
- Political activities should be conducted not on the basis of Parties but on
the basis of Individual’s perspective on the issues of common man.

Roy’s materialism

• M N Roy was a strong supporter of Materialist Philosophy.

- Whatever has come to earth has its origin in matter.

• Roy’s materialism was different from Marx’s materialism.

- He delinked dialectics and materialism
- He rejected historical materialism.

• M N Roy’s materialism can be placed in the tradition of ancient Indian materialism

- Lokayata and Carvaka.

Introduction

• Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia was a prominent leader and one of the most important
thinker of socialist movement in India.
- He rejected the ideology of Capitalism and Communism.
- He developed his own variety of Socialism called ‘New Socialism’ which
was to be suitable for circumstances of a developing country like India.

Life and Work

• Rammanohar Lohia was born in 1910 in a middle class merchant family at Akbarpur
in Uttar Pradesh.

• He came into contact with the national movement early in his life through his father.

• When he was 19, he went to Germany for higher studies :

- He obtained his PhD in Economics from University of Berlin in 1932 on the
subject of ‘Salt and Satyagrah’

• In Germany, he came in contact with German socialist intellectuals and Political

Workers

Life and Work

• He came back to India in 1933 and after that he joined Indian National Congress and
participated in the Indian National Movement.
- Within Congress he belonged to a Socialist Group
- This Socialist Group was called ‘Congress Socialist Party’
• It was established in 1934 by leaders like Lohia, Narendra Dev,
Jayprakash Narayan, Achyut Pstwardhan, Asok Mehta and
Minoo Masani.

• After Independence Congress Socialist Party separated from Congress

- In 1952 Lohia established ‘Praja Socialist Party’
- In 1955 Lohia and his followers split from this party to revive the
old Socialist Party.
© Saar Concepts
• After 1964 Lohia’s Party was known as ‘Samyukta Socialist Party’
Ram Manohar Lohia

Life and Work

• Lohia’s Party had limited success in elections.

• Before the General Election of 1967, Lohia tried to unite all opposition party against
Congress.
- But Lohia could not see his success as he died in 1967.

• Lohia’s important works :

- Wheel of History (1955)
- Marx, Gandhi and Socialism (1963)
- The Caste System (1963)
- Interval During Politics (1965)
- Will to Power and other writings

© Saar Concepts
- Guilty Men of India’s Partition (1960) [ A lesser known work of Lohia]
- The Mystery of Sir Stafford Cripps (1942)
Ram Manohar Lohia

Critique of Western Ideologies

• Lohia argued in the favor of evolving an Indigenous Political Theory which would be
helpful in solving the problem faced by the country.

• He believed that the dominant Western Ideologies like : Capitalism, Socialism and
Marxism are deficient.
- He believed that western Ideologies can not solve the problems of India.

• Lohia tried to explain why Socialism, Marxism and Capitalism are not suitable as
Political Model for India.
- He thus expressed the need to develop a new kind of Ideology for India like
‘New Socialism’

Critique of Western Ideologies

• According to Lohia,
- Socialism evolved in Europe by gradual and constitutional process.
› The development of Socialism in non European had been
revolutionary and extra constitutional

- For Marxism, he said that Marxist ideology was based on experience of

European societies.
› He criticized many dimension of Marxism including Marx idea of
Historical Materialism
› He said Marxism was developed for European Societies
› So Marxism can not provide tool for understanding the condition of
society outside Europe.

Critique of Western Ideologies

• According to Lohia,
- He said that Capitalism is also not capable of resolving the issues of
developing countries.
- He argued that basic focus within Capitalism is Individual Liberty and
Individual’s right to Private Property.
• This process ultimately lead widening of economic inequality.

• Lohia’s Concept of Liberty and Equality

- Lohia argued that Liberty and Equality are not opposite to each other but
are different dimensions of the same ideal

Critique of Western Ideologies

• Lohia divided liberty into two parts :

- Liberty connected to Non Property matters
• It is concerned with the private life of Individuas
• Individual is free to do anything, there is no control of Govt.
• It is necessary for development of Individual’s personality.

- Liberty connected to Property Matters

• In relations to property matters and right to property, the
freedom of an individual can be restricted by government

Critique of Western Ideologies

• Lohia said that Liberty and Equality are not in conflict or separate from each other
- Capitalism gives too much freedom to the individual which ultimately
results in creation of inequality and concentration of wealth in the
hands of few.

- Communism focuses too much on equality which killed the spirit of

Individual freedom and creativity.

• Lohia wanted to establish a democratic socialist society where there will be balance
between Liberty and Eqaulity.

New Socialism

• Lohia came out with the idea of ‘New Socialism’ in 1959.

• He argued that ‘New Socialism’ offered a comprehensive system of
socio economic and political life for the people of India.
• He said that ‘New Socialism’ is the most appropriate ideology for India
• ‘New Socialism’ was neither the ideology of Congress nor the ideology of
Communists.
- This is called Lohia’s ‘Theory of Equidistance’

• What is ‘New’ in ‘New Socialism’

- It is basically the incorporation of Gandhian principles in the socialist
philosophy (New Socialism = Gandhism + Socialism)

© Saar Concepts
- He applied Gandhian principles like Satyagrah, End-means consistency,
Village economic models and Political Decentralization to Socialism
Ram Manohar Lohia

New Socialism

• Six Fundamental Principles of New Socialism

1. Egalitarian standards in the areas of income and expenditure.

2. Growing Economic Interdependence
3. World Parliament System based on Adult Franchise
4. Democratic freedoms inclusive of right to private life
5. Gandhian technique of Individual and collective Civil Disobedience
6. Dignity and Right of Common man

Goals for Future

• ‘Saptkranti Theory’ : Theory of Seven Revolutions

- These Revolutions are against seven types of Inequality and Injustices
that must take place throughout the world

1. Revolution against Economic Injustice

• It will be revolution for economic equality
2. Revolution against Caste System
• There should be no discrimination on the backward or high group
3. Revolution against Gender Inequality
• There should be equality among men and women
4. National Revolution against Imperialism

Goals for Future

• ‘Saptkranti Theory’ : Theory of Seven Revolutions

- These Revolutions are against seven types of Inequality and Injustices
that must take place throughout the world

5. Revolution against Color Discrimination

• No inequality based on color of the skin
6. Revolution for Individual Right against collectivity
• There should be no interference in the private life of an Individual
7. Revolution for Non Violent Civil Disobedience
• There should be no use of Violence. People should use only
Satyagraha.

Model of Political System for India

• He supported democracy, but he argued for the adaptation of the system of

democracy to the socio-economic condition prevailing in a country.

• He developed a theory of ‘Chaukhamba Model’ : Theory of Four Pillar State

- According to Lohia, following are the Four Pillars of State
1. The Village
2. The District
3. The Province
4. The Centre

Model of Political System for India

• Features of the Four Pillar Model of State

- Sovereign power must not reside only at the centre, it should be constitutionally
divided at all the four level.
- All four limbs of government will have sovereign power within their clearly
defined jurisdiction.
- Even Village and District will have power to make legislation.
• The four pillar is both legislative and executive arrangement.
- Four Pillar State would be based on the principle of separation of power,
where each part will not be separate but interdependent on each other.

• Political ideas of Kabir was about two things :

- It was a thorough critique of the social political order that existed during
his time.
- It was about creating an alternative society : A utopian society called
‘Begumpura’

• The Political ideas of Kabir belong to the period of 15th century North India.
- Kabir was a resident of Benaras (Kashi)
- His time period is disputed. There are three commonly accepted dates
• 1440-1518, 1398-1518 and 1398-1448

• Kabir never wrote anything .

- What he said was complied afterwards by his disciples.
- Different bhakts in different regions wrote in their own language and their
literary style.

• His works are present in

- Adi Granth (Written during Guru Arjun Dev’s time)
- Panchvani (Written during saint Dadu Dayal’s time)
- Bijak (It was compiled in 17th century)
- Granthawali (Compiled in 20th century)

• Kabir’s critique of existing social order

- He criticized the caste system that was prevalent during his time.
- He was critical of the Zamindari System.
• Majority of the peasant class both Hindus and Muslims were
exploited by the Zamindars and Feudal Lords.
- The dominant class composed of : Big Traders, shopkeepers, financiers,
administrative personnel, priestly sections.
• All of them exploited the weaker section of the society for their
own advantage.
- Kabir considered himself to be the voice of these weaker and
downtrodden section of the society.

• Kabir’s Utopia of ‘Begumpura’

- Kabir suggested the political alternative of time in his idea of
‘Begumpura’
- Begumpura is the political utopia of Kabir.
• It an ideal village society, without any sorrow, private property, taxes,
monarchy or social hierarchy.
• It was a land of saintly people without any greed, caprice or crime.
• There was no discrimination or distinction based on caste, religion,
race or gender.
• Sovereignty will rest with people, all will be free and equal.
- This Utopia was to be constructed through Bhakti.
• Bhakti means active participation of people in decision making.
- Religion of the society will be monotheistic.
•
© Saar Concepts
Tagore was so impressed with Kabir that he called him ‘Muktidoot’ and his poems
as ‘Chir adhunik’
Jayaprakash Narayan
Jayaprakash Narayan

Life and Work

• Jayaprakash Narayan, popularly known as JP is one of the most important Socialist

thinker of Modern India.

• He was born on 11 October 1902 in a village in Champaran District in Bihar.

• In his early 20s, JP started getting inclined towards National Movement.

- His parents decided to send him USA for his higher studies.
- In USA he enrolled in a degree course in Chemical Engineering.
- Later he switched to study Sociology at University of Wisconsin.
• This turned out to be the turning point in his life.
• He came in contact with the revolutionary ideas of Marx and
M N Roy.
© Saar Concepts
• He was finally transformed into an Orthodox Marxist.
Jayaprakash Narayan

Life and Work

• J P returned to India in 1929

- He immediately joined the National Movement.
- He believed that the existing socio-economic problems of India could be
solved only within the framework Marxist-Leninist Ideology.
- So he was determined to practice socialism in India.

• During Civil Disobedience Movement he was imprisoned at Nasik Jail.

- Here he met other like mined socialists like Dr. Rammanohar Lohia,
Narendra Dev etc.
- After their release from jail, in 1934 they formed Congress Socialist Part
(CSP) within the Indian National Congress.

•
© Saar Concepts
He also organized an All India Socialist Congress at Patna in May, 1934.
Jayaprakash Narayan

Life and Work

• In 1936, J P published a thought-provoking booklet named
- Why Socialism ? (1936)
• The book provided a guidance to all the communist and socialist
believers.
• It also highlighted the ideas and plan of action of CSP

• Till the 1930s, J P remained a staunch Marxist, but later his belief in Marxism started
shaking. There were two reasons
- Establishment of Military Bureaucratic Dictatorship under the leadership
Stalin in Soviet Union.
• Soviet Union became one of the most closed society of the world
• How brutally Soviet Union treated Political Dissenters

Life and Work

• J P became a strong critique of various aspects of orthodox Marxism

- J P rejected the idea of Dialectical materialism of Marxist ideology.
- J P said that the personality of human being consist of both
• Materialist and Spiritual Component
• Equal development of both is the condition of full development
of human personality. (Dmat confined to materalsim only)

• He also criticized the idea of ‘Dictatorship of Proletariat’

- He said socialism can be established through non violent and peaceful
method also.

• He said that Socialism in India can be established through non violent and
democratic methods.
© Saar Concepts
Jayaprakash Narayan

Plan for reconstructing Indian Polity

• India got independence and a New Constitution was adopted.

• JP was not happy with the working of the Democratic Polity in the Country.

• He made a tour to various European Countries in order to understand how

Government functions in these countries.
- JP discovered a basic flaw in most of the political system he visited
including that of India
• Increasing concentration of Power at higher level of Government.

• JP was a true Democrat. He wanted power to be present in the hands of People

- He said only that much power to be given to government which would
be unavoidable.
© Saar Concepts
Jayaprakash Narayan

Plan for reconstructing Indian Polity

• In 1959, he published his path breaking book :

- ‘A Plea for the reconstruction of Indian Polity’ (1959)

• JP called for the replacement of prevailing Parliamentary System and Centralized

Economic System in India with :
- Communitarian Democracy and Decentralized Economy

Plan for reconstructing Indian Polity

• Communitarian Democracy
- A Pyramidal model of Democracy with widest range of power available at
the base of the pyramid.
- JP suggest a Decentralized ‘Five Pillar Model’ of Government
• Centre
• Province/State Limited Power at this level
• District (Zila Parishad)
Widest Possible Power to be
• Block (Panchayt samiti)
concentrated here
• Village (Gram Sabha)

• JP called this model ‘Swaraj from below’

• This Grassroot democratic model would also be a Party less Democracy
• © Saar Concepts
J P called this Social-Political system as ‘Sarvodya’
Jayaprakash Narayan

Sarvodya

• ‘Sarvodya’ was a concept that originally belonged to Gandhi.

- JP borrowed this concept from Gandhi to explain his Decentralized Political
System.

• Vinoba Bhave defined Sarvodya as : ‘Sarvodya does not mean good government or
majority rule, it means freedom from Government, it means decentralization of
Power’

• So ‘Sarvodya’ refers to a social political order where :

- Feeling of being governed by someone else is totally absent.
- People follow their lives according to their wishes.
- Even if there is government, it has limited power
- Power remain decentralized
© Saar Concepts
Jayaprakash Narayan

Sarvodya

• So in a Sarvodya social order :

- Rajniti (Politics of Power) is replaced by Lokniti (Politics of People)
- Rajshakti (Power of State) is replaced by Lokshakti (Power of People)

Total Revoltution

• Total Revolution (Sampurna Kranti) was the last intellectual innovation of JP

- The concept was evolved by Vinoba Bhave during the 1960s.

• JP used this idea in 1975 to call upon people to work for total revolution in all
aspects of public life and create a whole new world on basis of ‘Sarvodya’

• JP called for ‘Total Revolution’ at the time when there was growing authoritarianism
in the functioning of the government under the rule of Mrs Indira Gandhi.
- When emergency was declared in 1975, JP thought it to be the perfect
time to launch ‘Total Revolution’ movement.

Total Revoltution
• Total Revolution would bring transformation in the Political and Economic system of
the country
- Revolution in Political Sphere
• Creating a decentralized system where power rests with people.
• Implementing the Sarvodya Model.
• Abolishing Political Parties and transforming Electoral System

- Revolution in Economic Sphere

• Decentralized economy
• No concentration of wealth in few hands.
• All able to fulfill their basic necessities.
• Society based on the concept of Sampatidan

© Saar Concepts
› Sampatidaan means sharing of one’s wealth and economic
resources with others.
Mohammad Iqbal
Mohammad Iqbal

Life and Work

• Mohammad Iqbal (1877-1938) was basically a poet like Rabindranath Tagore.

- It was in response to the incidents taking place around him that he
articulated his social and Political Ideas.

• In the beginning, Iqbal was a patriotic poet who wrote many poems in honor of
‘Mother India’.

• Later, Iqbal turned into a staunch advocate of narrow Muslim nationalism.

• We need to critically review the evolution and nature of the main components of
socio-political ideas of Iqbal.

Life and Work

• Iqbal was born on 22nd February 1873 at Sialkot in Punjab

- He attended his early education in traditional Muslim Schools.
- He then took admission in the Sialkot Mission School.
- Later he joined Lahore Government College.

- He was selected as a Lecturer in Oriental College, Lahore.

- In 1905 he left for Munich to pursue his doctoral thesis.

- Iqbal’s stay in Europe turned out to be turning point in his life.

• From a staunch nationalist he was transformed into a
‘Shair-i-Islam’
• His passion now became to save Islam and its followers
© Saar Concepts
Mohammad Iqbal

Life and Work

• After returning from Europe, he was offered lectureship in Oriental College but he
refused.
- He started practicing law but he was not successful.
- So he dedicated most of time in writing poetries.

• He entered into Politics in 1925, when he contested and won election to Punjab
Legislative Council.

• In 1930, he presided over the Allahabad Session of the Muslim League

- He advocated for two separate administrative areas in India, one for
Muslim and one for Hindus.

Life and Work

• He was a delegate to the second and third Round Table Conference that were held in
London

• He died in Lahore on 21 April 1938.

His Political Ideas

• Iqbal did not present his political ideas in a systematic and coherent ways like a
Political Theorist.

• Much of the political ideas of Iqbal were articulated in the forms of Poems.
- In addition to this we can also find his political ideas in various lectures
given by him.

• Common Theme in his Political Idea

- His view on Nationalism
- His view on Pan Islamism
- His view on Pakistan

Views on Nationalism

• In the beginning, that means before 1905, Iqbal was a Poet of Indian Nationalism
- In 1904 he wrote, ‘Sarre Jahan se acha Hindustan hmara’
- His another famous poem was ‘Naya Shivalya’
- He was the voice of Indian Nationalist

• His stay in Europe from 1905 onwards transformed his view of Nationalism
- He became a critic of Territorial nationalism
- and s Supporter of Pan Islamism.

• While in Europe, he experienced the unfavorable policies of various European

Countries in certain part of the world against Muslims.
- He sensed some sort of danger to Islam and its followers in various places
across the globe.
© Saar Concepts
Mohammad Iqbal

Views on Nationalism

• Iqbal then turned to be an advocate of ‘Pan Islamism’

- It was the idea of bringing all the Muslims of the world together and form
world wide Muslim Brotherhood. This he called ‘Millat’.

• Iqbal started criticizing the European concept of Territorial Nationalism.

- He said territorial nationalism betrays the unity among human beings.
- He said that the conception of Nationalism based on the differences
of Nation and Race was dangerous for Islam
• It challenged the Universality of Muslim Brotherhood by binding
Muslims to narrow patriotism and false nationalism

• He considered it to be his duty to spread awareness among Muslims about the danger
of European Style Nationalism.
© Saar Concepts
Mohammad Iqbal

Views on Nationalism

• He feared that the Pan Indian Nationalism would ultimately lead to the
establishment of Hindus as dominant section of the society.

• So he advocated for the establishment of a separate nation of Pakistan just for

Muslims.

Views on Pakistan

• He propagated the idea for creating a separate homeland for Muslims called Pakistan.
- He wanted to ensure a secure position to Muslim

• Iqbal’s first explicit reference to the reorganization of India on Religious basis came in
the form of his presidential address delivered at Allahabad in April 1930 at the annual
session of Muslim League.

Introduction

• Gandhi was born on 2nd October 1869 in the town of Porbandar, Kathiwad.
- In 1888, he went to England to study law.
- He returned India in 1891 with the title of Barrister.
- In 1893 he went to South Africa to contest a case.
• He was to stay in Africa for 1 year but he stayed there for 22 years.
• He sees racial discrimination being practiced in South Africa
against Indians and Native Africans.
• He protests against this injustice
• In1894, he establishes Natal Indian Congress
• He uses Non Violent peaceful method to fight against English
• He sets two camps in South Africa to train Satyagrahis
› Phoenix Settlement (1904) [Inspired by John Ruskin]
© Saar Concepts
› Tolstoy Farm (1910)
M K Gandhi

Introduction

• .
- He returned to India in 1915 after fighting for discrimination against blacks
Indians in Africa.
- He launched Satyagrahas in remote areas of Indias
• Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
• Ahemdabad Satyagraha (1918)

Introduction

• Gandhi’s political strategy brought radical changes in the Congress.

- Indian National Movement was transformed into a Mass Movement.
- Gandhi was able to mobilize the masses by giving more emphasis to the
local issues.

• Besides these local movements, Gandhi led three All India Movements
1. Non Cooperation Movement (1920 to 1922)
2. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
3. Quit India Movement of 1942 (Also Known as Open Rebellion)

Intellectual Influences on Gandhi

• Gandhi social and political thoughts were influenced from various sources
- Gandhi considered Gopal Krishna Gokhale his Political Guru.
- Many Western Thinkers influenced Gandhi :
• Ruskin : ‘Unto this last’
• Tolstoy : ‘Glimpse in Belief’ ‘Kingdom of God is within you’
• Thoreau : ‘Civil Disobedience’

Major literary works

• Hind Swaraj (1909)

• Satyagraha in South Africa (1924) (English edition -1928)
• An Autobiography or The Story of My experiment with truth (1927)
• Non Violence in Peace and War (1942)
• Non Violent Satyagraha (1950)
• India of My Dreams (1947)
• Constructive Program – Its Meaning and Place (1941)
• Gokhale : My Political Guru (1955)

Major literary works

• In 1903 he founded his own journal ‘Indian Opinion’

• He edited a journal called ‘Young India’ (1919 o 1932)

• He launched another journal called ‘Harijan’ in 1933.

Political Ideas

• Satyagrha and Ahimsa

- Ahimsa
• For Gandhi, ‘Ahimsa’ meant : ‘both passive and active love,
refraining from causing harms and destruction to living beings and
promoting their well being’
• Passive and Negative dimension of Ahimsa
› Non injury to others
› Avoidance of acts of harming other
• Active and Positive dimension of Ahimsa
› Love and charity for others
› Promoting their well being based on love for them
© Saar Concepts
M K Gandhi

Political Ideas

• Satyagrha and Ahimsa

- From where Gandhi got the idea of Non Violence

• While his stay in England Gandhi was influenced by many things :
› Christian moral precepts like the ‘Sermon on the Mount’
› David Henry Thoreau’s idea of Civil Disobedience
› Edward Carpenter’s Critique of Modern Industrial Society
› Leo Tolstoy’s view on non violence

• Ahimsa had also been a central principle in Jainism and Buddhism

Political Ideas

• Satyagrha and Ahimsa

- Satyagraha
• It is made from the compound of two words ‘Sat’ and ‘Agraha’
› ‘Sat’ means Truth and ‘Agraha’ means ‘to Get hold of’
› So Satyagraha means ‘Holding on to truth’ or
‘Insisting on truth’ or ‘Demanding truth’
• So the term Satyagraha means ‘Standing firm for truth’
› Gandhi called it ‘truth force or soul force’
• So Satyagraha is an active technique of action in a conflict situation
which consists of a search for truth and struggle for its vindication.
› It is also called ‘Non Violent Resistance’
© Saar Concepts
M K Gandhi

Political Ideas

• Satyagrha and Ahimsa

- Mahatma Gandhi and Satyagraha

• Gandhi viewed human beings as basically good and endowed with divine
power
• True Satyagraha can awaken the conscience of the opponent leading
to his moral persuasion.
- This is possible only when the Satyagrahi confronts the opponent
with Non Violence by Conviction

Political Ideas

• Satyagrha and Ahimsa

- Satyagraha
• Techniques of Satyagraha : According to Raghhvan N Iyer there are
four categories of Satyagrahas:

1. Purificatory or Penitential device : Pledge, Prayers and fasts.

2. Non Cooperation : Giving up with the benefits of a system with witch
we all are associated. (Hartal, Boycottes, Strike )
3. Civil Disobedience : Defying and diobeying laws that are unjust.
4.Constructive Programme : He wanted Stayagrahis to engage in
silent activities and constructive work of reforms.
© Saar Concepts
M K Gandhi

State

• For Gandhi, State represents violence its concentrated form

- But he says State is necessary because human beings are not perfect and
may not always act in a socially responsible manner.

• But Gandhi wants a state which will use minimum of violence

- He wanted individuals to regulate their actions voluntarily without the
requirement of interference of state.
- He thus advocates for limited state sovereignty.

State

• So for Gandhi, a state should be truly non violent.

- It should be composed of self-governing and self-sufficient
Village Communities
- There will be majority rule, Village will elect district representatives who in
turn will elect provincial and central representative.
- Majority rule will have two conditions
• Majority can not violate the rights of minority
• Rulers should not act against morality
- In this State, everyone will have the right to engage in Civil Disobedience
against any policy that they consider are morally right.

State

• State and Swaraj

- The word Swaraj is different from ‘Independence’.
- Independence means freedom from restraint
- Swaraj means self rule and self control

- Gandhi uses the term Swaraj to mean ‘Positive Freedom’

• It means participating in the process of politics in every way possible
• It implies that State is not a negative Institution that restricts freedom
rather it provide opportunity to people to participate in their
self rule.
• It also implies an intimate relation that aught to exist between
citizen and State.
© Saar Concepts
• So Swaraj is basically a model of Participatory Democracy
M K Gandhi
State

• State and Swaraj

- For Gandhi, Swaraj denoted four kinds of freedoms
• National Independence
• Political Freedom of the Individual I
• Economic Freedom of the Individual
• Spiritual Freedom of the Individual

• For Gandhi, Political Independent without Economic Well being is meaningless.

- Self sufficient villages could best achieve the welfare of the people
- Only solution is to revive the village based economic model
- He said society should not be organized as a pyramid
- It should be like concentric circles with Individual at the centre

© Saar Concepts
- Individual sacrificing for village and village for higher level
- All forming a complete organic whole.
M K Gandhi

Theory of Trusteeship

• Gandhi’s theory of Trusteeship was an answer to the evils of Capitalism

• Under Trusteeship
• Every one, including the owner of factory should work.
• Workers and Factory Owners both will be paid wages.
• Entire profit of the factory goes to become social profit.

• According to Gandhi, all property is God’s property and we use it to the extent that
we require.
• We are trustee of God’s property.
• God has given natural resources to all and not to any individual.
• If we have more then we are actually trustee of that more.
© Saar Concepts
• If someone needs that ‘more’ then we have to give it to him.
M K Gandhi

Political Ideas

• Satyagrha and Ahimsa

- Jawahar lal Nehru said : Ahimsa is a positive and dynamic method of action
and it was not meant for those who meekly accept the status quo.
• Purpose of ahimsa was to bring change in society.

- For Gandhi, Ahimsa was a method of Conflict Resolution and a model of

Social Change and Action
- Ahimsa was also a theory of Politics that gradually became a dominant
ideology of Indian National Movement.

• Indian National Movement was an anti-British Struggle.

• Early phase of Indian National Movement was dominated by two ideological
viewpoints : -
- Moderates :
• They opposed the British rule in a strictly constitutional way.
• The Congress Party was dominated by Moderates in the period
between 1885 and 1907.
• Important Moderate Personalities : Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendra
Nath Banerjee, Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
M G Ranade
- Extremists :
• They favored direct action to harm the British Economic and
Political Interest in India.

Moderates Vs Extremists

• Moderates :
- They were admirers of western Political values like Rule of law, equality
before law, freedom of speech and representative government.
- They considered these values as superior than traditional Indian Polity
which they regarded as ‘Asiatic Despotism’ (Hindu Kingships)
- They believed that all these values will be implemented by British in India

• Aims and Methods of Moderates

- They avoided any direct clash with the British.
- British conquest of India was not a ‘Calamity’ but an ‘Opportunity’ and
we must take advantage of it.
- Continuity of British rule will make India a ‘Civilized Nation’.
© Saar Concepts
B G Tilak

Moderates Vs Extremists

• Moderates were Loyalists, who never launched mass agitation against British rule.
- They pursued a policy of reconciliation and compromise
- They kept reminding the British about their role towards India.

• Extremists :
- They were critical of Moderate methods and aims
• British Govt was not performing the duty it was supposed to.
• Economic exploitation of India was continuously happening.
• All these reflected the true nature of Colonial State which the
Moderates were unwilling to identify.
- Extremists wanted a direct action, time bound program and policies
that will hurt the Interest of British in India.
© Saar Concepts
B G Tilak

Moderates Vs Extremists

• Some important differences between Moderates and Extremists

- For Moderates, British rule was most beneficial in comparison to what India
has faced before.

For Extremists, British rule is a curse that can never give justice to people of
India.
• Eg. Partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon and Recurrence of
famines and attitude of colonial govt towards it.

Moderates Vs Extremists

• Some important differences between Moderates and Extremists

- Moderates wanted self government through gradual reforms as was given to
British colonies of Canada and Australia.

Extremists demanded complete independence : Swaraj

• Tilak was the most prominent Extremist, he said
‘Swaraj is my Birthright’ and ‘Without Swaraj there could be no
reforms, no progress,no useful education and no fulfillment of
national life.’

Moderates Vs Extremists

• Some important differences between Moderates and Extremists

- Moderates adopted peaceful and constitutional methods and avoided direct
fight with the British.

Extremists were not hesitant in using Violence, if it was necessary for the
national goals.
• Most important strategy adopted by the extremists were that of
Boycott and strike.
• Tilak argued that Indians should withdraw from administration and
there should be complete boycott of Government.

Moderates Vs Extremists

• Two faces of extremism :

- Strategy of Boycott, Swadeshi and Strike that were adopted publically.
- Strategy to terrorize the British by assassinating and killing corrupt
British officials.

• The extremist ideology created a leadership trio of ‘Lal-Bal-Pal’

- Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab)
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra)
- Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal)

• Of the three, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the most important Extremist Leader of this
phase of freedom struggle .
- Before his active involvement in Congress, Tilak articulated his nationalist
ideas in both ‘Keshari’ (Marathi Magazanie) and ‘Mahratta’ (English)

• In 1893, he transformed the traditional Ganapati Festival into a campaign for

nationalist ideas.

• In 1896, he introduced Shivaji festival to inspire patriotism in Youth.

• He served the Plague Victims in Poona in 1897, from here onwards he became a
popular leader.

•
© Saar Concepts
He was involved in 1897-97 ‘No Tax Campaign’ for Famine Stricken peasants of
Maharastra
B G Tilak

• Tilak and Social Reforms

- During Tilak’s time there was a great emphasis on Social Reforms, especially
in Maharashtra
- Tilak Believed that ‘Political Freedom should precede Social Reforms’.
• Demands for reforms will split the nation rather than unite it.
- Tilak said we first need political progress, social progress can be achieved
later.
- Tilak was not completely against reforms and changes :
• He was against untouchability
• He supported widow remarriage.
• He also supported the proposal for raising the age of marriage

• Two important features of Tilak’s Political thought

1.Unlike Moderates who demanded gradual introduction of self rule,
Tilak demanded immediate Swaraj or Self Rule.
• Political Dimension : Home Rule
• Spiritual Dimension : Self Perfection
2. Tilak’s idea of home rule or swaraj included folllowings :
• It is a government constituted by the Indian themselves and ruled for
the Indians.
• Indians should have the right to run their own government, appoint
their own administrators and make their own laws.
• This idea of Swaraj included Tilak’s concept of ‘Prajadroha’
- It is the right of the people to resist an authority that losses
legitimacy to rule.

• The 1907 Surat Split

- The annual session of Congress presided over by Rash Behari Ghosh
- The annual session of Congress saw Congress getting divided into two groups
of Moderates and Extremists.
- The Moderates’ method of 3Ps – Petition, Prayer and Protest was rejected
by Extremists.
- The Extremists proposal for Swadeshi and Boycott were not recognized by
Moderates.
- Extremist side was led by Tilak and Moderates were led by Pherozeshah
Mehta.
• At the 1908 Allahabad Convention the Split was formalized and
Extremists were barred from attending any deliberation of
Congress.

• Books by B G Tilak
- The Orion (1893)
- The Arctic Homes in the Vedas (1903)
- Srimad Bhagwad Gita Rahashya (1915)

His Life and Time

• Aurobindo was not a mass leader like Mahatma Gandhi but was one of the most
important figure of Indian National Movement.

• He was born on 15 August, 1872 in Kolkata.

- His real name was Aravinda Akroyd Ghose

• His father was a district Surgeon in Rangapur in Bengal. He had studied medicine in
Britain and wanted his children to be educated there free from any kind of Indian
influence.
- Aurobindo spent few years in Loretto Convent, Darjeeling.
- In 1879, he and his two elder brothers were sent to Manchester,
England for studies
© Saar Concepts
Sri Aurobindo

His Life and Time

• Aurobindo appeared for Indian Civil Services exam in order to fulfill his father’s
dream.
- He cleared the prestigious exam with good ranks but after two years
of probation he decided not to join the service and serve the British.

• After meeting Maharaja of Baroda, Sayajirao Gaekwad III, in England, he joined

Baroda State Services.
- He arrived in India in february 1893.
- In Baroda, he taught himself Bengali, Hindi and Sanskrit.
- He also started taking interest in Political activities against British Rule.
- He also started writing a series of article in a weekly called

His Life and Time

• He attended the 1907 Surat session of Congress

- There was a discontent between the Moderate and Revolutionary faction
of the Congress
- Aurobindo, along with Bal Gangadhar Tilak, led the revolutionary or
extremist faction of Congress.
- The Congress was split into Moderates and Extremists.

• He was arrested in the May of 1908 in Alipore Bomb Blast case.

- He was kept in isolation in the Alipore Central Jail for One Year.

• His experiences while in prison, shifted his focus from political to spiritual.

His Life and Time

• After getting released from the prison he gave his famous ‘Uttarpara Speech’
- He described the spiritual aspect of nationalism.
• British were very worried about his growing influence.
- Lord Minto : ‘most dangerous person we have to reckon with’

• He finally left British territory and move to French colony of Puducherry.

- It was here where he practiced his spiritual activities and philosophical
persuits.

• He died on 5 December 1950.

Political Activities of Aurobindo

• Earlier Aurobindo had great expectation from Congress Party.

- He believed that the Party would play a leading role in the national
movement.
- But he was disappointed with the debating club mentality of the
Congress.
- He said that Congress lacked ‘Direction and Insight’
- He opposed the aims and methods of early congress that was led by
moderates.
- He described Moderates as ‘Loyalists’

• Aurobindo argued for complete Independence.

© Saar Concepts
- He said that well being under foreign rule is impossible
- He considered foreign rule as unnatural for a nation.
Sri Aurobindo

Political Activities of Aurobindo

• Aurobindo argued for complete Independence.

- He said that well being under foreign rule is impossible
- He considered foreign rule as unnatural for a nation.
- Each nation is unique and foreign rule impose foreign values.
- Colonization does not stop with Political enslavement but leads to
Economic, Moral and Cultural imprisonment too.

• Neither colonial self rule nor colonial self government is sufficient.

- Aurobindo rejected the ‘Disunity and Fitness Theory’ and ‘Civilizing
theory’ as propagated by the British.

© Saar Concepts
- British had not come to India promote noble and moral cause but to
exploit India in all the possible ways.
Sri Aurobindo

Political Activities of Aurobindo

• He criticized the behavior of Congress as ‘Permanent Opposition’ and also rejected

the ‘Bar Council’ approach of Congress.

• Aurobindo made it clear that the Congress should work for Complete
Independence.

Theory of Passive Resistance

• According to Aurobindo, freedom of Indian nation from British Colonialism can be

achieved through two ways :-
- Organized Active Resistance :
• It could involve, assasinations, riots, strikes, revolts,etc
• This method can not be followed simply because British
were far more militarily powerful than Indians.
- Organized Passive Resistance :
• It means reducing dependency on Foreign Government and
bureaucracy. It involves two steps :-
1. Creating Institutions parallel to government. Like
opening schools, local community courts ets.

Theory of Passive Resistance

• Thus Passive Resistance involves :

- Institution of Swadeshi (Self Help)
- Opposition of Videshi (Boycott) both done at the same time

• Aurobindo identified four major areas of Passive resistance : Economy, Education.

Judicial System and Executive Administration.

• The idea of Passive resistance also included non payment of taxes. But it was
recommended for the final stage and not the first stage.

• According to Aurobindo, Congress only followed only the first strategy.(Self Help)
- He thus called Congress as ‘Inoffensive Philanthropic Patriots’.
© Saar Concepts
Sri Aurobindo

Theory of Passive Resistance

• According to Aurobindo, there was a narrow line between Passive Resistance and
Active Resistance.
- Passive resistance should be followed only as long as authority is not
using violence.
- The moment the authority uses violence, we have the right to use active
resistance.

Cultural Nationalism

• Indian freedom will not only be good for Indians but will also be good for the
world.
- Western Civilization is materialistic. They are spiritually deprived.
- Western world badly needed spiritual guidance.
- India has that potential to provide Spiritual Guidance to the world.

• India can not have a future if it simply copies the Western Institutions.
- India did not only needed Political Revolution but also spiritual revolution
- Indian freedom will be meaningless if it is not followed by religious and
cultural regeneration of the nation
- India needed to bring back the spiritual majesty of the past.

© Saar Concepts
• Aryan thought, Aryan Life, Aryan Discipline, Recovering the
teaching of Gita, Vedanta and Yoga.
Sri Aurobindo

Cultural Nationalism

• He said that Indian Religion that is Hinduism represented a Sanatan Dharm

- When he said cultural revival he particularly talked about Hinduism and
Hindu Nation.
- According to him, Hinduism represented the core of Indian culture

Nation as a Devine Entity

• For Aurobindo, India was not just a geographical territory.

- For him India was an incarnation of God. It had no political origin like a
social contract. India represented the God. ‘Bharat Mata’
- It is an incarnation of divine for the performance of some divine
function through the citizens.
- Mazzini and Bipin Chandra Pal also considered a Nation as an incarnation
God.

• For Aurobindo , Nationalism is not just a Political Movement, it is a religious act in

itself.
- It is religious act because it is governed by the will of the god.
- People will achieve salvation only in a nation.
© Saar Concepts
Sri Aurobindo

Books

• Savitri (1940)
• The Life of Divine (1944)
• Synthesis of Yoga (1948)
• The Mother (1928)
• The Secret of Veda (1971)
• Essays on the Gita (1922)
• The Human Cycle (1950)
• The Supramental Manifestation upon Earth (1949)
• The Ideal of Human Unity (1918)

Life and Works

• Babasaheb Ambedkar is one of the foremost thinkers of modern India

• His thoughts is centrally concerned with the issue of freedom, human equality,
democracy and socio political emancipation of the depressed class of people.
• He himself suffered much humiliation, poverty and social stigma right from his
childhood.
- Yet he rose to the great educational and philosophical height.

• Our analysis of Ambedkar will focus around

- His brief biography
- Caste and Untouchability in Indian Society
- Annihilation of caste
- Gandhi Ambedkar Debate
© Saar Concepts
- His Political ideas : Rights, Constitutional Democracy, Social Justice.
B R Ambedkar

Life and Works

• His life was dedicated to the tireless urge to secure for him and the members of the
depressed classes an emancipation from the curse of Untouchability .

• He was born in an untouchable Mahar family on 14th April 1891 at Mhow, near
Indore.
- He was destined to face the indignities and discriminations because
of being a an Untouchable.

• Initially his parents sent him to a Local Marathi School, later he moved to Bombay
and joined Elphinstone High School
- He graduated from Elphinstone College with the help of a scholarship.

Life and Works

• He did his Master’s and PhD from Columbia University USA.

- He saw the struggle against racial discrimination in America, this made him
more determined to fight untouchability in India.
- He also analyzed the impact of colonialism on the economy, politics and
social life of India.
• His MA dissertation was : Administration and Finance of East India
Company
• His PhD thesis : The Evolution of the provincial Finance in British
India.
• D.Sc Dissertation : The Problem of the Rupee – Its origin and
Solution

Life and Works

• After completing his PhD, he returned to serve the administration of Baroda

Maharaja who had sponsored his education in USA.
- He suffered discrimination and untouchability in Baroda Administration
- He left the job
- For some time he became Professor of Political Economy at Sydenham
College of Commerce and Economics, Bombay.

• In 1919 he appeared before ‘Southborough Committee’

- He demanded for separate electorate and reserved seats for the
untouchables.

• In 1920, he started a weekly Marathi Paper called ‘Mooknayak’ (leader of dumb)

© Saar Concepts
- Same year he took part in All India Conference of Depressed Class presided
over by Sahu Maharaj of Kolhapur.
B R Ambedkar

Life and Works

• In 1922 he went to London to complete his studies :

- He studied law at Grays Inn
- Then he joined London School of Economics for further studies.

• In 1923, he returned to India and tried to establish himself as a successful lawyer but
he could not do so because of Untouchable Status.
- After this he began to work full time for the cause of the freedom of
Untouchables from the atrocities of age old customs and securing a
respectable place for them in Indian Social Order.

• In 1924 he established ‘Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha’ for the educational and economic
well-being of untouchables.
•
© Saar Concepts
In 1927, he started a paper called ‘Bahishkrit Bharat’
B R Ambedkar

Life and Works

• In 1927, Ambedkar organized the ‘Mahad Satyagrah’ for emphasizing the right of
untouchables to use the wells and tanks like others.

• In 1927 only, he also found :

- Samaj Samata Sangh
- Samata Sainik Dal

• In 1927 only, he was appointed as a member of Bombay Legislative Assembly

• In 1930, he led the Satyagraha at Kalram Temple, Nasik demanding temple entry to
untouchables.

Life and Works

• During the 1930s, Ambedkar’s strategy of emancipation of the untouchables started

getting inclined towards legal constitutional methods in comparison to radical
methods of organizing satyagrahs.

• He wanted to provide untouchables a more secure and powerful position in the

constitutional framework being prepared by the British.

• He participated in the Round Table Conference and demanded for separate

electorate.
- His demands for separate electorate was accepted by British in the
Communal Awards of 1932.

Life and Works

• But Gabdhi’s fast unto death against the separate electorate provision made
Ambedkar comprimise with his demands
- Poona Pact was signed
- Poona Pact allowed for joinnt electorate with reservation of seats for the
Depressedd Classs.

• In 1936, Dr Ambedkar founded the Independent ‘Labor Party.

- It contested 17 seats and won 15 in the 1937 election of Bomby Province.

• In 1936, Ambedkar prepared a lecture title ‘Annihilation of caste’

- The lecture was to be delivered at the annual conference of
‘Jat Pat Todak Mandal, Lahore.

Life and Works

• Ambedkar’s major writings :

- His Doctoral dissertations :
• The Problem of Ruppee (1923)
• The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India (1925)
- Annihilation of caste (1936)
- Thoughts on Pakistan (1940)
- What Congress and Gandhi have done to Untouchables (1945)
- Who were the Shudras (1946)
- The Untouchables (1948)
- States and Minorities (1947)
- Thoughts on Linguistic States (1955)
− The Budha and his Dhamma (1957)

Caste and Untouchability in Hindu Society

• Ambedkar wanted to understand the dynamics of Caste System in India

- He was convinced that the purpose of his life is to fight Untouchability.

• His first essay on caste system was published in 1917 :

- Caste in India : Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development

• He noted that the Early Hindu society was composed of four Classes :
- Brahmins (The Priestly Class)
- Kshatriyas (The Warrior Class)
- Vaishyas (The Trading Class)
- Sudras (The Artisans or Labor Class)
• Fundamental Characteristic : The System was open, Individual could move from one
class to another.
© Saar Concepts
B R Ambedkar

Caste and Untouchability in Hindu Society

• Gradually this Open Class system turned into a ‘Closed System’

- After becoming Closed, the Class System became ‘Caste System’
- The Caste became an endogamous groups.

• In his book , ‘Who were Shudras?’ he tries to understand the Vedic Justification of
Caste System
- In Rigveda there is a portion called ‘Purusha Shukta’
- It says that Caste emerged from the Sacrifice of the Divine Man (Purusha)
• Head : It became Brahmin
• Arms : Kshatriyas
• Belly : Vaishyas
• Feet : Shudras

Caste and Untouchability in Hindu Society

• He tries to explain the origin of Untouchables in his book :

- The Untouchables : Who were they and why they became Untouchables?

• To answer this question, Ambedkar develops :

- ‘The Theory of Broken Men’

• Broken Men
- They were the ancestors of Untouchables.
- During tribal wars, the tribe which was defeated was left to wander here
and there.
- These tribes were attracted to Buddhism because of the equality present
in it.

Caste and Untouchability in Hindu Society

• Brahmin hated these Broken Men for two reasons :

- They followed Buddhism
- They remained non vegetarians.

• So Brahmins imposed untouchability on these broken men when they came back to
stay in the society.

• ‘Annihilation of Caste’ was one of the most important work published by Ambedkar
- It was aimed at explaining the exploitative nature of caste
- and thus calling for its complete annihilation.

• This write up was originally written in the form of speech to be delivered at the
annual conference of ‘Jat Pat Todak Mandal’ of Lahore in 1936.

• Ambedkar’s arguments :
- Caste is the most dangerous institution of Indian Society.
- Instead of doing any good, it has brought irreparable damage to the
Untouchables.
- The notion of biological purity and impurity in caste is not only absurd
but also irrational.
© Saar Concepts
- It is for this reason that caste needs to eradicated from the society.
B R Ambedkar
Gandhi-Ambedkar Debate

• Gandhi and Ambedkar differed from each other regarding the probable solution to
the problem of Untouchability and other evils of Caste System
- For Gandhi :
• The problem of untouchability is a Social issue
• So the solution will also be a social solution.
• His approach to the problem of untouchability rested on its
eradication through self enlightenment of the people.
• He did not want to bring any radical change to the Hindu System
• He also published a news weekly for Untouchabled called ‘Harijan’
- For Ambedkar :
• The problem of untouchability is both a social and political issue.
• So the solution will also be Political in Nature.

© Saar Concepts
• Problems of untouchability can only be solved through waging a
a Political struggle against entire hindu system.
B R Ambedkar
Political Ideas of Ambedkar

• Rights of the People

- Ambedkar was in favour of a social order based on the ideals of liberty,
equality, and fraternity.
- He said that the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity should be ingrained
in the law of the land of the country.
- Ambedkar was the supporter of the natural theory of right.
• Rights are natural and inherent in the human personality.
• Rights protected by society and social norms are more effective
than rights protected by legal system
- But for Indian society he argued for constitutional protection of rights

• Constitutional Democracy
- Ambedkar was a believer in the idea of Constitutional Democracy.
- In addition to Political Democracy, he also argued for social and Political
democracy.

• Social Justice :
- It was Ambedkar who developed the idea of Social Justice in the context of
India.

• What is Social Justice ?

−It refers to that aspect of socio-economic and political system of a country
• Through which steps are taken to improve the condition of the
disadvantaged section of the society

• Ambedkar believed that the function of the state is not just to provide Security and
Political Justice :
- State also has a duty to bring about an upliftment in the social and

© Saar Concepts
economic condition of the disadvantaged section of society especially the
Untouchables.
B R Ambedkar
Political Ideas of Ambedkar

• Ambedkar wanted social justice measures to be given legal basis

- So that it becomes compulsory for the state to provide social justice to
its citizens.

• Along with distinct and autonomous political representation of the depressed classes
- Ambedkar also wanted reservation for the depressed class in government
job and educational institutions.

• The literature of ancient Indian Political thought comprises both of Vedic and Non
Vedic texts.

• Vedic literature is divided into two categories :

- Shruti :
• They have no author, it believed to be divine revelations
› Rig veda
› Atharva veda
› Sama Veda
› Yajur Veda
- Smriti :
• These are compiled by Sages
• Manu (Manusmriti), Yajnavalkya (Yajnavalkya Smiriti)

© Saar Concepts
Parasara (Parasarasmriti)
• These smiritis are law codes and thus are called ‘Dharmshastra’
Dharmashastra

• All Dharmshastra derive its authority from Vedas.

• While there are hundreds of Dharamshastras and many more commentaries. The
principal Dharmshastra Texts include :
- Four Dharmashutras of ‘Apastamba’, ‘Gautama’, ‘Baudhayana’ and
‘Vasistha’
- Major Smiritis of Manu, Yajnvalkya, Narada, Visnu, Brhaspati and Katyayana
- Commentaries like those of : Apariditya, Asahaya, Hemadri etc

• Major EnglishTranslation :
- Patrick Olivelle : ‘The Law code of Manu’ (2004)
‘Dharmasutras’ (1999)

• These Dharamshastras tell us about how Politics was organized in ancient period.

• Manusmiriti is also known as ‘Manav Dharamshastra’

- It has 12 chapters and contains 2694 couplets

• It says that in beginning there is anarchy and only one law operates ‘Matsyanyaya’

• The seventh chapter deals with ‘Rajdharma’ or ‘Statecraft’

- Manu supports divine right theory of state.
- State was creation of God.

• Since King was the most important unit of state, Manu gives a detailed list of duties
and functions of King.

• King should be true to four pillar of good life :

- Dharma, Artha, Kam and Moksha.
• While ruling he should practice : Sama, Dama, Dand and Bhed.

• Function of Government is mainly related to two fields

- Public Security
- Interstate Relations

• He says that art of diplomacy requires 6 qualities

- Sandhi (Treaty or alliance)
- Vigraha (War)
- Asane (Neutrality)
- Yana (Preparing for attack)
- Samsraya (Seeking protection from other)
© Saar Concepts
- Dvaidhibhava (Making peace with one and waging war with other)
Dharmashastra

• In the social sphere, Manu has described the rules each individual had to follow from
birth till death.

• He lays down the concept of Varnavyavastha in great detail by dividing society into
four Varnas : Brahmin, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.

• Manu was first who classified laws under 18 heads and called it ‘Vyavaharapada’

• Agganna sutta deals with origin of Kingship as explained in

the Budhist text ‘Digha Nikaya’
- Aggana sutta is the 27th sutta of Digha Nikaya collection

• It is a conversation between Buddha and two Brahmins – Vasistha and Bharadvaja

- Buddha tells them the story of ‘Shriti’ after ‘Pralaya’
- He explains them the origin of Earth and then the social order.

• After Pralaya, Moon, Earth, Stars emerged gradually and so did Men and Women.

• In the beginning, nature was freely available for all to consume and use
- Then some people greed and desire to accumulate.
- This led to theft and violence

• People began to go to the most powerful person in the society and ask him for
protection .
- People asked him to maintain just order.
- They designated him ‘Mahasammata’ (Great Elect)
- People promised him to give him a part of their produce as tax.
- This person became the King and thus emerged Kshatriya class.
- Gradually Brahmin, Vaishayas and Shudra class also emerged.

• In the beginning this social division was based on merit and work.
• Buddha conclude the conversation by saying that Dharma consists of performance of
duty in accordance with whichever social order one belongs to.

• This may be the first theory of social contract in the history of political thought in the
world.
© Saar Concepts
Deendayal Upadhyaya

• Pt Deen Dayal Upadhyaya was one of the founding member of Bhartiye Jan Sangh
which later became Bharitiye Janta Party.
- Bhartiye Jan Sangh was founded by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee in 1951.
- BJS was the Political wing of RSS

• He has been the source of Ideological guidance and moral inspiration for BJP since its
inception.

• Three important political concept that have been developed by Pt Deen Dayal
Upadhaya :
- Integral Humanism
- Chiti
- Dharma Rajya

• Integral Humanism
- The idea of Integral Humanism was given a systematic shape in 1965.
- Upadhyaya argues that Man is basically a social animal who wants to live a
collective life.
- Satisfaction of human needs is not possible without harmony.
- Good society is one that functions like an organism in which each individual
work to sustain the well being of nation.
- Justice consists in doing socially useful task.

• Chiti
- It means that each nation has its own distinct identity or national culture
- It is the natural urge of people belonging to nation to unite politically

• Dharma Rajya
- A State should be duty oriented and not Rights Oriented.
- Duty of citizen should be given priority than their Rights.
- All people should be bound by their Dharma.

© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
International Relations
Realism, Neorealism and
Neoclassical Realism
Realism entered academic IR in the late 1930s
Realism
and early 1940s

It was a theoretical response to the Idealist or

Liberal tradition that began after WWI

According to Realism

The most basic challenge for a State is preserving the

national security in an Anarchic World

Power is the resource that help you survive

Thucydides : ‘History of Peloponnesian War’

Athens and Sparta went to War because of disturbed balance of power

Machiavelli’s The Prince

For State there is no morality, anything can be done to get power

Hobbes’ Leviathan
Describes state of nature as state of war because there is no authority

Most Prominent Thinkers

Hans J. Morgenthau

E H Carr

Reinhold Niebhur

Basic Arguments Morgenthau's Politics among Nations

Theoretical approach towards politics should be rooted in

human nature

Humans are rational, selfish and always striving for power

Behavior of states is similar to that of human beings

Politics like society, is governed by objective laws rooted in

human nature

Nature of International System Anarchical

States have to ensure their

own survival
Main Actors States

Driving Force Human Nature

International Relations driven

by national leaders and foreign

© Saar Concepts policy makers

Neorealism

This theory does not focus on

human nature

There are two reasons behind

state actions

Anarchy : Absence of central authority

Both are structural
reasons
Relative distribution of power

Kenneth N. Waltz’s
Theory of International Politics

It is not the motivation of Political actors but the structure in which they
are Present that explain how International Politics works

© Saar Concepts
Neorealism or
Structural Realism
Unipolar
Structure of No Central authority
Bipolar
International System ‘Anarchy’
Multipolar
Anarchy is characterized by distribution
of power among states

States have to enter into competition concerning distribution

of power and capabilities

Balance of Power

Internal Balancing Military Expenditure

External Balancing © Saar Concepts

Strategic Alliance
Neorealism or
Structural Realism

John J Mearsheimer

He calls Keneth Waltz’s Realism as Defensive Realism

He calls his own version of Realism as Offensive Realism

Only that much

Defensive Realism
which is required The disagreement is over
‘How much power a state
should seek?’
As much power as
Offensive Realism
possible

Become a Hegemon
© Saar Concepts
Neoclassical
Important Scholars
Realism
Gideon Rose

Randall L. Schweller
Main Arguments

They admit that the structure of International System provide

proper explanation of state’s behavior

But additional explanatory variable on the domestic and

individual level is also needed

• Perceptions of national leaders also matters

• Foreign Policy makers also affect world politics
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism, Neoliberalism and
Liberal Internationalism
Liberalism Theoretical opponent of Realism

Entered academic International Relations in the

Period after First World War

Roots of Liberalism

Immanuel Kant : Democratic Peace Theory, Perpetual Peace

theory, League of Republican State

Hugo Grotius : Behavior of states can be regulated through

International Law

Classical Liberalism or Idealism

Neoliberalism

Liberal Internationalism

New Liberalism

• Developed by Andrew Moravcsik

• It says that domestic interest also influence foreign policy making

Democratic Peace Theory

• State’s political system is a key in explaining state’s foreign policy

© Saar Concepts
• Democratic state will never go to war against each other
• Proponent : Immanuel Kant and Michael Doyle
Woodrow Wilson
Classical Liberalism Important Proponents
Norman Angell

Main Arguments

In order to prevent Behavior of Nation State must

recurrence of War be constrained

Through International Laws and

International Organizations

This will lead to peaceful settlement International Organizations will

of disputes through negotiations and increase interdependence
mediations among states

Also called Idealism

This approach rests on Normative

Premise

It is believed that human beings are

inherently good and all societies
have interest in securing peace

This assumption faced severe

criticism after WW2

Also called Rationalist Institutionalism

It emerged in Response to the increase in number and

variety of International Institutions in 1970s

This development was against the assumptions of

neorealism which claimed that cooperation
within anarchy is unlikely

Robert O Keohane defines International Institutions as

‘Persistent and connected sets of rules (formal or informal) that prescribes behavioral

© Saar Concepts
roles, constrain activities and shape expectations
Difference between Classical Liberalism and Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism accepts few Realist assumptions

They accept the assumption that International

System is Anarchical

They also accept State as primary actors in

International system

Realist argue that cooperation under anarchy only possible

in the presence of a Hegemon Developed by Keohane and
Nye in their book
‘Power and Interdependence
For Neorealists, Potential for Cooperation is much greater

Need for Cooperation will arise because countries are This is the concept of
connected through various social economic ties ‘Complex Interdependence’.

Incentive of Cooperation is greater in economic field States Cooperate because of

State gain by fulfilling International Demand the incentives they get

The idea goes back to Classical Liberalism – Which believed

that we can turn the world into a big society through
cooperation

We have seen a resurgence of the Idea after the end of

Cold War in 1990s

The aim of Liberal Internationalism is to make the

International system like domestic system where peace and
stability can be achieved

Robert Keohane describes three types of Liberal Internationalism

Commercial Liberalism

• Promotes the idea of free trade and commerce across the borders
• Economic Interdependence will reduce the incentive to use forcer

Republican Liberalism

• Spread of democracy is good for International Peace

• It is assumed that democracies will never go to war against each other

Regulatory or Institutional Liberalism

© Saar Concepts
• It is possible to promote rule of law in international system
Functionalism
and Neofunctionalism
Functionalism
Theory of Integration
and Neofunctionalism

These theories came to describe the changes that were

taking place in Europe in 1950s

Scholars realized that these changes have important

implications for International Relations

Regional Integration was taking Place European Coal and Steel Community
in Western Europe (ECSC) 1952

European Economic Community and

Together they were called
European Atomic Energy Community
‘European Community
were ECSC in 1952

In 1992 European Union was formed

(Maastricht Treaty) © Saar Concepts
Functionalism Theory developed by David Mitrany

How to bring States Closer together ?

Go for a non-Political, Identify issues that go beyond

non-constitutional form of Integration territorial boundaries

The aim is to avoid difficulties related

to such legal constitutional forms International cooperation should
begin by dealing with such specific
transnational problems
These will be ad-hoc temporary
Functional Arrangements
Spill Over Effect
• Members should be Specialist Functionalism is based on the
• No Participation of Politicians assumption that benefits of the
• Issue area must be Technical and
non-controversial © Saar Concepts
cooperation will generate ‘spillover’
effect in other fields
Criticism of Functionalism

• It is not possible to separate Political from technical issues.

• You can not keep Politicians and Statesman away from any
such transnational Efforts.
•Functionalism can only be applied in western advanced
countries which share the value of Liberalism.

Responding to the criticism of

Functionalism

Ernst Haas developed the Concept of

Neofunctionalism

Ernst Haas argues

We do not need to separate technical issue from political issue

He says that Political Will is required before Cooperation can begin

It is crucial to establish formal institutions that can impose and uphold

agreements

© Saar Concepts
Such body will have to enjoy some autonomy if they have to be effective
English School
And International Society
English School

Evolved during 1960s and 1970s out of regular

meetings and discussions of

Scholars were from

British Committee for the theory of International Cambridge University
Politics and London School of
Economics

Prominent Scholars of English School

Hedley Bull, John Vincent and Martin Wight

It represents a synthesis of Realism and Liberalism

According to Martin Wight

There are always Three traditions at

play in international Politics

Realist Tradition of Hobbes

Hobbessianism
It represents the anarchical characteristics of International System

Liberalism : Ideal and moral tradition of Immanuel Kant

Revolutionism
Liberalism emphasizes revolutionary change in State system

© Saar Concepts
Rationalism or Grotianism is the tradition of Hugo Grotius
It emphasis the need to adopt a framework of International Law
Rationalism
One of the important contribution
The Concept of International Society
of English School

According to Hedley Bull

International Society is a group of State conscious

of certain common interest and common values

International Society will have three Characteristics

World Peace Common Interest

Sovereignty and non-intervention Common Values

United Nations Organizations Common Institutions

International Society : Constituent Units are nation

sates and countries

World Society : Constituent Units are individual

human beings. Here geographical boundaries of
countries become meaningless

Entered the field of IR in late 1960s

Mainly with the work of Dependency Theorists like –

Paul Presbish, G Frank and Fernando Cardoso and World
System Theorists like Immanuel Wallenstein

There are wide variety of Marxist Perspectives in IR

What us common among them all is

A desire to subject Conventional IR theories to critical questioning and examination

Basic Assumptions

Global Capitalist System influence entire World Politics

Marxism is interested in exposing this underlying structure

and analyzing it in Open

Global Capitalist system seeks to perpetuate itself by

keeping the current power structure in place

The prosperity of Powerful country depends upon the

poverty of poor country

Two types of World System

Political and Economic control is concentrated
World Empire
in a Unified Centre

World Economies
Countries tied together economically in single
division of labor

But Political authority is decentralized among

Established in the ‘long Sixteenth Century’ different countries

Capitalist World Economy © Saar Concepts

Wallenstein focuses on a World Economy
Characterized by Capitalism
World System Theory
Immanuel Wallenstein

Capitalist World Economy is based on a Hierarchy

Core
Advanced Capitalist Countries with high level of Industrialization and complex
Economic and Financial System – Strong Central Government – Strong Army

Periphery
They are at the bottom of the hierarchy – They produce Raw Materials – No or
very little Industrialization – Very weak Central Government

Semi Periphery
These are areas of which are too rich nor too poor – Moderate level of

© Saar Concepts
Industrialization – They are exploited by Core but they also exploit the Periphery
World System Theory – Immanuel Wallenstein

The Basic mechanism of the Capitalist World Economy

Unequal Exchange

Core exploits the Periphery for its rich natural

Resources

Periphery is paid very less for its resources

Periphery try to revolt but they

Raw materials from Periphery are turned into finished
are not united together
goods and sold in high price

This is how the process of The Profit generates wealth in the Core countries at
‘Unequal Exchange’ is created
© Saar Concepts
the cost of the poverty of Periphery
World System Theory – Immanuel Wallenstein

Semi-Periphery

• They act like a buffer between Core and Periphery

•Because of the Semi-Periphery, the Core countries do not face
unified opposition from Periphery countries

World Capitalist System is not completely Static

•A country may change place from Periphery to Semi-Periphery,

from Semi-Periphery to Core and Vice Versa

Long-term Prospect of World Capitalist Economy

• In the long term the possibility of expansion will end and World

It refers to a set of Marxist –based critical analysis of

international theories and practices

Critical Theory in IR is inspired by the Works of

‘Frankfurt Institute of Social Research’ or ‘Frankfurt School’
That emerged in 1920s and 1930s.

Important Thinkers – Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno and

Herbert Marcuse and Second Generation Critical Theorists like
Habermas

According to Robert Cox – There are two types of theories

Problem Solving or Traditional Theories

These theories serve as a guide to find solution to a Problem

Critical Theories

In this the theory is itself self-scrutinized. – The

presumptions of the theory itself and the process of
theorizing is reflected upon

Basic Assumptions

A Theory is never Neutral but always constructed in response to

a specific agenda and to serve a specific purpose

Problem Solving or traditional IR theories stand in service of the

status quo

The theory is generated to help society’s elites maintain their

position and privilege

Basic Assumptions

But Critical theory question the Dominant World Order

Through Critical Examination of current situation, we can

overcome the hidden power struggle that goes on in society

This Power struggle constrain the realization of human potential

They suppress and oppress certain group of people

We have an interest in the Liberation and emancipation of the

group

It Criticizes Realism and Neorealism which

are called Materialist Theories

They focus on how the distribution of material powers – such as

Military Power and Economic Power – define balance of power
between states and explain their behavior

Social world is not something ‘Out There’ that Ideas matter more than material factors
exists independently of thoughts and
perceptions of people involved It is ideas and beliefs concerning those
material factors that are more important
Everything involved in the Social world of men
and women is made by them
Physical elements are secondary to
intellectual element
People construct their world through their
thoughts and ideas
500 British Nuclear Weapons are less
International System is a set of idea, a body of threatening to US than 5 North Koreans
thought, a system of norm – which have been Weapons
arranged by certain people at a particular time
and place If the thoughts and ideas related to

Constructivists were inspired by the ‘Concept of Strcturation’ of Anthony Giddens

Structure do not determine what actors do in any mechanical way

Structures do constrain actors, but actors can transform structure by

thinking about them and acting on them in new way

Social Constructivism was introduced to IR by Nicholas Onuf

But it gathered larger momentum among scholars with a series of

influential articles by
Alexander Wendt

Alexander Wendt

Wendt rejects Neorealist argument that Anarchy must lead to

‘Self Help’

According to Alexander Wendt

Whether Anarchy leads to Self-Help can not be decided

beforehand

States can decide among themselves through interaction that

what Anarchy can lead to

Alexander Wendt : Three Types of Anarchy

• Hobbesian Anarchy
→ State View each other as enemy
→ It is a war of all against all – Situation prevalent in 17th century
• Lockean Anarchy
→ State consider each other as rival but there is also restrain
→ State recognize each other’s right
→ It represented the state system after Treaty of Westphalia 1648
• Kantian Anarchy
→ State view each other as friends
→ Settle disputes peacefully and support each other in case of war
→ A Kantian Culture has emerged among consolidate liberal democracies since world
War II

Jean Bethke Elshtain

Feminist Approach Cynthia Enloe
J. Ann Tickner

Richard Ashley
Postmodern Approach
Robert Walker

Began in 1980s

It is a Critique of Conventional IR Theories like

Realism, Liberalism, Marxism etc

It provides new insights on the often overlooked

Political, Social and economic roles that women
play in International Relations

r
The Alternative approach provided to view the
World Politics is : Gender

Major Assumptions

Using ‘Gender’ as the major category of analysis to highlight

Women’s Perspective on Social Issues

Gender

Socially and Culturally constructed characteristics that are

associated with what it means to be male and female

Masculinity Power, Strength, force Male

Feminity Softness, weakness, emotional Female

According to Feminists

Privileging Masculinity means casting women to a Subordinate Position

This Gender hierarchy contribute to inequality between men and women in IR

Conventional IR theories and their categories are not Gender Neutral

The entire IR Theory ignore feminine perspective and exalts masculine bias

The task of Feminists is to correct the absence of Women in IR theories

When Gender is introduced as a Category of analysis in IR

• Issues of Security and Globalization is reexamined

→ How Military Conflict among states directly influence the lives of women
→ What is the effect of Globalization on Women.
• Those areas of IR gets exposed where women are underrepresented
→ Under representation of women in Security and arms control treaties.
→ Role of women in third world economic development that remain unreported
• Feminists perspective expands the concept of security
→ Women as nurturer are more likely to be peace oriented than men.

Began in 1980s

Three features of Postmodernism

• Postmodernists are hostile towards any claim to Universal or Absolute Truth

→ Realism, Liberalism, Marxism – All are considered meta narratives
→ They legitimate social and political institutions but they themselves have no
foundation to legitimate themselves
• Postmodernists claim that metanarratives are Oppressive
→ Those who do not fit into the metanarrative are excluded
→ Those who are excluded are then legitimately Oppressed
• Postmodernists celebrate differences and diversities
→ It has ‘respect for difference and diveristy’
→ It accepts and encourages differences, diversity and otherness
© Saar Concepts
Postmodern Approach in IR

Main arguments of Postmodernist approach in IR

They reject claims of traditional IR theories like Realism, Liberalism and Marxism

They argue that there can not be one set of value that apply to all States

Postmodernists deconstruct the ideas, arguments and concepts of traditional IR

theories

Through this they reveal the hidden meaning of the concepts in IR

They argue that the traditional theories are biased, they are made to promote the
interest of some powerful group and actor

• How the International System has evolved in the last 400 years.

• The story begins with ‘Treaty of Westphalia’ 1648

- Before this there were Kingdoms, Empires and City-States which interacted
with each other.
• But authority was not centralized in one place
• Territorial boundaries were not fixed.
- Treaty of Westphalia was signed after the end of ‘Thirty years wars’
- It brought two big changes in the International System
• Fixed territorial units : Boundaries of countries will be fixed
• Sovereignty : Power will be
centralized and Govt . will be independent in all its
external and internal matters.

• American Revolution 1776

- It gave the world its first democracy.
- USA would also grow to become a Superpower which will a play a crucial
role in deciding the direction of International System

• French Revolution 1789

- It gave the world the idea that Sovereignty is vested with the people
- It gave birth to concept of Nation State.
- Concept of Nationalism emerges from French revolution

- Napoleon comes to power in 1804, and proclaims himself to be the emperor

of French Empire.
- Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) were a series of major battles fought between

• Concert of Europe
- The Concert of Europe represented the European Balance of Power
arrangement from 1815 to 1848 and from 1871 to 1914.
- Phase I of Concert of Europe
• Also called Congress System or Vienna System after the Congress of
Vienna (1814-15)
• It included five great powers : Prussia, Russia, Britain, France and
Austria.
- The Revolutions of 1848 (also known as Spring of Nations, People’s Spring)
brought an end to Vienna System.
- Phase II of Concert of Europe
• It lasted from 1871 to 1914
• Came into existence after Italian Unification and German Unification

© Saar Concepts
• Balance of Power existed between : France, Britain, Russia, Germany
and Italy.
Evolution of Global Politics
• Collapse of the Concert of Europe led to First World War
- War started when a Serbian Nationalist assassinated Archduke Ferdinand of
Austria in 1914
- This minor crisis escalated and all Europe went to War.

• Russia was the first state to crumble, Revolution at home removed Russia from War
in 1917.
- This led to founding of the Soviet Union.

• USA joined the war in 1917 against Germany

• Treaty of Versailles of 1919

- Germany was forced to give up territory, pay reparation, limit its future
armaments, and admit war guilt.

© Saar Concepts
- German resentment against the harsh terms of Versailles would contribute to
the rise of Hitler in 1930s.
Evolution of Global Politics

• After WWI, US President Woodrow Wilson led efforts to create the League of Nations
- But the US Senate would not approve US participation and the League
did not prove effective.

• A Power vacuum got created in world politics between the two World Wars
- USA was adopting the policy of Isolationism
- Power of Britain was also reduced
- Russia was struggling to manage its own revolution.

• In 1930s, Germany and Japan stepped into this vacuum.

- They started a series of expansionist policies which ultimately led to
World War II.

• Japan had already occupied Taiwan and Korea after defeating China in 1895 and
Russia in 1905.
- In 1931, Japan occupied Manchuria (Northeast China) and established a
puppet Government there.
- In 1937, Japan invaded rest of China and started a brutal occupation

• In Europe, Nazi Germany under Hitler was also adopting expansionist policies
- Hitler was grabbing territory around Germany
- He helped fascist regime in Italy and Spain.

• Munich Agreement 1938

- In an effort to appease Germany, Britain and France agreed in the Munich
Agreement of 1938 to allow Hitler to occupy part of Czechoslovakia
(Sudetenland)
© Saar Concepts
- It was called Policy of Appeasement
Evolution of Global Politics

• In 1939, Germany invaded Poland

- This led Britain and France to join hand against Germany.

• Hitler signed a non aggression Pact with Stalin of Soviet Union, and used his full army
against French and British forces.

• In 1941, Hitler double crossed Stalin and invaded Soviet Union.

• The US joined World War II against Germany in 1942 .

• In 1944, after crossing the English Channel on June 6, British and American Forces
pushed into Germany from West and Soviet Union from pushed from east.
- A ruined Germany surrendered and was occupied by allied powers.

• Because of Japan’s expansionist policies, US punished Japan by cutting of US Oil

exports.

• In retaliation, Japan attacked much of the US Navy in a surprise attack in Pearl Harbor
(Hawaii) 1941.

• The dropping of Nuclear Bombs on two cities of Japan, Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
1945 forced Japan to surrender and with this ended the Second World War.

• The Cold War (1945 – 1990)

• United States and Soviet Union became the two superpower of the Post World War II
era
- Each had its Ideological Mission : Capitalist Democracy vs. Communism
- Each had its network of alliance ( NATO vs Warsaw pact)
- Each had deadly arsenal of Nuclear Weapon.

• Europe was militarily divided between two parts.

- US NATO allies on one side and USSR’s Warsaw pact and its allies.

• Germany was split into four military occupation zone at Potsdam Conference 1945
- Eastern side given to Soviet Union

• Capital of Germany, Berlin was also divided into 4 parts

- In 1961, East Germany built the Berlin War, separating east from west Berlin
- Winston Churchill called it ‘Iron Curtain’
• Berlin Blockade (June 1948 to May 1949)
- The Berlin Blockade was one of the first major International Crisis of the
Cold War.
- Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies’ Railway, road, and canal access to
the sectors of Berlin under western control.
- Berlin Airlift

• In 1950, the Korean War broke out when Communist North Korea attacked and
overran most of the allied South Korea. The war ended in 1953.

•
© Saar Concepts
Korean War hardened US attitudes towards communism and set negative tone for
future east-west relations.
Evolution of Global Politics

• Cuban Missile Crisis

- In 1959, there was a Communist Revolution in Cuba led by Fidel Castro
- In 1961, USA attempted a failed military attack and counter revolution in Cuba
• This is called Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961
- In 1962, Soviet Union installed medium range Nuclear Ballistic Missiles in Cuba
- The Soviet aim were to
• To reduce the strategic nuclear inferiority of USSR
• To counter the deployment of US Missiles on Soviet Border in
Turkey
• To deter another US invasion of Cuba.
- The Soviet Union backed down on US promise to not invade Cuba again.

• In 1963, Leaders of both side signed Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)

• The two superpowers fought proxy wars in which they typically supported and
advised opposing factions in civil wars.

• US supported a number of unpopular pro west government in poor developing

countries. Best Example is Vietnam War .
- It is also called Second Indo China War (1955 to 1975)
- It was a War against Communist Government of North Vietnam and South
Vietnam which was supported by US.
- US forces withdrew from the War in 1973
- Communist forces ended the War by seizing control of South Vietnam in 1975

• In the period of apparent US weakness, Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979.

- Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989

• Super power relations slowly improved after Michail Gorbachev took power in Soviet
Union in 1985.

• In 1989, there was toppling of Berlin War

- Germany was formally reunified in 1990

• Gorbachev launched Perestroika (Economic reforms) and Glasnost (Openness in

Political Decisions)

• In 1991, with the disintegration of Soviet Union Cold War finally came to an end.

An International System • Bretton Woods System 1944

of Rules Failure to cooperate - IMF
can cause great - World Bank
damage to global - GATT (later WTO)
Established Voluntarily economy
by countries of the
world

To achieve cooperation and This Cooperation is achieved in

coordination among countries the absence of World
for solving collective problems Government or a Global Hegemon

© Saar Concepts
States Cooperate without
abandoning their sovereignty
An System of Global Economic Governance Structure
Bretton Woods System
that emerged after 1945

August 1944
USA, Britain and 42 other countries met at Bretton
Woods, New Hampshire

International Monetary and Financial Conference of

the United and Associated Nations

IMF started functioning in 1947 IMF

World Bank started functioning in 1946 IBRD or World Bank

IMF To establish a new monetary order

Maintain a Fixed Exchange Rate System

World Bank To establish a new financial order

Provide Loans for Development

GATT To establish a new Trading Order

It establishes a Regulative Framework for the

International Economy

It was not based on a Purely Free Market Economic

Model

This model is called ‘Embedded Liberalism’

by John Ruggie

• Institutions framework of the Bretton Woods System was shaped by the

priorities of USA

• Eg.
- The main architect of the conference were
• Harry Dexter White from US Trasury
• John Maynard Keynes: Britain’s leading Economist

• John Maynard Keynes Propend :

- Establishment of a Global bank called
• ‘ International Clearing Union’
- Establishment of a Global Currency : ‘Bancur’

Collapse of Bretton Woods System

• For two decades, i.e. till the late 1960s, Bretton Woods system appeared to be
remarkably successful.
• The distinctive feature of Bretton Woods System was the Fixed Exchange rate
system
- All currencies were valued in terms of US dollar.
- US Dollar was fixed with Gold
- US promised to convert Dollar to Gold at $35 per Ounce of Gold
• By 1970s US reserve of Gold started declining rapidly
- In 1945 US Gold reserve was $25 Billion
- By 1970 it had become $10 Billion
• The Bretton Woods system formally came to an end when in 1971 US president

© Saar Concepts
Richard Nixon announced that US would no longer exchange dollars for gold
- From this point Floating Exchange rate system was adopted
International Monetary
Fund
International Monetary Fund

• The IMF was set up to oversee the new monetary order that had been established
by Bretton Woods agreement

• Member countries agreed to set up a System of Fixed Exchange Rate

- Exchange Rate : The value of one country’s currency in terms of other
country’s currency . Eg. $1 = Rs. 70
- A stable exchange rate system is needed to ensure a smooth functioning
of International Economy and International Trade

• Fixed Exhange Rate System :

- It is also called Gold Exchange Standard or Par Value System
- Members were required to fix the value of their currency in relation to
US dollar
- The value of US dollar was in turn fixed to an mount of Gold.
- USA allowed countries to convert their US Dollars to Gold at the rate of
$35 per Ounce of Gold
A Country’s Currency Value Fixed In Dollar
A US Dollar’s Value Fixed In Dollar

- The Exchange was adjustable for 1% of currency’s value

• So the system was also called Fixed but adjustable exchange
rate system
© Saar Concepts
International Monetary Fund

• In 1971 USA announced that it would no longer exchange dollar with Gold
- This led to the transition from Fixed to floating exchange rate system

• Role of IMF has also changed since 1970s

- It continue to promote monetary stability
- But its role to provide loan in assistance to countries that are in the
midst of financial crisis has increased

• The most controversial aspect of the loans that were provided by IMF to
developing countries were the conditionality that was attached to them
- Structural Adjustment Program
• Liberalization
• Privatization
• Deregulation © Saar Concepts
International Monetary Fund

• Nobel Prize Winning Economist Joseph Stiglitz

- In his book , ‘Globalization and Its Discontent’ argues that :
• IMF had imposed policies on Developing countries that makes their
even more poor, rather than solving their financial crisis

Governance Structure of IMF

• Board of Governors
- It is the highest decision making body of the IMF
- All member countries appoint a Governor to the IMF’s Board of Governor
- Major decisions require an 85% Supermajority
- IMF has Weighted Voting System
• Voting Power is based on a member’s Quata
• US has 16.77 % of Votes, US is thus able to block major
decisions at IMF

Governance Structure of IMF

• Executive Board
- It is 24 member Executive Board. Members are called Executive Directors
- 5 Executive Directors are appointed by five members with highest quota
USA, UK, Germany, France and Japan
- 19 Executive Directors are elected by remaining members

Governance Structure of IMF

• Managing Director
- The Executive Board selects the Managing Director for a term of 5 years
- Managing Director reports directly to the Board of Governors
- He is the Chief of IMF staff

Governance Structure of IMF

Board of Governors

Executive Board with 24 Executive

Directors

Managing Director

SDR : Special Drawing Rights

• SDRs were Created by IMF in 1969 ( Their code is XDR)

• It is not a currency but a Drawing Right

- It denotes the right to draw foreign currency from the reserve of IMF
- The maximum amount a country can draw is fixed by IMF
- SDRs can be used only by Government of a Country
- SDRs can be used by Private Parties
- SDRs can be exchanged by countries amongst each other like currency

• SDR basket contains following Five Currencies

- US Dollar, Euro, British Pond , Japanese Yen, Chinese Yuan
© Saar Concepts
Word Bank and
WTO
World Bank

• Like IMF, World Bank is also a product of Bretton Wood System

- It started its operations in 1946

• The Initial task of the bank was to provide loans to the shattered economies of
Europe
- The Economic and Industrial base of Europe was destroyed due to
World War II
- Financial aids were needed for the reconstruction and rebuilding of
Europe
- World bank provided this financial aid in the forms of Loans to European
countries
- By 1960s, the reconstruction and rebuilding Europe was complete

• During the 1950s and 1960s, as Europe began to recover from the second World
War, the Bank turned its attention to Africa, Asia and Latin America
- The Bank offered Loans, technical assistance and advice to these
countries .
- The bank also financed various infrastructure projects in these
Countries

• Since the 1950s, fours specialized organizations have been created to assist the
World Bank in its work
1. International Financial Corporations (IFC) 1956
- It offers loans to private developers who can invest in developing
countries
2. International Development Association (IDA) 1960
- It offers long term, interest free loans to the poorest countries
of the world
3. International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Deputes (ICSID) 1966
- It was set up to mediate deputes between government and
investors
4. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) 1988
- It was formed to insure private investment against risks in
developing countries© Saar Concepts
World Bank

Governance Structure of World Bank

Board of Governors

Executive Board with 22 Executive

Directors

President

• The WTO was formed in 1995 as a replacement for GATT.

- GATT emerged as a failure to establish ITO (International Trade Org.)
- US President Truman failed to submit the founding treaty of ITO,
the Havana Charter to the US Senate for approval

• General Agreement on Tariff and Trade was established in 1947 as the mechanism
for world trading system
- Initially it was an agreement among 23 countries.

• Over the next forty years, the GATT grew in membership and its success in
reducing barriers to trade also grew

• GATT members regularly met in what came to be known as negotiating trade

rounds © Saar Concepts
World Trade Organization

• Despite the success, by the 1980s, several problems had started emerging within
the GATT apparatus
- Dispute Resolution Mechanism was very weak.
- A number of commodities : Agricultural products and textile were not
subject to GATT rules.
- Trade in services were expanding and GATT had no rules regarding it.
- There were lack of protection for countries that produced Intellectual
Property : Movie, Computer Programs, Patent Drugs

• To address these problems, a new round of trade negotiations - The Uruguay

Round was launched in 1986.
- The treaty negotiated during the Uruguay Round established the WTO

• The Uruguay Round Agreement signed by 128 countries created WTO in 1995

• The Institutional structure of the WTO contain the following agreements:

1. A revised GATT called GATT 1994
2. GATS – General Agreement in Trade in Service
3. TRIPS : Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights

WTO’s Organizational Structure consists of three level of Decision Making

1. Ministerial Conference
- It is the highest decision making body
- It meets once very two years
- WTO does not delegate authority to a board of directors or professional
buraeucracy
- All members participate directly in the decision making

1. General Council
- All WTO members are members of General council
- General Council while one group serves three functions
• General Council

WTO’s Organizational Structure consists of three level of Decision Making

3. Below General Council are various other special councils

• The Council for trade in goods
• The Council for trade in services
• The Council for trade related aspects for Intellectual Property Rights

• Outside of the decision making structure of the WTO, administrative and

technical support is provided by WTO Secretariat located in Geneva
- At the head of the secretariat is the Director General

It denotes an acceleration
and intensification of the process of
Interdependence and Integration

Transforming the World into a Global Interdependence and Global

‘Global Village’ Political and Economic Integration

The Term ‘Global Village’ is

coined by Marshall Mcluhan in
his book ‘The Gutenberg Galaxy’
(1962)
© Saar Concepts
Globalization

Definitions of Globalization

• According to David Held :

“Globalization is a Process which embodies a transformation in the spatial
organization of social relations and transaction – assessed in terms of
their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact – generating transcontinental
or inter regional flow and network of activity, interaction and the
exercise of power”

Globalization It is a process

That is bringing change in how we interact

Definitions of Globalization

Robert Gilpin
He gives a narrow and economic definition of
Globalization

“Globalization is a world wide process of

economic integration”

“It is the increasing linkage of national

economies through trade, financial flows and

Definitions of Globalization

Anthony Giddens

The intensification of the world wide social

relations which links distant localities in such a
way that local happening are shaped by
events occurring many miles away

A landmark work on Globalization – “Global Transformations” by David Held et.al

• Hyperglobalization
- Globalization represents a rapid economic integration of the world
- It is a significant force of human progress
- There have been a rapid growth in International Trade and Capital
flows over the past century across the globe.
- The sovereignty of the nation states is losing its relevance
- Transnational actors are becoming more and more important

- Proponents :
• Thomas Friedaman : ‘The Lexus and the Olive Tree’ (1999)
• Kenichi Ohmae : ‘The End of Nation State’ (1995)

A landmark work on Globalization – “Global Transformations” by David Held et.al

• Sceptical
- Globalization is an Overstated idea and largely a myth
- The level of Global integration in the 1990s is less than that in the period
between 1870 and 1914
- State sovereignty is intact.
- World economy is still shaped by state to state interaction

- Proponent :
• Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson ‘Globalization in Question’ (1996)
• Linda Weiss : ‘The Myth of Powerless State’ (1998)

A landmark work on Globalization – “Global Transformations” by David Held et.al

• Transformationalists
- It gives the most comprehensive explanation of Globalizaton
- Globalization is not limited to economic realm, it has economic, political
and cultural dimension
- Globalization is a Spatial Process
• Various forms of human activities are becoming global and
international
• Interconnection among people is increasing
• Transnational Flows of people, ideas and resources have increased
- Globalization has brought transformation in lives of the people and in
nature and functioning of States
- Proponent :
© Saar Concepts
• Anthony Giddens : ‘Runaway World’ (1999)
Globalization

Fragmeration and Glocalization

• Theory of ‘Fragmeration’is given by James Rosenau

- Fragmeration : Fragmentation + Integration

• Concept of Glocalization is given by Roland Robertson

- Glocalization : Local + Globalization

• Both concepts refers to a new trend seen in the world where :

- Domestic and Foreign affairs are intermixing
- Local problems are becoming global issues and global issues have
local effects

© Saar Concepts
Environmental
Problems and IR
Environmental Problems Excess Fossil Fuel Use
Industrialization
• Air Urbanization
Human Survival depends on Abiotic Part • Water
• Stable Climate
Environment They are under
• Plants, Trees serious threat from
Biotic Part • Animals
• Biodiversity
Barry Commoner in
Interconnected Environmental
‘The Closing Circle’ Global Problems
Ecosystem Degradation
(1971) gives

Kofi Annan calls them

Two laws of Ecology ‘Problems without Passport’ Climate Change,
Global Warming,
• Everything is connected to everything else Biodiversity loss,

© Saar Concepts
• Everything must go somewhere, nothing goes away
Pollution etc
Environmental Problems Excess Fossil Fuel Use
Industrialization
• Air Urbanization
Human Survival depends on Abiotic Part • Water
• Stable Climate
Environment They are under
• Plants, Trees serious threat from
Biotic Part • Animals
• Biodiversity

Interconnected Environmental
Global Problems
Ecosystem Degradation

Global Solutions
Achieving International Cooperation is difficult Climate Change,
Global Warming,
Biodiversity loss,
Garret Hardin’s Concept of
‘Tragedy of Commons’ (1968)
© Saar Concepts Pollution etc
Environmental Problems

Tragedy of Commons It was an essay published by Garret Hardin in 1968

Why environmental problems occur

Why it is difficult to achieve cooperation

Tragedy of Commons It was an essay published by Garret Hardin in 1968

Why environmental problems occur

•Some natural resources are freely and

commonly available for all, they are called
‘Global Commons’ eg. Atmosphere, ocean
•We are least concerned about them when
we either overuse them or pollute them.
•Our logic is : These resources are common
to all and one act of overuse or pollution will
not make much difference

Tragedy of Commons It was an essay published by Garret Hardin in 1968

Why environmental problems occur

Why it is difficult to achieve cooperation

Clean and Pollution free environment

It is a Public Good No one can be excluded from its benefits

If a Policy goal involves a good or service that would

create benefit for everybody, why contribute to the
© Saar Concepts
achievement of that policy ?
Environment and International Relations Theory

Various Theoretical Perspectives for Environmental Problems in IR

• Liberal Institutionalist
- It is the predominant approach to global environmental problems in IR
- This approach is also called ‘Shallow Ecology’
• Human beings are responsible for environmental problems but
they can also solve these problems through cooperation and their
advanced technology
- Cooperation for environmental problems can be achieved through
multilateral treaties, by establishing norms and regulations for controlling
behaviors of countries
- Liberals often use the example of successful multilateral treaty
• Montreal Protocol 1987
- Protocol was signed to stop the depletion of Ozone Layer

© Saar Concepts
- In 1987, 22 States agreed to reduce CFC emission by 50 % by 1998
- In 1990, 81 States agreed to reduce CFC emission by zero
Environment and International Relations Theory

Various Theoretical Perspectives for Environmental Problems in IR

• Marxist Approach
- Global Capitalism is profoundly damaging the environment
- Aspects of Globalization like Consumerism encourages people to waste
valuable resources
- States can not stop the process of Globalization rather they assist it.

• Deep Ecology Perspective

- This perspective was developed by Arne Naes
- Deep Ecology perspective rejects the idea of superiority human beings in
nature :
• All creature of the nature are of equal value
- Protection of environment require radical transformation of society, from

© Saar Concepts
economic system to political system everything needs to changed
- They are also strongly opposed to globalization and consumerism
Environment and
Climate Change
A History of International Environmental Negotiations

Environmental Problems starts becoming important issue in IR from 1960s

• After World War II an increase in the level of Pollution was seen throughout world
- Rapid economic growth in the economy of Western countries
- Newly independent countries like India started the process of rapid
industrialization and Urbanization
- China also started its process of rapid economic growth
• All these led to huge increase in pollution of air, water, river, ocean

• Important Publications that helped raise public awareness about environment

- Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson
• In this book author highlighted the damaging pollution caused by
Chemical Pesticides like DDT.

Environmental Problems starts becoming important issue in IR from 1960s

• Important Publications that helped raise public awareness about environment

- Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson
• In this book author highlighted the damaging pollution caused by
Chemical Pesticides like DDT.

- ‘The Limits to Growth’ (1972) by Club of Rome

• It argued that that earth’s natural resources are limited
• It is foolish to talk about unlimited growth in an earth which has
limited resources to support growth.
• Crossing the limit would cause serious environmental problem

• The Population Bomb (1968)

- by Paul R Ehrlich
© Saar Concepts
A History of International Environmental Negotiations

• In 1968 Sweden put a proposal in General Assembly for Organizing an International

Conference on Environment :
- In 1972 UN Conference on Human Environment was organized
• It is also called ‘Stockholm Conference’
• It also led to the establishment of United Nations Environment
Program (UNEP) in December 1972

• World Commission on Environment and Development (1986)

- This commission was established in 1986 under the chairmanship of
Gro Harlem Brundtland (Former PM of Norway)
• This Commission is also known as ‘Brundtland Commission’
- The Commission published its report in 1987
• The Report was called ‘Our Common Future’

© Saar Concepts
› It is also called ‘Brundtland Report’
• The Report popularized the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’
A History of International Environmental Negotiations

• UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992)

- The conference was organized in the capital of Brazil, Rio de Janerio
- There were four most important outcomes of the Conference
1.Adoption of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and
adoption of Agenda 21
• Agenda 21 is a non binding action plan for achieving
sustainable development
2. Convention on Biodiversity
• It came into force on 1993
3. Commission on Sustainable Development
• Replaced in 2013 by High level Political forum on sustainable
development
4. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

© Saar Concepts
• It is a multilateral treaty which was opened for signature
in 1992 and came into force from 1994
A History of International Environmental Negotiations

• UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992)

4. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• It is a multilateral treaty which was opened for signature
in 1992 and came into force from 1994
• The aim of the treaty was to fight Climate Change
• There is a provision in the treaty that all the Parties to the
treaty should meet annually to discuss and review their actions
- The meeting is called ‘Conference Of Parties’ (COP)
- Since 1995, every year COP is being organized

Represented by extreme
Drastic Change in Earth’s
Climate Change Weather conditions, frequent
Climate
storms, floods and droughts

Why Climate Change

happens?

Because of
Global Warming

Because of
‘Enhanced Greenhouse Effect’

© Saar Concepts
Climate Change Because of Industrialization
and Fossil Fuel Use
Enhanced Greenhouse
Effect
CO2 Concentration Increase in the concentration
Before Industrial of Greenhouse gases in
Increase in the average
Revolution : 280 ppm atmosphere
Temperature of Earth
2007 – 379 ppm
2015 – 400 ppm
Natural Greenhouse Effect Global Warming

Trapping of Sun’s heat in the Climate Change

atmosphere

By Greenhouse gases like According to IPCC there will be a rise in

Carbondioxide(CO2), Methane(CH4), Water the average temperature on the order
Vapour (H2O), Nitrousoxide (NO2)
© Saar Concepts of 2.4 to 6.4 degree Celsius by 2099
A History of International Environmental Negotiations

• UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992)

• We have to understand three important Conference of Parties :-

i. Third COP held at Kyoto, Japan in 1997: Kyoto Protocol
ii. 15th COP held at Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009 : Copenhagen Accord

• Third COP held at Kyoto, Japan in 1997: Kyoto Protocol

- Based on the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility
- Annex 1 countries : Developed Countries – Legally binding commitment
Greenhouse gas emission reduction
- Annex 2 countries : Developing Countries

• Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention entered into force in 2005

- It committed developed countries to make an average 5.2% cut in their
greenhouse gas emission from a 1990 baseline
- Within this range different national target were negotiated
8 % for EU, 6 % for Japan, 7 % for USA
- Later, US refused to participate because its economic competitor India and
China were not participating
- These targets were to be achieved by the first commitment period of
2008 to 2012 © Saar Concepts
Kyoto Protocol

• In order to achieve these targets, three mechanisms were agreed on :

1. Emission Trading :
- It provided that the right to emit CO2 could be bought and sold

2. Joint Implementation:
- A system that allow a developed country to receive credits against its
own emission reduction target by financing project in another developed
country

3. Clean Development Mechanism

- A system that allows a developed country to receive credit against its
own emission reduction target by financing project in a developing
country

• In 2009, UNFCCC met in Copenhagen but failed to produce a new legally binding and
comprehensive agreement on climate change.
- Countries agreed on ‘Copenhagen Accord’
• This agreement provided for countries to offer their ‘Contribution’ to
emission reductions that they regard as appropriate.
• All countries would participate breaking down the strict divide
between developed and developing.

• The UN Conference on Climate Change was organized in Paris in 2015

• Following were the main outcomes :

- Some 180 countries submitted plan on
‘Intended Nationally Defined Contributions’ (INDCs)
- These INDCs are part of the agreement but are not legally binding
- The aspect of the Agreement that are binding cover procedure for
reporting, transparency and analysis.
- A long term Global Goal for Net Zero Emission was also adopted.

• 1987 :
- Release of Brundtland Commission Report ‘Our Common Future’
- Montreal Protocol
• 1988 :
- Establishment of IPCC : Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
• 1989 :
- Basel Convention on Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste and
Their Disposal
• 1992 :
- UN Conference on Environment and Development
• 1997 :
- Kyoto Protocol
• 2002 :

• 2008 :
- First Commitment Period of Kyoto Protocol
• 2009 :
- Copenhagen Accord
• 2010 :
- Cancun Agreement
• 2012:
- Rio +20 UN Conference on Sustainable Development
• 2015 :
- UN Conference on Climate Change

• Atmospheric Pollution :
- 1985 : Convention on Long range Transboundary Air Pollution
• Wildlife :
- 1971 : Ramasar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially
as Waterfowl Habitat
- 1973 : International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
- 1973 : Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
- 1979 : Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals

• Antarctic Treaty Regime

- 1959 : Antarctic Treaty
- 1972 : Convention on Conservation of Antarctic Seals
- 1980 : Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
- 1988 : Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources Activities
- 1991 : Madrid Protocol

Those Rights that belong to persons simply by virtue

of their being humans

Prototype of this idea

People everywhere deserve same moral status,
developed in early
dignity and entitlements
modern Europe

Each and every human beings have certain

Theory of Natural
inalienable rights like Right to life, liberty and
Rights
pursuit of happiness

Grotius, Hobbes and

Locke
© Saar Concepts
Human Rights

How to protect and promote human rights

globally

Development of International Human Rights

Regime after World War II

International Human Rights Regime

It comprises of various Treaties, Conventions,

Rules, Norms and Institutions meant to Protect
and promote Human Rights
© Saar Concepts
International Human Rights Regime

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights – 1948

- Adopted by United Nations General Assembly in 1948
- It comprises of 30 basic political, civil, economic and social rights

→ Biggest shortcoming of Universal Declaration of Human Rights

• The treaty is legally Non Binding
• It is non binding on the member states of UN

• Codification of Human Rights into Legally Binding Treaties

1. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
2. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)

Universal Declaration on Two International

Human Rights Covenants

International Bill of Rights

• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

(1979)

• Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment

and Punishment (1984)

Karel Vasak identifies three different Generations of Human Rights

• First Generation Rights : Civil and Political Rights

- These are earliest forms of Rights that developed through various
revolutions like : English Revolution, French Revolution, American
revolution
- It includes civil rights like : Right to life, liberty, property, Right to
freedom of expression, freedom of press
- It includes Political Rights like : Right to Vote, Right to participate in
Political activities
- These Rights are called Negative Rights, they can be enjoyed only if
constraints are placed on Society and Government.

Karel Vasak identifies three different Generations of Human Rights

• Second Generation Rights : Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

- These rights gained greater prominence during 20th Century
- Second Generation rights are based on the demands of Social Justice
- It includes : Right to Welfare, Right to social security, right to work
right to health care, right to education
- These are Positive Rights because they demand welfare actions to be
performed by the government
- These rights are provided by Welfare State

- These rights are based on the principle of Equality.

Karel Vasak identifies three different Generations of Human Rights

• Third Generation Rights : Solidarity or Collective Rights

- They are called Collective Rights, Group Rights or Multicultural Rights
- These rights are attached to groups or whole community as opposed to
Individuals
- It includes : Right to self-determination, right to development, right to
environmental protection, multicultural rights etc

- These Rights are based on the value of Fraternity.

• Until the mid 1960s – the UN concentrated more on the generation of Human
Rights Norms, Standards, Treaties and conventions

• World Conference on Human Rights – 1993, Vienna

- Vienna Declaration and Program of Action was adopted
- It contained the proposal for the establishment of the post of
• High Commissioner for Human Rights
- The Post was created by UN General Assembly on 20 December, 1993
• Mr. Jose Ayala Lasso was nominated as the first High
Commissioner for Human Rights

• United Nations’ 47 member – Human Right Council replaced the UN High

Commissioner in 2006.

• The protection of Human Rights is generally seen to be more advanced among

European Countries
- European Convention on Human Rights (1950)
- European Court for Human Rights, Strasbourg, France

• Human Rights emphasize that boundaries for moral concern extend beyond
national boundaries

• Human Rights place major constraints on the behavior of national governments

- How a state should treat their domestic population
- How they treat people of other countries

• According to Thomas Pogge, Human Rights fulfill each of three elements of

cosmopolitanism
i. Individualism : Concern for Individual human beings
ii. Universality : Recognition of equal moral worth of all
iii. Generality : Persons are objects of concern and not nations

Based on Universalist Assumptions

Human beings, irrespective of their culture or country,

are entitled to Human Rights

This Universalist assumption is challenged by

Postcolonial Scholars
Euro centrism :
• Universal values of human rights are a form of
Application of values
cultural Imperialism of Europe and West
drawn from European
• It is a form of Euro centrism
cultures to the world

Relativism

Circumstances vary from society to society and from

culture to culture

Different situation require different moral values and

different conceptions of human rights

Asian Values

• It refers to the distinctive history, culture and religious background of Asian

Society
• Asian Values include :
- Social Harmony
- Respect for Authority
- Belief in Family
- More emphasis on duties over rights
- Emphasis on community over individuals
- Emphasis on social and economic rights over civil and political rights

• Bangkok Declaration of 1993

- It was adopted by Asian Ministers highlighting the distinctiveness of
Asian Cultures

© Saar Concepts
• Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam 1990
- Concept of western rights violate Islamic principles
- All moral principles derive from divine rather than human authority

Global order is shaped by Shifting Power Balance between and among States

Some new forces have now

emerged

Culture, Religion and According to some Scholars, culture has replaced

Identity ideology at international level

We are seeing a growing importance of Culture,

Religions, Ethnicity and other markers of identity

West America and Europe

Western Culture

Liberalism and Individualism

Individual is more important than

community

From Beginning of A process of Westernization of

Colonialism World has been taking place

Economic Sphere

Political Sphere

Imposing values of Individualism Cultural Sphere

Backlash against Westernization and liberal

Politics after Cold War
values in Developing World

• Continuous presence of western values is seen as a

form of cultural imperialism Issue of Cultural
• Culture of west is meant to serve their interest Imperialism
• Black Nationalism : Marcus Garvey

•Attempt to give Political Independence a cultural

Post Colonialism
dimension

• Resistance against cultural impact of Globalization

© Saar Concepts
Globalization
• Globalization represents Homogenization of values
Role of Religion, Culture and Identity Politics

Growing importance of culture as factor

affecting international politics

Is Cultural Conflicts inevitable

Samuel P Huntington’s
Civilizations are Culture writ large
‘Clash of Civilization’ thesis

Culture has replaced ideology

• Micro Conflicts : Communal Wars,
One tribe against other
Conflict will be between and among
• Macro Conflicts : Clash of Core States
cultures

Religious Revivalism

• Most prominent aspect of growing political importance of culture is Religious

Revivalism
- Huntington says that Religion is the central defining feature of a
civilization
• Cause of Religious Revivalism : Backlash against Secularization Thesis
- Secularization
• Religion limited to private realm
• Truth found in Scientific Doctrine and through reason

Religious Revivalism

• From late 20th century, religion has become more important

- religion provide a mean of regenerating personal and social identity in
modern circumstances
- It provides a powerful worldview and belief system to people
- There have been cases of Politicization of religion in many developing
country
• 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran and coming to power of
Ayatollah Khomeini.
• Iran became a theocracy

Religious Fundamentalism

• Religious principles are not restricted to personal or private life but are seen as the
organizing principle of public existence, law, social conduct, economy as well as
polity.
• It is the rejection of distinction between religion and politics
• It also denote an intense and militant faith in the principles of a religious doctrine
• Causes :
- Secularization
- Globalization

© Saar Concepts
Migration and
Refugees
Migration and Refugee
Entry into State without
Fixed territorial permission is seen as an
Modern State
boundary illegal breach of
sovereignty

State control who could and who could not

enter and exit political community

Determination of whether an individual

crossing the border is deemed illegal or
permissible is part of state’s responsibility

State use many terms to distinguish new

Migrants

• A Migrant is defined as a person who chooses to move from their country of origin
to another which will accept them.

• Migration is associate with choice :

- A choice that person makes to seek a life elsewhere
- A choice by the state to accept that person
• You have a will to leave your country of origin with the
knowledge that receiving state will accept you

Refugee

• The term Refugee has no association with choice

• It refers to someone searching for some refuge or assistance against some danger

• The nature of movement is forced : It is associated with people fleeing some form
of persecution

• In this case there is a lack of guaranteed state reception

Refugee

• In 1921, the League of nations was enlisted to assist with the resettlement of
postwar refugees

• Intergovernmental Committee on Refugee (1939)

• UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration 1943
• International Refugee Organization1946

• After World War II, in 1950, the office of the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugee (UNHCR) was created
- Its main job was creation of criteria that could be used to define who was
eligible for the status Refugee

Refugee

• Convention Relating to the Status of a Refugee – 1951

- The 1951 Convention was created by 45 States in 1951
- The 1951 Convention was created as legal guideline for States to use

• Definition of Refugee according to article 1A of the 1951 Convention

- ‘Owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reason of race,
religion, nationality membership of a particular social group or
political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable
or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of
that country.’
• The most important thing about this convention was that it determined who are

Refugee

• When the 1951 Convention was created

- The Convention was applicable only within Europe.
- The Convention was only applicable for events prior to 1st January, 1951
that had taken place in Europe

• In 1967 Protocol added to the 1951 Convention

• According to the 1967 Protocol :
- The 1951 Convention now applicable beyond Europe and beyond the
time limitation of 1st January 1951.

Refugee

• Important Provisions :
- It provided states with a process for recognizing people who have entered
a country’s territory as refugee.
- Article 31 :
• The host state is not to impose penalties on refugees for their
illegal entry.
- Article 33 :
• Refugees bear a right not to be forcibly returned or expelled
back to their home country of conflict. This is called Right of
‘Non Refoulement’
- Article 34 :
• The host state should begin the procedure of naturalization
© Saar Concepts
and give citizenship rights to the refugees
Migration and Refugee

Refugee

• The Refugee definition is narrow :

- Refugee status is granted only after the individual has proven they would
face political persecution if returned to their home country of origin.

• Other reason is not accepted as proper ground for granting status of refugee
- Other Reasons may include :
• Lack of medical condition or condition of economic deprivation
• People facing Poverty, Famine and Starvation
• Forced uprooting due to natural disaster.

Different conception of Poverty means different

meaning of Development

Poverty Development

Condition Come Out Process

This economic view of Poverty is adopted by

Poverty Western Countries, IMF, World Ban

Poverty refers to a situation when people do not have the

Orthodox View
money to but adequate food or satisfy other basic needs

Poverty is an economic
It refers to unfulfilled material needs
condition

Also called Income Poverty or Solution : Economic Growth

Absolute Poverty and Development

• Free Market Economy

World Bank : People living less than
$1.25 a day are Poor © Saar Concepts
• Integration into Global Economy
Poverty and Development

Poverty

Critical Alternative Poverty refers to a state of unfulfilled state of unfulfilled

Approach material and non material needs

• Poverty can not measured only in terms of cash or income

• It includes human dignity, opportunities and choices
•Poverty is about restricted opportunities and lack of
freedom
• Amartya Sen : ‘Poverty and Famine’ (1981), ‘Development
as Freedom’ (1999), ‘The idea of Justice’ (2009)
•Human Development Report published annually by UNDP

Development Defined in economic terms as a lack of income

Orthodox View of
Poverty
Development

Elimination of Poverty is related to Economic Growth

Development is synonymous with Economic Growth

Modernization Best way to ensure growth is to follow the economic

Theory model adopted by developed Western Countries

Modernization Theory WW Rostov in his book ‘Stages of Economic Growth’

1. Traditional Society
- Very low level of technology, subsistence economy
2. Precondition for Take Off
- Business Class, banks and Currency appears
3. Take Off
- Economic Growth starts taking place
4. Drive to Maturity
- Growing economic diversification, reduced poverty and increased prosperity
5. High Mass Consumption
- Mass Production of modern consumer goods, wealth and prosperity becomes
widespread
© Saar Concepts
Poverty and Development

Modernization Theory WW Rostov in his book ‘Stages of Economic Growth’

• This view dominated thinking on matters related to poverty and development since
1945.
• But this view of development was promoted all across the world only after 1970s
- Before 1970s, Global Economic Institutions adopted a more regulative
framework for world economy.
• In the 1970s and 1980s, after the rise of Neoliberalism, this view becomes more
prominent
- Washington Consensus : Pro Market Economic ideas come to dominate
Washington based IMF and World Bank
- World Bank and IMF promote Pro Market Neoliberal Philosophy through

• SAPs : Structural Adjustment Programs

- Poor Countries that borrowed from Western Banks and Private Parties
were unable to pay loan
- IMF and World Bank put conditions on Payment of future Loans
• Bring market oriented reforms in line with neoliberal policies
• There Is No Alternative (TINA) to Neoliberal Policies
• Controversies related to SAPs :
- Joseph Stieglitz : SAPs resulted in greater Poverty than Less

• Since 2000 the approach of SAP has been largely abandoned

- They are replaced by ‘Poverty Reduction Strategic Papers’

Alternative View Development

• It rejects the traditional linear model of development where Development and

economic growth are synonymous

• It is a Non Western View of Development

- Self reliance rather than reliance on wealthy states and international
bodies
- Ecological Balance, Sustainability and Conservation of natural resources
- Social and Cultural inclusion, respect for cultural diversity

Alternative View Development

• In 1975, the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation Published

‘What now? Another development ?’
- This argued that the process of development should be :
i. Need Oriented (Material and Non Material)
ii. Endogenous (Coming From Society)
iii. Self Reliance
iv. Ecologically Sound
v. Based on Structural Transformation (of Economy and Society)

Alternative View Development

• Millennium Development Goals

- The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight International
Development Goals that had been established following the Millennium
Summit of United Nations in 2000
1. To Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger
2. To achieve Universal Primary Education
3. To promote Gender Equality and Empower Women
4. To reduce child Mortality Goals
5. To improve mental health
6. To combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other disease
7. To ensure environmental sustainability
8. To develop global partnership for development
• © Saar Concepts
These 8 goals had to be achieved by 2015.
Poverty and Development

Alternative View Development

• Sustainable Development Goals

- They are 17 Global Goals set by United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for
the year 2030.
- These goals are very broad, together they all contain 169 targets to be
achieved
- The SDGs cover social, economic and environmental developmental issues
including poverty, hunger, health, gender, etc.

International Aid and Development

• International Aid is the principal way in which countries discharge their development
responsibilities and help promote , socio economic development in other countries

• Aid can include :

- Provision of Fund
- Provision of Resource and equipment
- Provision of Staff and Expertise

• UN has fixed the target for rich countries to donate in Aid 0.7 % of their GNP
- In 2007 only 5 Countries achieved that target

• There is General Agreement that level of International aid is generally insufficient to

support meaningful development © Saar Concepts
Poverty and Development

International Aid and Development

• Jaffrey Sachs
- Author of important books like, ‘The End of Poverty’ (2005),
‘Common Wealth’ (2008)
- He says that quality of International Aid is more important than quantity
- Aid should be targeted, specific and should support ‘Triple Transformations’
• Agriculture
• Health
• Infrastructure

Debts Reliefs

• The issue of developing world debts have become prominent since 1970s and 1980s
- Poor countries used more and more their money for debt repayment at the
expense of building schools, hospitals, or investing on economic
development or poverty alleviation programs
- A growing campaign for debt relief started to emerge

• In 1989, the USA launched ‘Brady Bonds’ through which it underwrote a proportion
of Latin American Debts.
• In 1996, IMF and World Bank launched, ‘Heavily Indebted Poor Countries’ (HIPC)
Initiative . It provided debt relief to 40 of the poorest countries of world
• The G8 Summit at Gleneagles, Scotland 2005, had debt relief as its main agenda
- Commitment was made for 100 % cancellation of debts owed to IMF and
© Saar Concepts
World Bank by Poor African Countries.
Poverty and Development

Globalization and Development

• Supporters :
- It promises enhanced opportunities to all
- Surest way to reduce poverty
- It generates employment, transfer of technology and thus it is a positive
Sum game
- Thomas Friedman ‘The World is Flat’ (2005)
−Jagdish Bhagwati, ‘In Defence of Globalization’ (2004)
‘Termites in the Trading System’ (2008)

Globalization and Development

• Critics :
- Globalization is a game of winner and losers
- Free trade favor the interest of Rich Business houses
- Wealthy gets wealthier and poor gets poorer.
- Susan George : ‘How the other half dies’ (1976)
‘A fate worse than debt’ (1988)
‘Another World is Possible if’ (2004)

• The term North- South Dialogues refers to the relationship between the advanced
industrialized countries in the Global South and the developing countries of the
global north

• The key focus of North- South dialogue has been the various attempts made by the
global south to alter the nature of ‘Post War International Economic System’

• Decolonization :
- During 1950s there were dramatic changes as a number of former colonies
became independent

• A key meeting was the Bandung Conference held in 1955

- 29 Asian and African States attended the conference
- This conference set the main agenda of the North-South dialogue

• Two Key issues of the Conference

- Need to continue the process of decolonization by putting more pressure
on the imperial power
- Avoid taking sides in the cold war
- The result was Non Aligned Movement

• Gradually the focus of North South Dialogue began to change

- The most important issue were Economic now
- South collectively resisted the dominance of world trade by global North
• Establishment of United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development in 1964
• Establishment of G 77 in 1964

• Call by Global South for a New International Economic Order (NIEO) in 1974
- Two UN Resolutions were adopted
• Declaration on the Establishment of a New International
Economic Order
• Programme of Action on the Establishment of New International
Economic Order

• Demands within NIEO

- Greater access to market in the global North
- Reforms in World Bank and IMF
- Demand for more International Aid
- Demand for the recognition of the economic sovereignty of the State
- Greater Regulations of MNCs

• During the 1980s, the Global South went into retreat

- Rise of Neoliberalism in the 1980s with its belief in free market and
regulated economic model
- 1980s also saw debt crisi in Global South
- Many developing countries faced high level of indebtness
•IMF and World Bank provided loans that were conditional on
following ‘Structural Adjustment Program’ (SAP)
• Most Developed countries followed the liberal economic policies
- All these limited the economic sovereignty of a country

• Newly Industrializing Countries in the South East Asia achieved Rapid Economic
Growth
- They followed free market model

• Future of North South Dialogue

- In recent years there have been attempts to develop North South Relations
that is based on Cooperation and not conflict
• SAP and Washington Consensus policies have been abandoned
• World Bank has refocused on providing loans for development
and infrastructure development
- Brandt Report of 1980 on North South Relation
• ‘North South : A Program for Survival’
• The Report highlight the interdependence of the ‘North and South’

Preventing one’s opponent from attacking for the fear of

expected retaliation

Making the opponent believe that you have desire, will

and strength to hurt him if they challenge you

Making them believe that Cost of attack for the opponent

will more than benefits

Show of Interest, Capability and resolve to attack back

makes the Deterrence Credible

Emerged as a popular theory in IR after World War II in

1940s and 1950s

The Theory was eagerly adopted by Realist Scholars

Robert Jervis (1979) argues that Deterrence Theory appears in Three Waves in IR

• First Wave :
- Deterrence Theory was produced after World War II as a result of the
arrival of nuclear weapons
- Bernard Brodie :
• In the nuclear age, the primary purpose of military force must
not be to win wars but to prevent wars from occurring.

• Second Wave :
- Thomas Schelling applied Game Theory to the discussion of deterrence.
- The Contribution of Thomas Schelling led to the development of
• Rational Deterrence Theory (RDT)
- His important book : ‘Arms and Influence’ (1966)
© Saar Concepts
- He is also known as the founder of ‘Strategic Realism’
Waves of Deterrence Theory

Robert Jervis (1979) argues that Deterrence Theory appears in Three Waves in IR

• Third Wave
- It emerged in 1970s
- Focused on the quantitative and qualitative testing of Deterrence
theory

• Other Thinkers attached to deterrence theory are :

- Jeffrey W Knopf
- Amir Lupovici

Richard Betts talks about two types of Deterrence

• Deterrence by Punishment :
- An enemy will not attack if it knows that the defender can cause
unacceptable damage to it (Massive Retaliation)
- It is achieved by Nuclear Weapons

• Deterrence by Denial :
- An enemy will not attack if it knows that it can not achieve its goals by
attacking
- This type of deterrence can be achieved through conventional
capabilities

• After the end of cold war, the effectiveness of the deterrence theory was
questioned by many scholars.

• After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack in USA, many scholars argued that
deterrence is no longer a feasible strategy in 21st century

• Deterrence strategy do not work against terrorist threats

- Terrorists remain invisible and work secretly.
- They do not have any fear of retaliation.

• The first usage of terrorism was in reference to the action of a nation

- French Revolution : ‘Reign of Terror’ (1793 – 1794)

• In the modern usage : Terrorism refers to the violent actions of non state groups

• Definition :
- Terrorism is the use of violence against civilians and is perpetrated
by non state actors with the intent of achieving some political
outcome

• Three things to notice in this definition :

- Nature of Victims
- Nature of Perpetrators
© Saar Concepts
- Motivation behind terrorist acts
Terrorism

• Nature of Victims
- Terrorism involves violence directed at Civilians
- The victims of terrorism are not actively or officially involved in a
violent conflict

• Nature of Perpetrator
- When nation state target citizens it is called state terror or war crime
- Terrorism is a violent act committed by Non State Actors
• Eg. al Qaeda

• Motivation behind terrorist acts

- Groups that use terrorism have political goals
- They seek to bring political change by committing violent acts against
Civilians
© Saar Concepts
Terrorism

Historical Examples of Terrorism

• Sicarri and Zealots

- During the middle 1st Century, Palestine was occupied by Roman Empire
- Zealots were rebel Jewish Groups who used terrorist tactics against Romans
- Within Zealots, a more radical sect existed called Sicarri

• Assassin
- Assassin were a group which operated between 11th and 13th century in
Persia and Syria
- They belonged to a religious group called Ismaili

• In the mid 19th and early 20th century – a political movement known as anarchism
became popular in Europe and N America
© Saar Concepts
- Violent Anarchist groups existed in France, Italy, Britain and USA.
Terrorism

Historical Examples of Terrorism

• Ku Klax Klan
- This group operated in USA in the 1960s
- They launched campaign of violence and intimidation against Blacks
- They wanted to preserve the traditional dominance of Whites

• Terrorist strategies were also used by Communist Revolutionaries

- They conducted campaign of assassination against Political Enemy

• Post World War II : Modern terrorism

- During 1960s and 1970s : Skyjackings were used effectively
- In 1980s, there was advent of Suicide Bombing
- First used by Lebanese Group Hezbollah and then by the
© Saar Concepts
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (in Sri Lanka)
Terrorism

Historical Examples of Terrorism

• September 11, 2001 terrorist attack in USA

- The attack was carried out by al Qaeda
- 19 men hijacked 4 Planes on September 11
- Three Planes were crashed into the targets
• World Trade Center Towers : 2 Planes
• Pentagon : 1 Plane
• Fourth Plane Crashed in the fields of Pennsylvania
- About 3000 innocent people died in the terrorist attack

Types of Terrorism

• Michael Ignatieff distinguished between four types of terrorism

1. Insurrectionary Terrorism
- It is aimed at revolutionary overthrow of state
2. Loner or Issue terrorism
- It is aimed at promotion of single issue
3. Nationalist Terrorism
- It is aimed to overthrow colonial rule or occupation
4. Global Terrorism
- This is aimed at inflicting damage or humiliation to Global Power

Types of Terrorism

• Audrey Kurth Cronin also distinguishes between four types of terrorism

1. Left Wing Terrorism : Practiced by communist and Maoists
2. Right Wing Terrorism : Draw inspiration from fascism
3. Ethnonationalist /Separatist terrorism :
4. Sacred Terrorism

Post modern or ‘New’ terrorism

• In the decades prior to 9/11, a number of scholars and experts perceived that
fundamental change were taking place in the character of terrorism
- The use of violence for political purpose had failed in its purpose and a new
trend was emerging

• Post modern or ‘New’ terrorism were conducted for different reasons

- They were driven by the power of ideas
- Terrorists were motivated by the promise of rewards in afterlife

Post modern or ‘New’ terrorism

• Causes of New terrorism

- Perceived oppression of Muslims world wide
- Globalization presented two options
• Accept western belief to better integrate
• Preserve spiritual purity by rebelling
- The only possible response to fight against such influence is
through ‘Jihad’

• Jihad :
• Literal meaning : Struggle for internal Spiritual Purity

Armed Conflicts Between or among Political Groups

Minimum Battle Traditionally these groups have

causality of 1000 been States

1. Hegemonic War
- War over control of the entire world, for controlling the rule of the
International System
- Also called Global Wars, World Wars
- Eg World War I and World War II

1. Total War
- Warfare by one state to conquer and occupy another
- All of society and economy is integrated into the practice of war.
- Eg . During World War II attack of Germany on UK and vice versa

3. Limited War
- Military action carried out to gain some objective. Eg. Border Wars, Raids

4. Civil Wars
- War between factions within a state
- These Wars emerge between and among various Ethnic Groups and Classes
- These groups either try to fight an existing government or establish a new
government

5. Guerrilla Wars
- It is a kind of Civil War but one of the party involved do not fight the war
directly
- Irregular forces operates in the midst of civilian population
- The purpose is not to directly confront an enemy army but to harass and
punish it so as to gradually limit its operations.

• Each war is unique, each war emerge from a particular historical situtaion.

• Kenneth Waltz in his book, ‘Man, the State and War’ (1959) gives three causes of
war :
1. Cause of the War lies in the human nature – Human nature is basically
aggressive, selfish and competitive
2. Cause of War lies in the nature of Political System :
• War is used as an instrument by Authoritarian and Imperialist
State
• Democratic Countries do not got to war against each other
2. Cause of the War lies in the anarchic International System

• Clausewitz in his book ‘On War’ (1831) describes War as :

‘War is merely a continuation of Politics by other means’
- War is characterized by rational pursuit of self interest
- States go to War when they calculate that it is in their interest to do so

• Conventional View of War :

- War was viewed as an armed conflict between opposing states.
- War were fought by uniformed, organized bodies of men : National Armies
Navies, Airforce
- A body of norms and rules also developed to regulate armed conflicts

Modern Warfare

• Decline in interstate war and rise of civil war

- Majority of conflicts since 1990s have occurred within the states and not
between the states

• Modern Wars are Asymmetrical

- Opponents do not have similar level of economic and military power
- Tactics used in Asymmetrical wars :
• Guerilla Warfare
• Terrorist tactics : Suicide Bombing
• Insurgency

Modern Warfare

• No distinction between Civilian and Military

- Warfare is not confined to battlefield and military personnel
- Modern Warfare is often accompanied by Refugee Crisis

• Postmodern Warfare
- Changes and advancement in technology of fighting has affected war
and warfare
→ Concept of ‘Revolution in Military Affairs’ (RMA)
- The concept became popular after American victory in 1991
Gulf War
- Superior technology gave USA an effortless victory

© Saar Concepts
- With the use of technology accuracy and scale of devastation can
be massively increased.
Changing Nature of Warfare

Modern Warfare

• New Wars
- Mary Kaldor gives the concept of ‘New Wars’
- Earlier Wars were linked with the emergence and creation of new states
- ‘New Wars’ are related to the disintegration and collapse of existing states

• War of the Third Kind

- The concept was developed by Edward Rice
- War of third kind are usually fought in third world countries and rely
heavily on Guerilla Warfare.

Nuclear Weapons
These Weapons can cause
Chemical Weapons unparallel damage and
loss of life
Biological Weapons

They are highly lethal and

dangerous than
conventional weapons

Nuclear Weapons

• These are the world’s most destructive weapons

• There are two types of Nuclear Weapons :

1. Fission Weapons
- These are called Atomic Bomb or A-Bomb
- Energy is released from splitting of atoms
- Fissionable materials
• Nagasaki : Uranium-235,
– 9th Aug, Plutonium
Plutonium Bomb (Fat man)
- First developed
- Explosive
© Saar Concepts
by US scientists
power of Fission during WWinIIKiloton
Weapon measured
Project˃ 1 Kiloton = 1000 ton of TNT
: Manhattan
Weapons of Mass Destruction

Nuclear Weapons
• These are the world’s most destructive weapons

• There are two types of Nuclear Weapons :

1. Fission Weapons
- These are called Atomic Bomb or A-Bomb
- Energy is released from splitting of atoms
- Fissionable materials : Uranium-235, Plutonium
- First developed by US scientists during WW II : Manhattan
Project
- Used in warfare by USA against Japan in 1945
• Hiroshima – 6th Aug, Uranium Bomb (Little Boy)
• Nagasaki – 9th Aug, Plutonium Bomb (Fat man)

© Saar Concepts
- Explosive power of Fission Weapon measured in Kiloton
˃ 1 Kiloton = 1000 ton of TNT
Weapons of Mass Destruction

Nuclear Weapons

• These are the world’s most destructive weapons

• There are two types of Nuclear Weapons :

2. Fusion Weapons :
- Also called Thermonuclear Bomb or H-Bomb (Hydrogen Bomb)
- Energy is released by joining together two small atoms
- Two Hydrogen atom fuse together to form Helium and release
huge amount of energy.
- The explosion power of Fusion weapon can reach upto
50 Megaton (1 Megaon = 1000 Kiloton)
- Soviet Union has tested the biggest Thermonuclear bomb

Current Nuclear Weapons States

• Total of about 9 countries possess Nuclear Weapons

• NPT (Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty) 1968 declares Five Countries of the world
as Official Nuclear Weapon States (NWS)
- USA, Russia, France, Britain and China

• India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea also possess Nuclear Weapons but they
are not regarded as Nuclear Weapon States by the World

• Advanced Countries like Japan, Germany, Australia have the capacity to produce
Nuclear Weapons but they have chosen not to acquire them.

Chemical Weapons

• Chemical Weapons releases dangerous Chemicals that disable and kill people

• Example : Musturd Gas (causes Blisters)

Phosgene (causes Choking problem)
Sarin (Attacks nervous system)
• Chemical Weapons have been used during World War I. Iraq used it against Iran
in 1980s.
• 1925 Geneva Protocol banned the use of chemical weapons but it did not ban its
production and posesion.

• The 1992 Chemical Weapon Convention

- It banned the production, possession and usage of chemical weapons
© Saar Concepts
- All countries except Egypt, Syria and N. Korea have signed the convention
Weapons of Mass Destruction

Biological Weapons

• Biological weapons uses deadly microorganisms like bacteria and viruses in the
form of weapons

• The viruses and bacteria can cause deadly diseases like small pox, bubonic
plague, Anthrax

• A single weapon can start an epidemic in the entire area.

• Biological Weapon Convention 1972

- The production, development and possession of biological weapons
are banned by this convention.

A situation where two or more actors have

incompatible goals and interests

Material Interest Non Material Interest

According to
John W Burton Access to Resource or Ideology, Identity,
Territory Religion, Culture

Easy to resolve Difficult to handle

When Conflict becomes an

War
Armed Conflict

Escalation of Conflict

Conflict Resolution

Process of ending, changing, alleviating or

preventing conflict among different parties

Johan Galtung identifies three stages of Conflict Resolution

• Peacemaking
- It is the stage of Conflict Settlement
- Aim is to reach a mutually acceptable agreement
- Usually done by elite leaders of two countries

• Peacekeeping
- It is the stage of Conflict Containment
- Focus is on Prevention of War and maintenance of Ceasefire

• Peacebuilding
- It is the Stage of Conflict Transformation
- Focus is on addressing deep rooted cause of conflict
© Saar Concepts
- Aim is to build mutual understanding and attain permanent solution
Stages of Conflict Resolution

Prerequisite for Conflict Resolution

• Recognizing the legitimacy of the claims of all the parties involved

• Having the belief that the conflict can be transformed

• Recognizing that the mediation by a third party is important for conflict

resolution. Mediation can be provided by :-
- States (A Neutral Country)
- International Organizations like UNO
- Transnational Organizations like Amnesty International, Red Cross

Jacob Bergovich talks about three types of Mediation Strategies

• Communication Strategy :
- Making contact with the conflicting parties
- Being Neutral, gaining trust and confidence

• Formulation Strategy :
- Establishing mutually acceptable procedure, time place and order
of meeting

• Manipulation Strategy :
- Making Parties aware of cost of non agreement
- Promising resources for agreement
- Threatening to withdraw

Security

Traditional View Non Traditional View

Whose Security Security from What Whose Security Security from What

Security of Security from Security of all Security from

State Military Threat Human Being Non -Military Threat

Realist and Liberal Approach Concept of Human Security

Realist View

• It is a State Centric Approach to Security

• Most important actor in International System : States
• Primary motive of State : Preservation of Sovereignty
• Threat to Security always comes from other state
• International System is Anarchic : there is complete lack of Trust among states

• Concept of Security Dilemma developed by John Herz

- Defensive measure by one state is perceived as offensive by other states
• Strategy :
- State need to maintain large military
- Balance of Power :
• Internal Balancing
© Saar Concepts
• External Balancing
Traditional View of Security

Liberal View

• They differ with realists in terms of strategy to maintain security

• Security requires the development of International rules and cooperative institutions

• Collective Security :
- Building rules and laws for security and acting together to enforce them
- Eg. United Nations

• Security Community :
- Concept of Security Community developed by Karl Deutsch
- Countries have shared values and understanding
- Countries agree on norms that prevent them from setting disputes by force
- Eg. EU, ASEAN
© Saar Concepts
Traditional View of Security

Liberal View

• Common Security :
- Concept of Common Security developed by Palme Commission in 1982
- The commission was headed by former Swedish PM Olaf Palme
- The idea is : No one is secure until all are secure from threat of war
- It talks about achieving security not against enemy but together with him

- Gareth Evans calls this approach as Cooperative Security

• Core Argument : Security should embrace all of humanity and not jut states
Focus should be on source of harm other than military threat

• Non Military Threats : Environmental problems, Population growth, disease, refugee

crisis, terrorism, poverty, hunger,

• Non Traditional view of Security is adopted by scholars from ‘Copenhagen School’.

- Thinkers like Barry Buzan are associated with this school of thought

• This holistic concern for human life and dignity is called ‘Human Security’
- The concept of human security challenges the state centric approach
of security
- It is about security of people rather than government

• Origin of the concept of human security :

- Publication of Human Development Report of 1994 UN Development Program
- The report was developed by a group of economist, most prominent among
them were Pakistani Economist – Mahbub ul Haq

• According to this report, Human Security include seven areas :

- Economic Security
- Food Security
- Health Security
- Environmental Security
- Personal Security
- Community Security
− Political Security

Domestic Law

• Made by Government of a country

• Has a universal Jurisdiction in the society
• Law is compulsory for all
• Law is backed up by system of coercion and punishment

International Law

• International law is decentralized

•No central authority exists in the international politics that
is capable of making and enforcing rules
• Still International Law is obeyed and respected
• It provides a framework within which states and
© Saar Concepts
international actors interact
International Law

It is a body of legal rules, regulations, standards and

principles that govern international relations between
and among states and international actors

International law is also called Public International Law

Private International Law

It deals with cases within the domestic legal system of

states in which foreign actors are involved

• Modern International Law has roots in various treaties of the past :-

- The Treaty of Augsburg 1555
- The Treaty of Westphalia 1648
- The Treaty of Utrecht 1713

• Hugo Grotius is the most important scholar associated with the study of
International law
- He is considered the father of International Law
- His masterpiece is : ‘On the Law of War and Peace’ (1625)
- According to Grotius, there are four causes for a Just war
• Self Defense
• To enforce right
• To seek reparation for injury

Sources of International law

• The Sources of International Law are laid down in article 38 of the Statute of
International Court of Justice (ICJ-1945)
- International Conventions (Treaties)
- International Customs
- General Principles
- Judicial Decisions

Sources of International law

• International Conventions (Treaties)

- These are written agreements between States
- They can be called : Treaties, Conventions, Agreements, Pacts, Accord
Protocols, Charters, Covenants
- Treaties can be Bilateral or Multilateral
• UN Charter
• Geneva Conventions
• NPT
• START (Bilateral)

Sources of International law

• International Conventions (Treaties)

→ In case of Treaties, there are two principles at work :
1. Pacta Sunt Servanda
- Treaties are binding on parties to them and must be executed
in good faith
2. Rebus Sic Stantibus
- States can contract out of a treaty on the ground that
significant changes have occurred in the conditions existing at
the time the agreement was signed
- Eg. Article X of NPT (Exit Clause)

Sources of International law

• Customary Laws
- These are general practices accepted as laws
- Once a rule becomes customary, all states are bound by it
- Many of the customary laws have been converted into Conventions
• Vienna Convention on Diplomatic and Consular Relations
(1961, 1963)

• General Principles
- These principles are recognized as rules by all civilized nations
- Eg. Principle of Good Faith
• The fact that States have to execute their treaties faithfully

Sources of International law

• Judicial Decisions
- It includes the decisions and teachings of the most highly qualified legal
scholars and jurists.

• Soft Laws : Legally Non Binding Rules

- It includes provisions of treaties that are unspecified to implement and
are also legally non binding
- Eg. UDHR, Resolutions of General Assembly

Major Areas of International law

• Laws of Armed Conflicts

- Jus as bellum (Just War Laws)
• It determines whether a state is allowed to use force
- Jus in bello (Law of War)
• It governs the laws of Armed conflict

Laws of Armed Conflict

• Jus ad bellum
- It talks about the conditions when a country is allowed to force against
another country
• Article 51 of UN Charter : The Fundamental Right of all states to
exercise the right of self defense
• Article 39 of UN Charter : The Right of UN Security Council to
authorize military action

Laws of Armed Conflict

• Jus in bello (Humanitarian Laws)

- These comprises laws of armed conflicts and defines the duties of state
engaged in Warfare
- The most important documents are :-
i. The Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)
• It is for regulating the conduct of warfare
• It defines rules on how state should conduct warfare
ii. Geneva Conventions (1949)
• It focus on the protection of victims of armed conflict,
wounded soldiers, Prisoners of Wars and Civillians

Laws of Armed Conflict

• The Four Geneva conventions of 1949 talks about :

- Convention 1 : Protection of wounded and Sick Soldiers on Land
- Convention 2 : Protection of wounded and Sick Soldiers in Sea
- Convention 3 : Pensioners of Wars
- Convention 4 : Civilians

• Geneva Conventions also include three Protocols

- Protocol 1 : Protection of Victims of internal armed conflicts
- Protocol 2 : Non International armed conflicts
- Protocol 3 : To Create a new emblem ‘Red Crystal’

• Law of the Sea

- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• It is also called Constitution of the Ocean

It is the only truly global organization

It was not the first It was created after WW II to preserve

organization created to international peace and prevent another
guarantee world peace Global War

‘League of Nations’ created after WW I by

Predecessor if UNO
Paris Peace Conference 1919

•Some major countries did not join. USA never participated, Japan joined in
1926, left in 1933, Japan left in 1933, Italy in 1936, Soviet Union expelled 1939
• League could only make recommendations and pass non binding resolutions
© Saar Concepts
• No Mechanism existed to punish a miscreant state.
United Nations Organization It was set up after World War II

1st January 1942 Declaration by the ‘United Nations’

The term ‘United Nations’ was coined by US

President Franklin D Roosevelt

The basic blue print was drawn up in August 1944 at

Dumbarton Oaks Conference (Washington DC) by leaders from
USA, Soviet Union, China and UK

The UN Charter was signed in San Francisco Conference on 26

June, 1945, with the UN officially coming to being on 24
October 1945

© Saar Concepts
There were 51 Founding members. 50 countries signed the
charter at San Francisco. Poland signed it later on 15 Oct
United Nations Organization

Organizational Structure
1. The Security Council
- The Responsibility to maintain International Peace and Security lies with
the Security council
- It is made up of 15 members
• 10 are Non Permanent members elected for 2 years by General
Assembly
• 5 are Permanent members : USA, Russia, UK, France and China
- Decisions of Security Council are binding on members and must be
passed only by a majority of 9 of 15 members
- Each Permanent member has been given a Veto power over all
Security council decisions
• If one Permanent member disagrees, the resolution doesn't pass

© Saar Concepts
• Being Absent by Permanent member is not regarded as veto.
- Recommends name of Secretary General to General assembly
United Nations Organization

Organizational Structure

2. General Assembly
- All the members of UN are represented in General Assembly
- Each member has one vote and value of each vote is equal
- Two third majority is required for decisions on key issue
• International Peace and Security
• Admission of new members
• UN Budget
- A simple majority is required for other matters
- The decisions reached by General Assembly only has status of
recommendation rather than binding decisions
• But there is one exception : Decisions by General Assembly’s Fifth
committee is binding on members, this committee makes decisions
on budget © Saar Concepts
United Nations Organization

Organizational Structure

3. Secretariat
- Secretariat carries out administrative work of the United nations
- It is led by a Secretary General
- The role of Secretariat and Secretary General primarily remains administrative
and bureaucratic

- But the Secretary General has one special power

• Under article 99 of the Charter, he has the power to bring situations
that are likely to lead to a breakdown of international peace and
security to the attention of security council

Organizational Structure

4. The Economic and Social Council

• The Economic and Social council is given the responsibility to coordinate the
economic and social works of the United Nations

5. The Trusteeship Council

• The Trusteeship council was established to provide international supervision
for eleven Trust Territories administered by seven member states
• It also had to take adequate steps to prepare the territories for self
government
• By 1994, all trust territories had attained self government or independence
• The last to do so was trust territory of Palau
• Trusteeship Council now consist of 5 Permanent members of Security Council
© Saar Concepts
United Nations Organization

Organizational Structure

6. The International Court of Justice

• It is the main Judicial organ of the UN.
• It consists of 15 Judges, selected jointly by the General Assembly and the
Security Council
• The Court decides disputes between countries who are member to it.
• Jurisdiction of the court is limited to cases that States brings to it
• If a State is not a signatory, it can not bring cases before ICJ

Aims and Objectives of United Nations Organization

• According to the UN Charter – United Nations has 4 Purposes

1. To maintain International Peace and Security
2. To develop friendly relations among nations
3. To cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting repect
for human rights
4. To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations

Principal Aim of UN

Article 1 To maintain international peace and security

UN during Cold War Period

Power Politics of International Society has
shaped the performance of United nations
UN during Post Cold War period

UN during Cold War

• The performance of the UN can be largely judged in terms of the extent to which it has
saved humankind from deadly military conflict
- A supreme achievement of UN : No Global War or World War 3 has taken place

• According to Realists : the absence of Global Wars since 1945 was a consequence of
‘Balance of Terror’ that developed during cold War in between
USA and USSR
- The term ‘Balance of Terror’ was coined by American
Diplomat Lester Pearson
• The only military intervention sanctioned by UN took place during Korean War in 1950

• No such UN action took place during – Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), Soviet Invasion of
© Saar Concepts
Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1969), Afghanistan (1979)
United Nations Organization

UN during Cold War

• The Cold War hampered the functioning of the UN because the Veto power was used
very frequently
- Whenever the interest of a permanent member was at stake, Veto Power
was used
- Between 1945 and 1990 veto was used for 193 times

• Article 47 of UN Charter has provision for setting up of ‘Military Staff Committee’ as a

subsidiary body of the security council.
- Resistance among P5 members prevented the UN from developing its own
military capacity.

UN during Post Cold War Period

• Many thought that the end of cold war was the beginning of a new chapter for the UN
- For the second time in its history, UN carried a successful Military
Intervention in the Gulf War of 1991
- The use of Veto also declined during post cold war period

• But the hopes for a UN dominated ‘New World Order’ were quickly disappointed
- USA’s decision to invade Iraq despite opposition from several prominent
members of security council.

• UN’s role has broadened. Its earlier role was limited to maintaining Peace and Security
- Spread of Global Capitalism has brought severe inequality across the world
- UN now has additional role to ensure uniform Social and Economic
© Saar Concepts
development across the world.
United Nations Organization

UN Peacekeeping Operations
• Between 1948 and 2009, the UN carried out 65 Peacekeeping Operations
• There are two types of Peacekeeping Operations performed by UN
1. Classical Peacekeeping Operations
- It involves establishing a UN force under UN command to be placed
between disputing parties after ceasefire
- Such a force uses its weapon only for self defense and it does not
military personnel from major powers like US or France
- These UN forces are called ‘Blue Helmets’
1. Multidimensional or Robust Peacekeeping
- This is also called Peace Enforcement
- It has emerged mainly after Cold War
- In these missions it is allowed to use Force for Humanitarian purpose
- In these cases
© Saar Concepts
United Nations Organization

UN Peacekeeping Operations
• The term ‘Peacekeeping’ is not found in the UN Charter.
- Still, over the years, Peacekeeping has come to be the most significant way
in which the UN has fulfilled its responsibility to maintain to maintain
international Peace and security

• There are two provisions in the UN Charter for resolving disputes between countries
- Chapter 6 of UN Charter : Dispute resolution through peaceful means like
Negotiations and Mediations
- Chapter 7 of UN Charter : Dispute resolution through military action

• Former Secretary General UN, Dag Hammarskjold says that

- Peacekeeping belongs to Chapter 6 and a half of UN Charter

UN Peacebuilding Commission
• In November 2003, appointed a high level panel to examine the major threats and
challenges to global peace
- The panel submitted its report on December 2004 :
• A More Secure World : Our Shared Responsibility (2004)
- One of the recommendation of the report was for the
establishment of UN Peacebuilding Commission
- The UN Peacebuilding Commission was established in 2005
as an advisory subsidiary body of Un general Assembly and
Security Council

• The Peacebuilding Commission aims to provide targeted support to countries in the

post conflict phase to prevent the recurrence of conflict

© Saar Concepts
Concept of Power in
International Relations
A Central Concept in IR especially for Realist Thinkers
Power
It refers to the ability to get another actor to do what it
would not otherwise have done

Power is Influence Power is Capability

Capacity to influence the behavior of But we need ability

others in accordance with one’s own end to Influence

Power is an attribute of State that is sum total of its capabilities

– Military Strength
© Saar Concepts
– Economic Development
– Technological Development – Population and Geography
Elements of
National Power
Structural Power

Power does not rest with an individual actor

Social Structures or Systems forces actors to behave in a

certain way

Global Capitalist Economic

System

Rich and Developed countries do not exercise power

directly on the Poor and Underdeveloped countries

Four Types of Power Structures according to Susan Strange

1. Knowledge Structure : It refers to the power to influence ideas of others

2. Financial Structure : It refers to the power to control access to credit or investment

3. Security Structure : It refers to the power to influence other courtiers prospect of

security

4. Production Structure : It refers to the power to influence the chances of economic

growth and development of a country

Changing mechanism in which power is exercised

1. A General shift from military power to economic power

- Growing trade and interdependence make inter state war less likely
- States now compete through trade.

2. Decline of ‘Hard Power’ and rise of ‘Soft Power’

- Hard Power refers to the military and economic power of a country
- Concept of Soft Power was developed by Joseph Nye
• Soft power refers to the cultural values of a state
• When a State’s value become widely shared and accepted around
the world, it leads to increase in the influence of that state
→ Joseph Nye also talks about ‘Smart Power’

© Saar Concepts
• Smart Power is the combination of ‘Hard Power’ and ‘Soft Power’
Sovereignty in IR
Sovereignty
It is the supreme or final authority of a political community
over its own affairs which is exercised in a given territory

This authority is recognized both internally and externally

The idea of sovereignty emerged from Treaty of Westphalia

The provisions of this treaty gave rise to the present

International System of Sovereign Nation States

• It contains a notion of supreme authority

- It gives the right to issue command and ensure that that the commands
are obeyed

• It contains the notion of Supremacy

- The State can not be commanded by any other country or International
organization

• It has both external and internal dimension

- Internal Sovereignty : Possession of supreme authority within a state
- External Sovereignty : Non Intervention from any external power

• Realist View :
- Realists consider sovereignty as an important concept in IR
- For Realists the main actors in International System are
Sovereign Nation State
- They believe in the concept of Absolute Sovereignty

• Liberal View :
- They reject the concept of absolute sovereignty.
- Globalization and increasing economic interdependence among states
have affected the sovereignty of states.
- Today countries can claim political sovereignty but they have to
compromise their economic sovereignty.

• Stephen Krasner’s concept of ‘Organized Hypocrisy’

- Stephen Krasner defines sovereignty as ‘Organized Hypocrisy’

• Stephen Krasner’s concept of ‘Organized Hypocrisy’

- Stephen Krasner defines sovereignty as ‘Organized Hypocrisy’

- Why Stephen Krasner regards sovereignty as ‘Organized Hypocrisy’

• The concept of Sovereignty includes the principle of
‘Non Intervention’
• But this principle of non intervention is always violated in the
international system . Eg. Economic and Military Intervention

• Robert Jackson divides sovereignty into two types :

1. Negative Sovereignty :
- It refers to the legal right to demand that other states refrain
from interfering in a state’s internal affairs

2. Positive Sovereignty :
- It refers to the ability of the state to exercise effective control in the
arena of its formal jurisdiction.

Based on the Principle of

International State System
Non - Intervention

But States must take action in

the face of challenge to human
States can forcefully intervene in
lives
the territory of other countries
in the name of protecting
States should also be concerned human rights
with Human Rights violations in
other countries
Humanitarian Intervention

Regarded as Golden era of

Post Cold War Period of 1990s
Humanitarian Intervention

Thomas Weiss – ‘the notion that human being matter

more than soverignity radiated brightingly across
international political horizon of 1990s

Increased Civil Wars and Genocide • Somalia (1992-1995)

• Haiti (1994)
CNN Effect • Rwanda (1994)
Media coverage of conflicts • Bosnia (1995)
• Kosovo (1999)
End of cold war eased decision •
making process © Saar Concepts
Iraq (2002)
Humanitarian Intervention

When Humanitarian Intervention is justified

• The most thorough attempt to establish principle of Humanitarian Intervention

can be found in the report titled :
- ‘Responsibility to Protect’ (R2P)
• The report was produced by International Commission on
Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS)
• The commission was set by Canadian Government in 2000

• According to ‘Responsibility to Protect’ Report, Humanitarian Intervention is

justified under two conditions :
1. Large Scale loss of life
2. Large Scale Ethnic Cleansing

Humanitarian Intervention and Issue of Sovereignity

• Humanitarian Intervention violates established international norm of non

intervention

• Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan gives the concept of

‘Responsible Sovereignty’
- Sovereignty is a responsibility
- Sovereignty resides in people and not in the government
- State’s right to sovereignty is conditional on the fulfillment of its
responsibility to protect
- State’s Sovereignty is violated when people's life is threatened

• Approaches to International Relations

- System Approach
- Decision Making Approach
- Game Theory
- Communication Theory

• International Relations studies the relations not only between states but also between
Individuals, societies and groups.

• John Bourton
- World Society ( Cobweb Model of International Relations).

• James Rosenau
- He talks about a ‘Multicentre’ and ‘Sovereignty free world’
- He has also given a concept of ‘Post internationalism’ and ‘Turbulence Theory’
• His book is “Turbulence in World Politics” (1990)

• Most important proponent of strategic realism is : Thomas Schelling

→ His book : “The Strategy of Conflict” (1960)
• Strategic Realism focuses mainly on Foreign Policy decision making.
• When a country faces a military or diplomatic issue , they are obliged to think strategically
i.e. instrumentally
→ The activity of foreign policy is free from moral choices.
→ The main aim should be to employ power intelligently so as to safeguard the
national interest in the best possible way.

•System Theory is mainly taken from biology and applied in various branches of social
sciences.
→ It was developed by Ludwig Bertalanffy

•Mortan Kaplan is associated with the application of System approach in International

Relatiosn.
→ “System and Process in International Politics” (1957)

121. Mortan Kaplan’s System Theory

• Balance of Power System

• Loose Bipolar System
• Tight Bipolar System
• Universal System
• Hierarchical System
• Unit Veto System
© Saar Concepts
122. Balance of Power System

• Each state will try to increase its power but without going to war.
• Most important duty for states is to protect their own interest.
•A state will not try to eliminate other state completely, it would rather be wise to end the
war.
• A state will oppose any alliance that gets built up against it.
• A state will also oppose State should prevent other making supranational organization
• Defeated actor must be allowed re-entry.

123. Loose Bipolar System

• There will be two Blocs in the world.

• Division between blocs will not be very strong.
• There will be some non-aligned states.
• There will be a Universal Actor like United Nations Organizations

• Division between the blocs is sharp.

• There will be no non-aligned states.
• There will be no Universal Actors.

125. Universal System

• It is an extension of loose bipolar system.

• There exist a strong Universal Actor

126. Hierarchical System

• One nation become extremely powerful.

• All the countries of the world will come under this country
→ Directive System : Either through war or conquest

• It will be a multi polar world where each country is going to be equally powerful.
• Each country will have nuclear capability.

128. Four Reformulated Models

• Very Loose Bipolar System

→ There will be two superpowers and competition among them
• The Détente System
→ Less tensed situation between the superpowers
→ Presence of a Universal Actor
• Unstable Bloc System
→ Opposite of Détente System
→ Super Power highly suspicious of each other
• The Incomplete Nuclear Diffusion System
→ All the countries will possess nuclear weapon
© Saar Concepts
129. Other Thinkers using System Approach

• Keneth Waltz : ‘Man, the State and War’ (1959)

• A F K Organski
→ His book : ‘World Politics’ (1958)
→ He is associated with Power Transition Theory
→ He says that there are four types of State :
- Dominant State
- Great Powers
- Middle Powers
- Small Powers
→ Other thinkers associated with Power Transition Theory
- Robert Gilpin ‘War and Change in World Politics’
- George Modelski

• Decision making is about choosing from a given set of Option.

• In International Relations, Decision Making Theory is related to Foreign Policy.
• There can be three types of Decisions:
- Programmed Decisions : Decision taken to meet a certain goal
- Crisis Decisions : Decision taken during an emergency
- Tactical Decision : Decisions taken after seeing the outcome of a previous decision
• Advocates : Richard Synder, H W Bruck, William Riker, James Robinson, Joe Holisti

131. Communication Theory

• Advocates : Quency Wright, Karl Deutsch, Ernst Haas, Charles Mc Clelland

• Marshal McLuhan
- He gave the concept of Global Village
- Concept of Global Village refers to world were communication has become so
advanced that each and every part of the world seems interconnected

• Game theory was developed in the field of mathematics and economics

• It started with the publication of the book by John Von Neumann and Oskar Mogenstern :-
- ‘The Theory of Game and Economic Behavior’ (1944)
• Game theorists in International Relations
- Thomas Schelling : ‘The Strategy of Conflicts’
- Riker, Kaplan, Martin Shubik, Karl Deutsch
• Important terms associated with Game Theory
- Nash Equilibrium
- Zero Sum Game
- Non-Zero Sum Game
- Prisoner’s Dilemma
- Chicken’s Game

Cold War
- Phases of Cold War
- Cold War Alliances
- Cold War Treaties
- Post Cold War Theories

• The period between 1945 and 1990 in the history of the world is known as Cold War
- Its started after the end of Second World War and continued till the beginning
of 1990s.
- The World got divided between two Power Blocs, One was led by USA and the
other was led by USSR.
- There was no actual war but there was no Peace either
• The main cause of the Cold War ideological
→ USA – It represented the ideology of Capitalism and Liberal Democracy
→ USSR – It represented the ideology of Marxism and Communism

• The Term Cold War was first used by Bernard Baruch.

• After the end of Second World War, there were two Superpower at the International Stage
→ USA
→ USSR
• The term Superpower was coined by Nicholas Spykman in his book
- ‘The Geography of Peace’
• A State which is powerful than all the states of the world is called ‘Super Power’
• The Power of a Super Power is measured mainly in these dimensions :
- Military Power
- Economic Power
- Political Power
- Cultural Power (Joseph Nye call it Soft Power)
•In the early 1990s, USSR collapsed and there was just one Super Power left at the world
level and that was USA.
- French Politician – Herbert Vederine used the term ‘Hyper Power’ for
USA.
© Saar Concepts
Phases of Cold War

135. Phase 1 : 1945 to 1953

• This phase started in 1945 and continued till 1953, this was the year when Stalin died
• Truman Doctrine :
- Declared by US President Henry S Truman in 1947
- This doctrine became the base of the foreign policy of USA during cold war.
- The main objective was to stop the influence of Soviet Union throughout the
world.
• Marshall Plan
- The Plan was formulate by George C Marshall .
- Official name of the Plan was : ‘European recovery Programmed’
- The Programmed aimed at helping western European countries in rebuilding
their economy and infrasrtucture.
• 1948 Berlin Blockade
• 1949 Nuclear Test by USSR
• End of Chinese Civil War (1927-1950)
• Korean War (1950-1953) © Saar Concepts
Phases of Cold War

136. Phase 2 : 1953 to 1962

• It began in 1953 and ended in 1962 with the Culmination of Cuban Missile Crisis also
called October Crisis.
- USA deployed Ballistic Missile in Italy and Turkey
- In reaction to this, USSR deployed Ballistic Missile in Cuba.
• Berlin got erected between east and west Germany in 1961
- Winston Churchill famously described it as ‘Iron Curtain’
• Suez Crisis :
- In 1956, Egypt was invaded by Israel, UK and France
- The aim was to take the control of Suez Canal back which was nationalized by the
Egyptian President – Gamal Abdel Naseer.
- This was also called – Second Arab Israeli War, Tripartite Agression and
Operation Kadesh
• Sino Soviet Split (1956-1966)

137. Phase 3 : 1962 to 1979

• Vietnam War
- It is also called Second Indo China War
- This was a War between North and South Vietnam between 1955 to 1975
→ North Vietnam was supported by USSR
→ South Vietnam was supported by USA
- North Vietnam Wins this war, USA officially withdraws from it in 1973
• In 1971 People’s Republic of China becomes a permanent member of United Nations
Security Council
• In 1972, US President Richard makes a historic visit to China to meet Mao Ze Dong
• Détente : During this period the tension between USA and USSR is reduced

138. Phase 4 : 1979 to 1985

• In 1979 Soviet Russia invades Afghanistan.

• This event makes the relationship between USA and USSR really tough
• This period is also called Second World War
• The Détente policy is rejected

139. Phase 5 : 1985 to 1991

• USSR faces huge Economic Crisis

• Mikhail Gorbachev comes to power
• He brings two types of reforms
- Glasnost : Political sphere is liberalized, many democratic reforms are introduced
- Perestroika : The Economic Sphere and Market is Liberalized

140. NATO

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization

• It is an Intergovernmental Military Alliance
• It came into existence in 1949
•Originally there were 12 countries but today NATO has 29 members, the latest member is
Montenegra, added in 2017.
• NATO is based on the principle of Collective Defence
• It has headquarter at Brussels, Belgium.

141. WARSAW Pact

• Official name is ‘Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance’ signed in the
Capital of Poland, Warsaw in 1955.
• Like NATO, it was also a Military Alliance of Socialist Countries.
• The Economic Counterpart of Warsaw Pact was :
- Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon) or (CMEA)
• In 1991 Warsaw Pact was dissolved

142. CENTO

• Central Treaty Organization

• Its original name was, Middle East Treaty Organization or Baghdad Pact.
• It was made in 1955 with Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and UK
• It was dissolved in 1979

143. SEATO

• South East Asian Treaty Organization

• It was established in 1954 under ‘Manila Pact’
•Members were, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, France, United
Kingdom and United States.
• It was dissolved in 1977

144. ANZUS

• It is Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty

• It is a Collective Security Treaty which was formed in 1951.
• It is a military alliance separately between :
- Australia and New Zealand

© Saar Concepts
- Australian and United States of America
• In 1986, New Zealand was Partially Suspended from ANZUS
Cold War Arms Control and Disarmament Treaties

145. Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) 1963

• It was prohibited to conduct Nuclear Test in Atmosphere, Underwater and Outer Space
• China and France did not sign the treaty.

146. Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

•The treaty declared all the countries as legally Nuclear Weapon Country which have
Nuclear test before 1st January 1967.
- These countries were : USA, USSR, UK, France, and China

146. Strategic Arms Limitation Talk (SALT I)

• SALT negotiations started in 1969.

147. Strategic Arms Limitation Talk (SALT II)

• The Negotiations took place between 1972 to 1979

• After the 1979 invasion of Soviet Russia in Afghanistan, The SALT II talks were suspended

148. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I)

• The Negotiations of SALT II was resumed in the form of START I from 1991
• The treaty was signed between George H W Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev in 1991
• Number of Missiles were reduced from 10000 to 6000 by both the sides

149. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II)

• This Treaty was signed in 1993

• The number of Missiles were further reduced to 3000/3500 from 6000 by both sides
© Saar Concepts
Cold War Arms Control and Disarmament Treaties

150. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty – 1996

• The Treaty came for signature in 1996.

• The Treaty proposed to Ban all Nuclear Test in all types of Places.
• The Treat has not yet entered into force

151. New START 2010 (Prague)

• The treaty was signed between USA and Russia in 2010.

• It was ratified in 2011
• The number of Warheads was reduced to 1500.

150. Francis Fukuyama

• In his 1992 book, ‘The End of History’ , Francis Fukuyama argues that :
- With the collapse of USSR, all ideological conflicts have ended.
- Liberal Democracy and Capitalism has emerged as the most acceptable ideology
after the cold war.
- So there is no more ideological conflict.

151. John Mearsheimer

• He has written two important books :

- Back to future
- The Tragedy of Great Power Politics
• He says that during cold war period there was stability because the world was divided into
two power blocs and there was a balance of power.
• In the post cold war world there will be instability and chaos.

152. Robert Kaplan

• His most important book is : ‘The Coming of Anarchy’ (1994)

• He says that the world after cold war is divided into two parts :
- The Rich and Developed Countries :
- Poor and Developing Countries
© Saar Concepts
→ It is these countries which will be a source of chaos.
Post Cold War Theories : Realist Perspective

153. Samuel P Hutington

• His most important book is ‘Clash of Civilization’ (1996)

• According to Hutington :
→ In the post cold war world, the source of conflict will not be ideological
→ The source of conflict will be Civilization and cultural
• Huntington says that there are eight types civilizations that exists on earth :
→ Western
→ Confucian
→ Japanese
→ Islamic
→ Hindu
→ Slavic-Orthodox
→ Latin American
→ African
© Saar Concepts
1 to 20
Key International Relations
Thinkers
Key Thinkers in Realism

01. Raymond Aron

• Best known for his work – ‘Peace and War’ (1968)
• His other important works :
— The Century of Total War
— The Great Debate : Theory of Nuclear Strategy (1965)
— The Imperia Republic : The US and the World

02. Edward Hallett Carr

• Best known for his work – ‘The Twenty Years’ Crisis’ (1939)
— It provided a criticism of Utopian thinking of inter war period
• His very important essay is : ‘What is History ?’
• His other works :
— Conditions of Peace (1942)

03. Robert Gilpin

• Best known for his work in International Political Economy
• His most important works are :
— US Power and the Multinational Corporation (1975)
— War and Change in World Politics (1981)
— The Political Economy of International Relations (1987)

04. John Herz

• His major works are :
— Political Realism and Political Idealism (1951)
→ He tries to find a middle way between Realism and Idealism
— International Politics in the Atomic Age (1959)

05. George Kennan

• In 1947 in the prestigious journal ‘Foreign Affairs’ he wrote an article titles
‘The Source of Soviet Conduct’ under the name ‘Mr. X’
• His most important writing
— Around the cragged Hill : A Personal and Political Philosophy (1997)

06. Henry Kissinger

• He was United States Secretary of States from 1973 to 1977
• His major writings :
— A World Restored (1957)
— Diplomacy (1994)

07. Stephen Krasner

• His important 1976 article ‘State , Power and the structure of the International Trade’
• His major book : ‘Defending the National Interest’ (1978)
• Other important works :
— Structural Conflict : The Third World Against Global Liberalism

08. Hans J. Morgenthau

• His first book : ‘Scientific Man vs Power Politics’ (1946)
• His most important book :
— Politics among Nations (1948)
— In Defense of the National Interest (1951)

09. Susan Strange

• In her book ‘State and Market’ (1998) she talks about four types of structural Power
— The Knowledge Structure : Power to influence ideas of others
— The Finance Structure : Power to influence access to credit
— The Security Structure : Power to influence security prospects
— The Production Structure : Power to influence their better choice as
producer and consumer
• Her most provocative work is ‘ Casino Capitalism’(1986)

10. Kenneth Waltz

• His First book : ‘Man, The State and War’ (1954)
• His most important book : “Theory of International Politics” (1979)

© Saar Concepts
— It is this book which launched structural Realism or Neorealism
Key Thinkers in Liberalism
Key Thinkers in Liberalism

11. Norman Angell

• He is considered as an Idealist Thinker
• Best known for his book : “The Great Illusion” (1912)
— Economic Interdependence among countries have made war irrelevant

12. Charles Beitz

• His most important book : Political Theory and International Relations (1979)
— He tries to integrate political theory and international relations.
— He thinks that Rawls’ principle of Justice can be applied to Global Level

13. Michael Doyle

• His most important book : Ways of War and Peace (1997)

© Saar Concepts
• Doyle has done systematic analysis of Immanuel Kant
— Michael Doyle is associated with Democratic Peace Theory.
Key Thinkers in Liberalism

14. Francis Fukuyama

• His most famous work : ‘End of History and the Last man’ (1992)
— It provided an interpretation of end of cold war
• His second important book :
— Trust : The Social Virtue and Creation of Prosperity

15. David Held

• He is a supporter of Globalization and Proponent of the idea of
— ‘Cosmopolitan Democracy’
• His major works :
— Democracy : From City States to Cosmopolitan Order (1991)
— Cosmopolitan Democracy : An Agenda for a New World (1995)

16. John Hobson

• He is best known for his analysis and critique of Imperialism in the late 19th century
• His major works :
— Imperialism : A Study (1902)
— Towards International Government (1915)
— Democracy and Changing Civilization (1934)

17. Stanley Hoffman

• Three major books on American Foreign Policy
— Gulliver’s Trouble or the setting of American Foreign Policy
— Primacy or World Order (1978)
— Dead Ends (1983)
• His most well known book :

© Saar Concepts
— ‘Duties beyond Borders : On the limits and possibilities of ethical
international Politics’
Key Thinkers in Liberalism

18. Richard Rosecrance

• His most famous book is : The Rise of the Trading States : Commerce and Conquest in
the Modern World
— According to this book countries are no more concerned about
occupying territories
— Trade has replaced territorial expansion and military might
— Balance of Trade has replaced balance of power
• His other important work
— Action and Reaction in World Politics (1963)
— International Relations : Peace and War (1973)

19. Woodrow Wilson

• He is an Idealist and a Liberal Internationalist
•His vision was contained in his 14 Points – a series of principles and proposals – that
he advanced in 1918
• His important works :
— State : element of historical and practical politics (1898)
— Congressional Government (1936)

20. Alfred Zimmeran

• He is also an Idealist thinker
• His most famous book is :
“ The League of Nations and the Rule of the Law” (1936)

21. John Burton

• First Major book : International Relations – A General Theory (1965)
• In his book ‘World Society’ (1972)
— Burton Develops a ‘Cobwebs Model’ of transnational Relations
• World governed by mutual and overlapping cooperation
— This was a criticism of the Realist ‘Billiard Ball Model’ of the world
• State are seen as independent and self contained units
• His other important books :
— System, States, Diplomacy and Rules (1968)
— Global Conflict : The Domestic Source of International crisis (1974)

22. Robert Cox

• Most famous statement : ‘Theory is always foe someone and for some purpose’
• Cox regards himself as a critical theorist
• Critical Theory of International Relations is produced in his book :
— Production, Power and World order : Social forces in making of history (1987)

23. Richard A. Falk

• In the 1960s he began his ongoing involvement with the ‘World Order Model Project’
— The Purpose of the project was to identify ways in which a new world order
can be created
• Major Writings :
— The World Order Models Project and its Critics (1978)
— Human Right and State Sovereignity (1981)

24. Andre Gunder Frank

• He is a leading scholar of dependency theory.
• Dependency Theory was a critique of Modernization theory propounded by
— Walt Rostow : Stages of economic Growth (1960)
• Two most important work :
— Dependent Accumulation and underdevelopment (1978)
— World Accumulation
• The Stages of world capitalist accumulation
— Mercantilism (1500 to 1770)
— Industrial Capitalism (1770 to 1870)
— Imperialism (1870 to 1930)

25. Johan Galtung

• He is a leading figure in the International Peace Research
• He is best known for his analysis of ‘Structural Violence’
• He provides a structural theory of Imperialism
• His major works :
— The True World : A Transnational Perspective (1980)
— There are Alternatives : Four roads to peace and security (1984)

26. Vladimir Lenin

• Major Contribution to IR : His Theory of Imperialism
• Major Works :
— The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1897)
— What is to be done ? (1902)

27. Andrew Linklater

• His two most important work in International Relations
— Men and Citizen in the theory of International Relations (1982)
— Beyond Realism and Marxism : Critical Theory and International Relations (1990)

28. Hedley Bull

• He is the most important thinker of English School Tradition
• His first major book :
— The Anarchical Society (1977)
• His other important publication :
— The Control of Arms Race (1961)

29. Terry Nardin

• His major book is : Law, Morality and Relations of State (1983)
• He tries to apply the ideas of Michael Oakeshott in IR
• He adopts a conservative approach towards International Relations

30. John Vincent

• His Two major books are :
— Non Intervention and International Order (1974)
— Human Rights and International Relations (1986)

31. Michael Walzer

• He is best known for his book : ‘Just and Unjust Wars’ (1977)
• He wants to bring back the Just War Doctrine of Medieval Era
— The Medieval Doctrine tried to define the moral boundaries of war so
that one could distinguish between Just and Unjust war
• He tries to present a modern version of Just War Theory

32. Martin Wight

• One of the leading theorist of ‘English School’
• He wrote very little, most of his work was published after his death
— System and State (1977)
— Power Politics (1978)
— International Theory : Three Traditions (1991)
• Realism – Revolutionism – Rationalism
• In the 1950s, he and an English Historian, Herbert Butterfield set up the
— British Committee on Theory of International Politics

33. Karl W. Deutsch

• He is best known for his concept of ‘Security Community’
— Protect a member from other member countries
— Present a common Military front collectively against an external actor
• He was the pioneer of the study of Cybernetics in International Relations
— The Nerves of the Government (1966)
• Other publications :
— Nationalism and Social Communication (1953)
— Political; Communication at the International Level (1954)
— Nationalism and its Alternatives (1969)

34. Ernst Haas

• Founder of Neo Functionalism
• He has contributed to the field of regional integration.
• His major works are :
— Beyond the Nation State : Functionalism and International Organization(1964)
— When Knowledge is Power (1990)

35. Robert Keohane

• He is seen as founder of ‘Harvard School of Liberal International Theory’
• His most famous book is : ‘Power and Interdependence’ (1977) written with Joseph Nye
— Presents his model of ‘Complex Interdependence’
• Other important book : ‘After Hegemony : Cooperation and Discord in World Politics’ (1984)
— He tries to synthesize Complex Interdependence and Structural Realism

36. David Mitrany

• He is the founder of the approach of ‘Functionalism’
• His major works are :
— The Functional Approach to World Organization (1948)
— The Functional Theory of Politics (1975)

37. John Ruggiee

• He is a critic of Neorealism
• His major works are :
— Antinomies of Interdependence (1983)
— Multilateralism : The anatomy of an Institution (1992)
— Winning the Peace : America and the world order in new era (1997)

38. Alexander Wendt

•He has developed what has been called as ‘Constructivist Approach’ to International
Realations
•His 1987 path breaking article was : ‘The Agent Structure problem in International Relations
theory’
• His other essay : ‘Anarchy is what state make of it’ (1992)

39. Richard Ashley

• The Political Economy of War and Peace (1980)
• The Poverty of Neolrealism (1984)
• The Eye of Power : the Politics of War Modeling (1983)

40. Robert B J Walker

• One World, Many Worlds – Struggle for a Just World Peace (1988)
• Inside / Outside : International Relations as Political Theory (1993)

41. Jean Bethke Elshtain

• Public Man and Private Women (1981)
• Women and War (1987)

42. Cynthia Enloe

• Her most important works in IR :
— Banana, Beaches and Bases (1990)
— The Morning after : Sexual Politics at the end of Cold War

43. J Ann Tickner

• Her approach is called ‘Standpoint Feminism’
• She is best known for her book :

© Saar Concepts
— Gender in International Relations : Feminist Perspective on Achieving Global
Security (1992)
Miscellaneous

44. Anthony Giddens

• He is known for his ‘Structuration Theory’
• His most important works are :
— The Nation State and Violence (1985)
— Power, Property and State
— The Consequence of Modernity (1990)

45. Charles Tilly

• Famous for his 1964 book : ‘The Vendee’
— Traces the origin of rapid and uneven Urbanization in France prior to 1793
• His most important work :
— ‘Big Structure, Large Process, Huge Companion’ (1984)
— ‘Coercion, Capital and European State’ (1990)

46. Michael Mann

• His important work is : The Sauce of Social Power
— He offers four sources of social power : Ideological, Economic, Military and Political
• His other important work is
— State, War and Capitalism

47. Immanuel Wallerstein

• His most famous work : ‘The Modern World System’ (1974)
— He lays the foundation of World System Theory
• Other Works :
— World Inequality (1975)
— The Capitalist World Economy (1979)

48. Benedict Anderson

• His most famous book :
— Imagined Communities : Reflection of the origin and spreads of
Nationalism (1983)
• Other important works : ‘Java in a Time of Revolution’ (1972)

49. Ernest Gellner

• Known for his work on Nationalism
• His best known work is : ‘Legitatmation of Belief (1974)
• Other important works :
— Word and Things (1959)
— Reason and Culture (1992)

50. Anthony D Smith

• Also a theorist of Nationalism
• His major publications are :
— Theories of Nationalism (1972)
— State and Nation in the Third World (1983)
— Nations and Nationalism in the Global Era (1995)
— Nationalism and Modernity (1988)

• Comparative Politics is one of the major sub field of Political Science

• Comparative Politics refers to both :

› A Subject or field of study
› A Method of Study
It is basically learning through comparision.

• Thus Comparative Politics is a combination of :

- Substance : The study of countries and their political system, actors
and process
- Method : Identifying and explaining differences and similarities between cases
following established rules and standards of comparative analysis

• From Institutions to Functions

- Comparative Politics before the second world war was mainly concerned with
the analysis of state and institutions
- Institutions were defined in narrow sense
• Only formal governmental institution were included for analysis
• The type of analysis was also formal
• Main Source of Information : Constitutional texts, legal document,
and jurisprudence
• Focus used to be on the study of one geographical area : mainly west

• From Institutions to Functions

- Reaction against traditional approach came in the form of

‘Behavioral Revolution’
- It shifted the substance of Comparative Politics away from study of
Institutions.
- Scholars started analyzing aspects of politics other than Institutions
• Informal Institutions
• Functions and processes
• Political behavior, Political Culture etc
- Focus shifted to non western and non European World.
- Eg. Development of System Approach, Structural Functional
Approach Political Culture and Political Sociology Approach.

• And Back to Institutions

- The Counter reaction to behavioral revolution and system functionalism

starts precisely in 1967. It involves
• Bringing the State Back in : The shift of substantial focus consists
of a return to primacy of state and its main institutions
- Emergence of New Institutionalism
• Reestablishment of the centrality of institutions and state

• Rational Choice Theory

- At the end of 1980s, another turn took place in comparative politics

strengthening further the place of Institutions
- Rational Choice theory was inspired by developments in the field of economics.

- This theory is based on the idea that Actors (Individuals and Organizations) are
rational and self interested
• They always try to maximize their preferences and satisfaction.
• Eg. Voters know what their best interests are
It is rational for political parties to offer policies that appeal to
large mass of people in order to get more votes.
- According to RCT, there is no need for sociological factors for explanation.
• We need to analyze the effect of Institutions on the behavior of people
© Saar Concepts
• RCT brings back the study of Institutions in comparative politics.
Evolution of Comparative Politics

• Rational Choice Theory

- Important Thinkers :
- In Political Science, Rational Choice Theory was introduced by
• William Riker
› He is also the founder of ‘Rochester School’
- Anthony Downs, Prezeworski

• Comparative Politics did not rely on a specific method. Different methods can be used
depending upon the :
- No. of cases included
- Type of Data the analysis deals with : Qualitative and Quantitative

• Method of Difference and Agreement

- Method of Difference and Agreement was developed by John Stuart Mill
in his book : ‘A System of Logic’ (1843)

• The method of Difference

- Here we explain similarities among cases that are very different from each
other.
- This is also called ‘Most Similar System Design.’ (MSSD)

• Method of Agreement.
- Here we explain differences among cases that are otherwise similar from
each other.
- It is also called, ‘Most Different System Design’

Comparative Politics

Traditional Started becoming irrelevant

Approach in 1950s

• It was historical, legalistic, descriptive and explanatory

• It was confined to the study of Western Government
and Western Political Institutions

Comparative Politics

Three main approaches of study of Comparative Politics

from 1950s onwards

1. Behavioral Approach
2. Political Culture Approach
3. System Approach
• David Easton’s System Approach
• Structural Functionalism
• Cybernetics

System

A set of interrelated Entities among which there exists an

identifiable relation

System

Social System

Entities Individuals, Families, Institutions

Relations among them

Communication Channel, Influence,

Obligations

•The original idea of system analysis came from biology

and then adopted by social scientists
- Biologist Ludwig Van Bertalanfy was the first to
develop system approach.

Purpose of a System To maintain its Survival and Existence

Living System

Social System
© Saar Concepts
System Approach

It is self-contained

It has observable boundaries

It is distinct from its environment

System

System are subject to external influence

These influences are called Inputs and Outputs

• Leading Social Scientists who pioneered the system analysis in Political Science
- David Easton : ‘A System Analysis of Political Life’ (1965)
- Gabriel Almond : Comparative Politics – A Developmental Appraoch
- David Apter : Introduction to Political Analysis (1978)
- Karl Deutsch : Nation and World (1967)
- Harold Laswell : Power and Society (1930)

• Different types of systems as identified by Political Scientists :

- Almond :
• Primitive
• Traditional
• Transitional
• Modern
- Coleman
• Competitive System
• Semi Competitive
• Authoritarian
› Dictatorial System
› Oligarchichal
› Representational
© Saar Concepts
System Approach

• Different types of systems as identified by Political Scientists :

- Eisenstadt :
• Primitive
• Patrimonial
• Feudal
• Bureaucratic
• Democratic
• Autocratic
• Totalitarian
• Underdeveloped System

• Different types of systems as identified by Political Scientists :

- Edward Shills
• Political Democracies
• Titular Democracies
• Modernizing Oligarchy
• Totalitarian Oligarchies
• Traditional Democracies

System

Political System

Entities Institutions, Politicians, Leaders

Interrelationship exists among

them

Communication Channel, Influence,

Obligations

David Easton

Political System distinct from all other system because it is

concerned with

Authoritative Allocation of values in society

• Values : Resources
• Allocation : Distribution
• Authoritative : Decisions Backed by authority and force

David Easton

For a Political System to survive

It must be able to perform two functions always

Taking Decisions and It must be able to allocate values to

issuing command society

Get decisions
It must be able to get all members of
implemented and
command obeyed © Saar Co ncepts
society accept those value
System Approach

David Easton

To ensure the survival of a Political System

We have to control the impacts of influences on the system

David Easton Political System is influenced by

Inputs Outputs

Decisions and
Demands Support
actions of the
authorities
Eg Expression of Eg. Paying taxes and
opinion or call for obeying rules of the These outputs
decisions government influence the inputs

Input Political System Output

Feedback

• According Easton, all Political Systems perform these five functions :

1. Legislation
2. Administration
3. Adjudication
4. Development of Demand
5. Development of Support a nd solidarity
© Saar Concepts
Structural
Functionalism
Structural Functionalism

1950s – 1960s
Many former Colonies got Independence

A large number of new states appeared in

the political arena
Traditional method was
Existing approach of Comparative Politics
restricted to the comparison
was inadequate to study these
of Institutions that were
Non Western States
found in western societies

Structural Functional Approach was

and pre-industrial societies pts
© Saar Conce
developed to study these non-western
Structural Functionalism

Structural Functional Approach

First Developed in Biology Charles Darwin

Anthropology Malinowski and Radcliff Brown

Sociology Talcott Parson, Robert Merton

• Gabriel Almond and Coleman

‘The Politics of Developing Areas’ (1960)
Political Science • Gabriel Almond and Powell
‘Comparative Politics : Developmental
© Saar Concepts
Approach’ (1966)
Structural Functionalism

Almond and Coleman

A set of functions has to be performed in all

societies no matter hoe complex or simple,
industrialized or agrarian the society is

All Political system perform similar functions but

they develop different structures for performing
these similar functions

Comparison on the basis of Comparing dissimilar Political

structures Structures become difficult

Comparing a Tribal Chief from Africa

and a PM from Europe

Comparison on the basis of Comparing similar political functions

Functions become easy

7 Similar functions of all Political System

1. Political Socialization

2. Interest Articulation
Input Functions
3. Interest Aggregation

4. Political Communication
Feedback

5. Rule Making

6. Rule Application Output Functions

7. Rule Adjudication
© Saar Concepts
Structural Functionalism : Almond and Coleman

4 Similar Properties of all Political System

1. All Political Systems, even the simplest have political

structures
2. The same functions are performed in all Political Systems
3. All Political Structure is multifunctional whether in primitive
or modern societies
4. All Political systems are mixed systems in cultural sense. No
society is strictly modern or completely primitive

Institutionalism

A General approach in Political

Science

That focuses on the study of Subject Matter

Institutions of Study

Institutions are formal organizations governed

by written laws or rules . Eg : Parliament,
Executive, Judiciary, etc

Method of Study

• Inductive method :
- Observation followed by description

• Legal method :
- Study of legal document like Constitution

• Historical method :
- Explain historical development of Institutions

• Comparative method :
- Identify similarity and difference between and among Institutions

Features

• Study of Institutions is the central purpose of Political Science in General and

Comparative Politics in particular

• It assumes that positions within institutions matter more than people who occupy
those posts.
- Study of the Office of President rather than Presidents
- Study of legislature rather than legislators
- Study of Judiciary rather than Judges
• Institutional analysis can be static
• Ethnocentricism :
- Major works within this approach concern with government and
Institutions of west
© Saar Concepts
- Liberal democracy is the form of government that every country should adopt
Institutionalism

Historical Overview

• Institutional approach is also called Traditionalist approach

• From 1930s to 1950s, Institutional approach was the dominant approach in Political
Science

• Its history goes back to ancient times

- Aristotle studied the constitutions of 158 Greek City States

• Machiaveli’s ‘The Prince’ (1532)

Montesque’s ‘The Spirit of Laws’ (1748)
Tocqueville’s two volume ‘Democracy in America’ (1835)
Bagehot’s ‘ The English Constitution’ (1867)
© Saar Concepts
Institutionalism

Historical Overview

• Contributions of Bryce, Lowell and Ostrogorski is considered most important.

- Jean Blondel ‘Bryce and Lowell were in fact the true founder of comparative
government’
• Significant works of Bryce
- The American Commonwealth (1888)
- Modern Democracies (1921)
• Significant works of Lowell
- Government and Parties in Continental Europe (1896)
- Public Opinion and Popular Government (1913)
• Significant works of Ostrogorski
- Democracy and the organization of Political Parties (1902)

Criticism

• In his work, ‘The Political System’ (1953) – David Easton made a strong aatck against
Institutionalism calling it ‘mere factualism’ and ‘hyperfactualism’

• In the 1960s, Roy Macridis described the Orientation of Institutional Approach as

‘Non – Comparative’ , ‘Parochial’ , ‘Monographic’ , and ‘Descriptive’

• Contemporary thinkers who criticize Institutionalism

- Herman Finer ‘Theory and Practice of Modern Government’ (1932)
- Carl Friedrich ‘Constitutional Government and Democracy’ (1932)

1930s to 1950s Old Institutionalism

1960s to 1970s Behavioral Revolution

Focus Shifted to
Political Scientists began to move away from focusing on
Political Process and
Political Institutions
Political Actors

In the mid 1980s many Political Scientists began to

question whether we should ignore Political Institutions

James G. March Founders of New

Johan P. Oslon Institutionalism

• New Institutionalism : Organizational factor in Political life (1984)

Old Institutionalism Study of Formal Institutions only

New Institutionalism Study of Formal and Informal Institutions both

• It adopts a broader concept of institutions that

include norms, habits, culture, customs alongside
formal rules and procedures
• It pays more attention to the ways in which
individuals both affect and are affected by
Institutions.

• Hall and Taylor (1996) argues that there are at least three branches of New
Institutionalism
1. Rational Choice Institutionalism
2. Sociological or Cultural Institutionalism
3. Historical Institutionalism

Rational Choice Institutionalism

• The root of Rational Choice Institutionalism is in economic analysis

• Institutions are needed in society in order to control and regulate the behavior of
self interested rational individuals
- Rational People act to maximize their satisfaction
- If breaking an agreement will serve people’s interest, then rational
people are likely to that decision.
- If every one starts taking such decisions then it will create problem for
society
- So in order to avoid such behaviors we need institutions in society.

• Institutions are set of rules and procedure that structure the choices and behavior
of people.
© Saar Concepts
New Institutionalism

Rational Choice Institutionalism

• Proponents of Rational Choice Institutionalism

- George Tsebelis : ‘Veto Power- How Political Institutions Works’ (2002)
- Barry Weingast : ‘Rational Choice Institutionalism’ (2002)
- Margret Levi : ‘Of Rule and Revenue’

Sociological Institutionalism

• Sociological Institutionalism has its roots in Sociology and Anthropology

• Sociological Institutionalism focuses on the informal aspect of organization rather

than formal ones.

• It defines institutions primarily by reference to norms, culture and tradition

• Institutional rules, norms and structure are culturally created

• Culture, norms and tradition play an important role in the development of

institutions in society.

Sociological Institutionalism

• Proponents :
- WW Powell and PJ Dimaggio ‘The new Institutionalism in
organizational analysis’

Historical Institutionalism

• It is the hardest of the three branches to define because it includes so many

different scholars and so many different methodological approach

• General Features of Historical Institutionalism

- It includes formal and informal organization both.
- Here focus is on studying the historical development of institutions
in society
• Path Dependencies : How past developments and changes affect
the future prospect of an Institutions
• Proponents
- Samuel P Huntington : ‘Political Order in changing societies’ (1968)
- Barrington More : ‘Social Origin of Dictatorship and Democracy’ (1966)
© Saar Concepts
- Theda Scocpol : ‘State and Social Revolutions’ (1979)
Political Economy
Approach - 1
Political Economy Approach

• The term ‘Political Economy’ implies that the disciplinary separation of ‘Politics’ from
‘Economics’ is ultimately unsustainable.
- Political factors are crucial in determining economic outcomes.
- Economic factors are crucial in determining political outcomes.

• The Political Economy approach to the study of comparative politics proposes that
there exists a relationship between politics and economics and there are several ways
in which we can observe this relationship.

• Political Economy approach has a long and respectable history :

- Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776)
- David Ricardo’s Principle of Political Economy and Taxation (1817)
- Karl Marx’s Economic and Philosophical Manuscript (1844)
- J S Mill’s Principles of Political Economy (1848)
© Saar Concepts
Political Economy Approach

• Three types of Political Economy Approach

- State Centric Political Economy
- Classical and Neoclassical Political Economy
- Marxist Political Economy

National Power and

Mercantilism Economic Nationalism
National Interest

Modern time it is expressed

Expressed in amount of Gold
in Foreign Exchange Reserve National Wealth
Reserve with a country
and GDP

By Exporting more
Goal is to increase it
And Importing Less
Protectionism

© Saar Concepts
Protecting domestic industries from foreign competition by giving then
preferential treatment
Political Economy Approach

• Adam Smith : Provided critique of Mercantilism

• David Ricardo : Gave labor theory of value

Classical Political Economy Political Dimension Laissez Faire Economic Policy

Economic Dimension Minimum Government

Interference and regulation

Rational, Self Interested and Individuals are Key They should be left free to
Utility Maximize Economic Actors compete in the market place

In the long run it will bring Market will regulate itself

benefit and economic through the law of demand

Neo Classical Political

Economy

• Neo Classical Political Economy developed from

late 19th century onwards
• It was the revival of the ideas of classical
political economy

Marxist Political Economy It is a System of Class Exploitation

It represents both an Economic System and a

Capitalism
Political System

Owner of Means of Have Economic and Political Power :

Capitalist Class
Production They are the Ruling Class

Working Class Property less class Just Owner of their Labor

Surplus There is difference between Value With this labor they produce
Value of Product and Wage of Worker products for Capitalists

Political Economy Approach

• How different economic system affect political

arrangement ?
• How political decision making affects economic
system ?

Two Rival Economic System

• Capitalism :
- Economic life based on private ownership
free market principles
• Socialism :
- Economic life based on collective ownership
© Saar Concepts
and organized through centralized planning
Political Economy Approach

Types of Capitalism

• Enterprise Capitalism
- It is widely seen as closer to pure Capitalist System
(found mainly in USA and UK)
- It is based on ideas of classical economists like Adam Smith and
David Ricardo
• Applied by modern theorists like Milton Friedman and Friedrich
Von Hayek
- It believes that Market is a self regulating mechanism so there should be
no government interference and regulation of Market
- This system is based on minimum public ownership and minimum welfare
and social security provision by the government.
Political Economy Approach

Types of Capitalism

• Social Capitalism
- This form of capitalism has developed in Central and Western European
Countries
• Germany, Austria, Sweden, France and other Scandinavian countries
- It is based on the ideas of economists like ‘Friedrich List’
• Friedrich List was a German Economist.
• His book : ‘The National System of Political Economy’ (1846)
- There should be state intervention in the market, like for
protecting domestic industries from foreign competition
- It combines market competition with the need to take care of the weak,
disabled and poor of the society.
• This system has comprehensive and well founded Social Welfare
programs and social security schemes.
Political Economy Approach

Types of Capitalism

• State Capitalism
- Capitalist Economy in which State play a crucial directive role.
- Market is coordinated and guided by the State
• State play a vital role in guiding investment, research and trading
decisions.
- It was seen in post 1945 Japan, East Asian Tigers – Hong Kong, South Korea,
Taiwan, Singapore, Chinese Economic model, Russian Capitalism
Political Economy Approach

Types of Capitalism

• Managed and Unmanaged Capitalism

- Managed Capitalism
• John Maynard Keynes
‘The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money’ (1936)
• He rejected the idea that market is self regulatory in nature
• Capitalist Economies face depression because of decline in Overall
demand of the economy.
• Government should intervene in the economy during Depressions
and should try to create demand by :
- Increasing Public Expenditure
- Reducing various taxes
Political Economy Approach

Types of Capitalism

• Managed and Unmanaged Capitalism

- Unmanaged Capitalism
• It is based on the economic philosophy of neoliberalism
• Influenced by the works of Frederick Von Hayek and Milton
Friedman
• There should be minimum interference of Government in the
economy
• Government should just try to keep the inflation as low as possible
- This is called the Policy of ‘Monetarism’
- The theory of ‘Monetarism’ was developed by
Milton Friedman
Political Economy Approach

Types of Socialism

• State Socialism
- Throughout the 20th century, State Capitalism was an important alternative
of Capitalism
• After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, Russia became the first
society to adopt socialist model of economic organization.
• This model was fully developed during the time of Stalin
- It is based on two important principles :
• State Collectivization : all economic resources brought under the
control of state
• Centralized Planning : All economic activities planned through
State.
First Five Year Plan started by USSR in 1928
Political Economy Approach

Types of Socialism

• Market Socialism
- It is an alternative to the heavily centralized Soviet Economic Model.
• Economic Resources are controlled by the State but some
amount of Private ownership is allowed.
• Along with collective ownership, market competition is also
allowed.
- This model was first used by Lenin when he launched his
‘New Economic Policy’ (NEP) in 1921
- It was also used in former Yugoslavia by Jospeh Tito, later in Hungary,
Poland, and other eastern European Countries.
- Mikhail Gorbachev program for economic restructuring called ‘Perestroika’
was also based on this model.
Political Economy Approach

Types of Socialism

• Green Economics
- Capitalism and Socialism have similar goal of achieving Industrialization.
- They are alternate ways of exploiting the nature.
- Obsession with economic growth has led to environmental destruction.
- Development should be on the basis of sustainability.
- Our economic model should be based on Sustainable Development.
• Proponent : G F Schumacher
- He gives the concept of ‘Buddhist Economics’
Political Culture
Political Culture

Political System

Members of
Citizens
Political System
What they think about the
Political System ?

Their attitude, their belief and

their behavior towards the
Political System

These psychological orientations

Political Culture
© Saar Concepts
of citizens are called
Political Culture Developed through a long
and continuous process of
Socialization
Political Culture

Deep held psychological Attitudes, beliefs and values

orientations of Individual Citizen

Towards their Political

System or Government

These Attitudes, beliefs and

With this we can compare cultures of various
values of Individual Citizen
countries and explain their similarities and
can be measured across
differences
© Saar Concepts different cultures
Political Culture

• Theorizing about Culture and Politics have a long history

- Montesquieu’s Persian Letters (1721)
- Tocqueville’s Democracy in America (1835)
- Max Weber’s Economy and Society (1922)

- First Systematic Work on Political Culture :

• Almond and Verba’s ‘The Civic Culture’ (1963)
- This work was followed by many other publications :
• Pye and Verba’s ‘Political Culture and Political Development’ (1965)
• Almond and Verba’s edited volume
‘The Civic Culture Revisited’ (1980)
• Robert Putnam’s : ‘Making Democracy Work’ (1993)
‘Bowling Alone’ (2000)

Sydney Verba and Gabriel Almond

The Civic Culture : Political Attitude and

Democracies in Five Nations (1963)
It was the result of a Research done in
five countries :
The work established a framework by
USA, UK, Germany, Italy and Mexico
which different political cultures across
different countries can be systematically
compared. The goal of the research was to find out
why democracy survived in some
countries (US, UK) and collapsed in
others (Germany, Italy, Mexico)
© Saar Concepts
Political Culture

Almond and Verba’s definition of

Political Culture

‘a set of specifically political orientations-attitudes towards

the Political System and its parts and attitude towards the role
of self in the political system.

Political Culture

Orientation of People Towards Political Objects

• Cognitive Orientation • Political System as whole

• Affective Orientation • Input
•
© Saar Concepts
Evaluative Orientation •
•
Output
Self
Political Culture

• Types of Orientations :
- Cognitive Orientation
• It refers to the level of Knowledge and Awareness about the
political system and its input and output aspect
- Affective Orientation
• It refers to the feeling of attachment or alienation that people have
towards their political system
- Evaluative Orientation
• It refers to the opinion and judgment of people as to whether the
political system is good or bad.

• Types of Political Objects

- Political System : Constitutions, Government and its organs
- Input : Interest Groups and Political Parties
- Output : Policy enforcement and policy implementation mechanism
- Self : How the individual see himself or herself as member of political
system

Almond and Verba’s definition of

Political Culture

‘a set of specifically political orientations-attitudes towards

the Political System and its parts and attitude towards the role
of self in the political system.

Political Culture

Orientation of People Towards Political Objects

• Cognitive Orientation • Political System as whole

• Affective Orientation • Input
•
© Saar Concepts
Evaluative Orientation •
•
Output
Self
Political Culture

Almond and Verba’s Classification of

Political Culture

Pure or Ideal Types

1. Parochial Political Culture

2. Subject Political Culture
3. Participant Political Culture

• Parochial Political Culture

- Absence of Cognitive Orientation, Affective Orientation and Evaluative
orientation about the Political Objects

• Parochial Political Culture

- Absence of Cognitive Orientation, Affective Orientation and Evaluative
orientation about the Political Objects

Political Objects

Political System Output Input Self

No Orientation No Orientation No Orientation No Orientation

• Parochial Political Culture

- Absence of Cognitive Orientation, Affective Orientation and Evaluative
orientation about the Political Objects
- People know very little or nothing about the political system, its parts and its
process
- People do not believe that should participate in political activities nor do
they have any expectations from government.
- People live a traditional life, attached to their traditional groups like tribe,
caste, and follow traditional values.

• Subject Political Culture

Political Objects

Political System Output Input Self

Cognitive Cognitive

Affective Affective

Evaluative Evaluative © Saar Concepts

Political Culture

• Subject Political Culture

- Presence of Cognitive, affective and evaluative orientation towards Political
system and output aspect of political system
- Absence of these orientations towards Input aspect of Political system and
self
- People are aware of political system and something about how it operates
but primarily see themselves as subject of the authority
- They are positively oriented towards the output process of the Political
System but not towards the input process and self

• Participant Political Culture

Political Objects

Political System Output Input Self

Cognitive Cognitive Cognitive Cognitive

Affective Affective Affective Affective

Evaluative Evaluative
© Saar Concepts
Evaluative Evaluative
Political Culture

• Participant Political Culture

- Presence of Cognitive orientation, affective orientation and evaluative
orientation towards all four categories of Political objects i.e Political System,
Input aspect of political system, output aspect and self.
- Individuals know a great deal about the political culture
- They believe that they have important role to play in the Political System
- They actively participate in all political activities.
- They always try to keep pressure over the government through protests and
demonstrations.

Almond and Verba’s Classification of

Political Culture

Mixed Types

1. Parochial-Subject Culture
2. Subject-Participant Culture
3. Parochial-Participant Culture
4. Civic Culture

• Parochial Subject Culture

- Most of the members of the political system are parochial in orientation
- A portion of population have subject orientation.
- Found in Middle Ages : Ottoman Empire etc

• Subject Participant Culture

- Most of the people have subject orientation towards the political system
- A part of the population become aware of their rights and start
participating in political activities
- Found in France, Germany and Italy in 19th century

• Parochial Participant Culture

- Majority of the population retain strong parochial orientation.
• They have loyalty towards their tribe, their ethnic group, their
language, culture, tradition and religion.
- Participatory mechanism like Elections, Voting rights and Universal Adult
Franchise are imposed from above.
- Found in Asian, African and Latin American countries which were under
some colonial power.
• These colonial powers introduced Participatory mechanisms in
these countries before leaving the country.

• Civic Culture
- It represents a harmonious synthesis of Parochial, Subject and Participant
orientations in most of the citizens.
• Citizens actively participate in Political Activity
• But Citizen also respect the authority of the Government and follow
its commands without questioning
• When required, Citizens also show respect towards their traditional
attachments, like cultural values, tradition, religion etc.
- It is also called ‘Allegiant Participant’ culture.

• Critics have argued that Civic Culture emphasize more on Stability and less on
Political Participation.
• In response to this, Almond and Verba gives ‘Sleeping Dog Theory’
- Low Participation shows that people are satisfied with the
© Saar Concepts
work of the government.
Political Culture

Political culture

• Daniel Elazar’s classification of Political Culture

• Samuel Finer’s Classification of Political Culture
• Robert Punam’s Concept of Social Capital
• Ronald Inglehart’s Concept of Postmaterialism

Daniel Elazar’s Classification of Political Culture

• Daniel Elazer identifies three types of Political Culture than exists in United States
1. Moral Political Culrure
- Social concerns are held to be more important than individuals
- Values are assigned to groups and individuals
- Government is seen as a positive force. It is expected to perform many
welfare functions for public.

2. Individual Political Culture

- Individual and his liberty is more important than the community
- Government is seen as an impediment to the liberty of an individual.
- Government does not have expansive role. It is limited to providing

Daniel Elazar’s Classification of Political Culture

• Daniel Elazer identifies three types of Political Culture than exists in United States
3. Traditional Political Culture
- Social and family ties are prominent and there is emphasis on
traditional values
- Government is seen as having positive role in maintaining traditional
order in the society.

Samuel Finer’s Classification of Political Culture

1. Mature Political Culture

- There is widespread approval for the political structure established in a
country.
- People are attached to the political institution and there is a well mobilized
public opinion

2. Developed Political Culture

- Civil Institutions are highly developed
- Public is well organized into powerful groups.

3. Low Political Culture

© Saar Concepts
- Political System is weakly and narrowly organized
- There is lack of support for the Political Institutions among people.
Political Culture

Samuel Finer’s Classification of Political Culture

4. Minimal Political Culture

- Here people have no power or right against government.
- Government is authoritarian and rule by force.
- Public Interest is not important, Government can easily ignore the interest of
of the people.

Robert Putnam’s concept of Social Capital

• Social Capital
- It refers to relationship among human being and social network.
- It depends on one’s social network, one's social connections and one’s
membership to various groups in society.

• ‘Making Democracy Work : Civic Tradition in Modern Italy’ (1993)

- Robert Putnam tries to examine the difference in the level of development in
in Northern Italy and Southern Italy.
- He argued that it was the tradition of civic association in northern Italy that
had helped it become prosperous and democratic than south

Robert Putnam’s concept of Social Capital

• Bowling Alone : The Collapse and revival of American Community (2000)

- Robert Putnam argued that the Social Capital has declined in the
United States.
- American tendency to form citizen group was weakening and Americans
were less focused in joining groups and participating in politics

Ronald Inglehart’s Concept of Postmaterialism

• The arguments of Postmaterialism is found in two of the most important works of

Ronald Inglehart :-
- The Silent Revolution (1977)
- Cultural Shift in advanced industrial societies (1990)

• One of his major contribution to the study of political culture was the idea of
Postmaterialism
- Inglehart argues that Individual pursue goals in hierarchical order.
- First they fulfill their material needs and then they move towards
satisfying higher Non material needs.

Ronald Inglehart’s Concept of Postmaterialism

• Societies in West are economically developed and have acquired greater wealth.
- These societies are moving away from material needs to the fulfillment
of non material needs.
- This shift from material needs to non material needs is also bringing
changes in the values of people.
- This change in cultural values due to shift towards non material needs is
called ‘Postmaterialism’

Political Systems

Democratic Regimes Non Democratic Regimes

Government is elected Government is not

and is responsible to the elected and is not
people responsible to people

It is governance or rule
by other means than
© Saar Concepts democracy
Non Democratic Regimes

Historical Overview

• Monarchy
- Most prevalent form of nondemocratic regime in history
- Before the arrival of representative democracy, most political system in
Europe and elsewhere have followed monarchy

• Military Regimes
- This form of non democratic regime first emerged in 19th century mainly in
Latin American Countries.
- In 20th century it spread to Asia and Africa
- By 1960s Military Dictatorship had become common

Historical Overview

• Communist Regime
- It emerged in the beginning of 20th century.
- It was based on the dictatorship of one single Communist Party.
- It was first adopted after 1917 October Revolution in Russia.
• In Russia it achieved its most extreme form under the rule of
Stalin
- In mid and late 20th century it then spread to other parts of world like China,
Cuba, North Korea

Historical Overview

• Fascist Regimes
- It emerged in the 1920s and 1930s in Italy and Germany.
- It included the Fascist Regime of Mussolini in Italy and Nazi Regime of Hitler
in Germany.

Types of Non Democratic Regimes

Totalitarianism

Authoritarianism

Military Regimes

Totalitarianism

• Notion of totalitarian rule is used to describe :-

- Communist Regime in the Soviet Union that evolved into Stalin’s Personal
Dictatorship
- Fascist Regime in Italy under Mussolini’s Rule
- Nazi Regime of Hitler in Germany

• Totalitarian rule include complete control over the individual and each and every
aspect of the life of the individual.

• Hannah Arendt in her book : ‘The Origin of Totalitarianism’ (1951)

- She depicted Totalitarianism as a new and extreme form of Dictatorship
- It includes the permanent domination of individual through ideology and
thought control
© Saar Concepts
Non Democratic Regimes

Totalitarianism

• Friedrich and Brezezinski’s : ‘Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy’ (1956)

- They presents six features or characteristics of a Totalitarian Dictatorship
- These are also called ‘Six Point Syndrome’
• An Ideology
• A Single Party typically led by one single person
• A terroristic Police
• A communication monopoly
• Weapon Monopoly
• A Centrally Directed Economy

Authoritarianism

• It is a non democratic and non totalitarian rule that does not seek such a high level of
control and so does not have to use such extreme methods of totalitarianism.

• Linz points four features of an Authoritarian Regime

- Presence of limited Political Pluralism
- Absence of elaborate and guiding ideology
- Absence of intensive and extensive mobilization
- A leader or group exercises power within formally ill-defined limits.

Bureaucratic Authoritarianism

• Bureaucratic Authoritarianism is form of authoritarianism which include the rule by

an alliance of :-
- Military Leaders
- Civilian Technocrats or Bureaucrats ( mainly Economic Policy Experts)
- Leading Business Sectors
This alliance is also called ‘Coup Coalition’

• These people come together to rule the country in order to ensure that the
Industrialization process and Economic Development do not face any Popular
Agitation or revolts from general public.

Bureaucratic Authoritarianism

• The term Bureaucratic Authoritarianism was coined by Guillermo O’Donnel

• Guillermo O’Donnel in his book : ‘Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism’
(1973) talks about three types Authoritarianism
- Traditional Authoritarianism
- Populist Authoritarianism
- Bureaucratic Authoritarianism

• He considered Bureaucratic Authoritarianism to be the most modernized form of

authoritarianism.
• He developed his theory of Bureaucratic Authoritarianism by taking example from
Military Regimes in two Latin American Countries
- Brazil (1964)
- Argentina (1966)
© Saar Concepts
Non Democratic Regimes

Military Regimes

• Military Regimes is a form of non democratic rule where Military is in control of the
government of a country either directly or indirectly.
- Generally Army is in the control of government in case of Military
Regimes.

• The most important theoretical work on Military regime was done by Samuel Finer.
• Samuel Finer’s book - The Man on Horseback : The role Military in Politics (1962)
- Samuel Finer divides Military Regimes into five types and he further
groups these five types into 3 Categories.

Types Military Regimes by

Finer
Direct Rule
Two Direct Type
Quasi Civilianized Direct Rule

One Dual Type Dictator head of Civilian Govt. and Military

Indirect Complete
Two Indirect type

To be born into a group with common

Nation culture, common religion, common
language, common history and a common
homeland and common ancestor.
Nationalism

An abstract notion that human society is divided into nations

A sense of belonging to a given national group

A Political ideology which holds that national communities

should have their homeland and should be able to govern
© Saar Concepts
themselves
Nationalism

The debate about

nation

Whether Nations are natural, ancient and timeless human groups

that have always existed ?

Whether the category of Nation as a human group is modern

creation

Nations are product of

Nations have always existed
natural historical evolution

Cultural Nationalism
Nation
Political Nationalism

Nations are created by

Nations are Modern Creations
Nationalists

First comes Nationalists Then Nations

• Proponent : Johan Gottfried Herder and Fichte

• Cultural Nationalism involves five basic arguments

- Nations are natural human groupings

- Nations have existed in the past and they will continue to exist in future
- Nations are Organic Communities because they are a result of historical
evolution
- Members of a national group share a common culture, common religion
common language, common history and a common descent (ancestor)
- Cultural nations are exclusive groups, membership to these communities
limited to people belonging to same cultural group.
• People can not learn a culture, they can only be born in a culture.

• Majority of Scholars challenge and reject the cultural notion of Nation

• According to contemporary scholars, Nations are modern creations and are created
entirely by nationalist leaders at a particular time in history through various strategies

• Ernest Gellner :
- His Book : ‘Nation and Nationalism’ (1983)
- He suggests that nations were created by the immediate needs of
Industrial Revolution
- In the age of rapid industrialization and urbanization it was required
that people from different rural background be resocialized to live in
cities
- Nationalism required that people speak the same language, follow

• Eric Hobswan
- He opposed the idea that nations were basically ethic groups formed
throughput human history.
- Nations were artificially created by nationalism
• He called nations as ‘Invented Traditions’

• Benedict Anderson
- His book : ‘Imagined Communities’ (1983)
- He also regarded Nations to be artificial creation.
- He called nations to be ‘Imagined Communities’
• Nations exist more as a mental image than as a genuine communities
that require a level of face to face interaction with other member of
community.

• Friedrich Meinecke
- Friedrich Meinecke is a German Historian, he has given two important
concepts :
• Culturenation
• State nation
- Culture Nation
• A group of people who are culturally similar.
• When such a cultural group starts ruling itself by establishing a Govt.
and a State then what we get is a ‘Nation State’
• In this case first a national group arises, and then this national
group is turned into ‘Nation state’
• Eg. Germans, Irish, Greeks, Russians, English

• Friedrich Meinecke
- Friedrich Meinecke is a German Historian, he has given two important
concepts :
• Culturenation
• State nation
- State Nation
• State nation is a nation constructed by State.
• State Nation is formed not on the basis of cultural identity.
› In a multicultural society it is hard to build nation on the basis
shared cultural identity.
• Here identity of people is defined in Political Sense.
› What is common among all is their Citizenship.
› So national identities can be created on the basis of Political

• Friedrich Meinecke
- Friedrich Meinecke is a German Historian, he has given two important
concepts :
• Culturenation
• State nation
- State Nation
• State nation is an example of Political nation
• The idea of Political Nations was first conceptualized by Rousseau in
concept of ‘General Will’
• JJ Rousseau is seen as the father of modern nationalism.
- Best example of a Political Nation
• USA : USA is a multi cultural and multi ethnic group were
nationalism is defined in terms of common US citizenship.

© Saar Concepts
USA is based on ‘Melting Pot’ model were people from
different background come and assimilate
Types of Nationalism

• Type of Nationalism
- Liberal Nationalism and Expansionist nationalism (European nationalism)
- Anti Colonial Nationalism (Non European Nationalism)

• Liberal Nationalism
- All human beings are naturally divided into nations that possess a separate
and unique identity
- The value and importance of all the national group is same.
• No national group is superior or inferior to other.
• There should harmony and unity among nations and not conflict
• Leader of Italian Unification Giuseppe Mazzini calls for a
“Sisterhood of Nations”
- All the nations have a right to national self determination

- Proponents : Bolinbroke, Rousseau, Herder, Fichte and Mazzini

Contemporary Thinkers : David Miller

• Expansionist Nationalism
- This type of nationalism has aggressive character coupled with the intentions
to extend its territory
- Nationalist governments pursue policies of expansion for two reasons :
• Historical enmity with any country
• Claims that the existing territory that a nation has is too small for it
and so it needs to expand.
› This argument was used by Germany and Japan before WW 2
› Hitler called his quest for new territory : ‘Lebensraum’ which
means living space
- Expansionist nationalism emphasizes the importance of nation over individual
- Other nation is treated as an enemy and a threat. And this threat of other
nation is used to unite people : This is called ‘Negative Integration’
- Expansionist Nationalism is also called ‘Integral Nationalism’
© Saar Concepts
• The term ‘Integral Nationalism’ was coined by Charles Maurras
Types of Nationalism

• Anti Colonial or Non European Nationalism

- Nation and Nationalism is basically a European idea.
- The idea of Nationalism spread to other parts of the world through colonial
expansion
- Early form of anti colonial struggle was based on one idea of classical European
nationalism :
• The idea that each nation has right to self determination

- Later on Non European nationalism developed two unique features

• National Identities were neither defined in cultural or political terms.
National Identities were based on anti-colonial struggle. People united
against the foreign rule.
• Nationalism was combined with the ideology of Socialism and
Marxism. These ideologies provided an explanation for economic
© Saar Concepts
exploitation and a model for future economic growth
Types of Nationalism

• Anti Colonial or Non European Nationalism

- Non European Nationalism in Asian and African countries after independence

from colonial rule again followed European Model
• Leaders tried to create national identity on cultural lines.
• History was re written, national language was introduced,
national education system was also introduced to carry further the
process of socialization.

• But difference in ethnic and Political identities generated tensions

within the nation and from time to time led to conflicts.

• 3 Forms of nationalism by Benedict Anderson

1. Creole Nationalism
• Nationalism of the settler population from old country.
• USA, States in Latin America, Present example Quebec in Canada
2. Official Nationalism
• Term coined by Seton Watson
• It is the nationalism launched from above
• UK trying to Anglicize Ireland, or German trying to Germanify Poland
3. Linguistic Nationalism
• Each nation is marked by its own language.
• Originated in 19th century Europe

Democratic Political System Elections

Votes are translated into seats People cast their Votes

The rules and procedures governing the whole process of transformation

of people’s votes into seats is referred to as Electoral System

Majoritarian rule Proportional Representation

Plurality system Absolute Majority Single Constituency

First Past the Post Alternative Vote (AV) Highest Average Method
System (FPTP)
Two Round System (TRS) Largest Remainder Method

Single Transferable Vote

(STV)

Majoritarian rule Proportional Representation Additional Member System or

Mixed Member Proportional
System

© Saar Concepts
Some time called ‘Manufactured
Electoral System Majority’ or ‘Relative Majority’
It is not majority of Votes
Plurality System
Winning a Seat requires Plurality of Votes

Also called FPTP : Highest number of votes

Adopted in countries like
First Past the Post among all competing
USA, UK,Canada and India
System candidates

It is based on ‘Winner
takes it all’ Approach
• Example : In an Election
- Total number of Candidate : A, B and C
- Total Votes cast : 100

© Saar Concepts
- A : 32 votes, B : 33 votes, C : 35 votes
- C wins the seat and is declared winner
Electoral System
More than 50% votes
Alternative Vote System
Winning a Seat requires Absolute Majority

Used in Australia and Step 1. Voters rank their preferences of Candidates

Ireland
Step 2. Counting : First Preferences of all voters are
counted and Candidates are ranked

Eg. Step 3. Elimination : When no Party gets absolute

D gets 42 First Preference majority then lowest ranked Party is eliminated
B gets 40 First Preference
C gets 38 First Preference Step 4. Redistribution : Votes of Eliminated candidate is
A gets 30 First Preference
© Saar Concepts
redistributed according to second preference mentioned on
its 30 ballot papers.
Electoral System
More than 50% votes
Two Round System (TRS)
Winning a Seat requires Absolute Majority

Used in the Presidential First Round of Election : If no Candidate gets

Elections of France, absolute majority
Austria, Columbia,
Finland and Russia.
Second Round of Election : This time contest
will be among top 2 or top 3 candidates

Democratic Political System Elections

Votes are translated into seats People cast their Votes

The rules and procedures governing the whole process of transformation

of people’s votes into seats is referred to as Electoral System

Majoritarian rule Proportional Representation

Plurality system Absolute Majority Single Constituency

First Past the Post Alternative Vote (AV) Highest Average Method
System (FPTP)
Two Round System (TRS) Largest Remainder Method

Single Transferable Vote

(STV)

Majoritarian rule Proportional Representation Additional Member System or

Mixed Member Proportional
System

Each Party should be allocated seats in proportion

to the votes that it gets in an election

How to implement the principle of Proportional

Easiest Way
Representation

This method followed in

Treat entire Country as one Single Large Constituency
Israel and Netherland

Distribute seats according to the vote share of a party

© Saar Concepts
Drawback : Treating country as single constituency
would mean no Local Leaders
Proportional Representation

Applying Proportional Representation in

Multimember Constituencies

Highest Average Method

Largest Remainder Method

Single Transferable Vote

Highest Average Method

It is based on the use of two types of Number Series

D’ Hondt Series : 1,2,3,4,5…..

Sainte Lague Series : 1,3,5,7,9…..

Example :
Total Votes : 100000
Total Seats : 5
Political Party A : 60000
Political Party B : 28000
Political Party C : 12000
© Saar Concepts
Proportional Representation • Round 1
- Divide vote of A, B and C by 1
Highest Average Method - Compare the Votes
- Give 1 seats to the Party with
Sainte Lague Series : 1,3,5,7,9… highest vote i.e A
- Then divide original vote of A by 3
Example :
Total Votes : 100000 Political Party A : 60000/1 = 60000 (1 Seat)
Total Seats : 5 Political Party B : 28000/1 = 28000
Political Party A : 60000 Political Party C : 12000/1 = 12000
Political Party B : 28000
Political Party C : 12000
Political Party A : 60000/3 = 20000 (1 Seat)
Political Party B : 28000
Political Party C : 12000

© Saar Concepts
Proportional Representation • Round 2
- Compare votes of all Parties
Highest Average Method - Give 1 seat to Party with highest
vote, this time its B
Sainte Lague Series : 1,3,5,7,9… - Divide original vote of B by 3

Example :
Political Party A : 60000/3 = 20000 (1 Seat)
Total Votes : 100000
Political Party B : 28000 (1 Seat)
Total Seats : 5
Political Party C : 12000
Political Party A : 60000
Political Party B : 28000
Political Party C : 12000 Political Party A : 60000/3 = 20000 (1 Seat)
Political Party B : 28000/3 = 9333 (1 Seat)
Political Party C : 12000

© Saar Concepts
Proportional Representation • Round 3
- Again compare votes of all Parties
Highest Average Method - Give 1 seat to the highest, here it is A
- Divide original vote of A by 5
Sainte Lague Series : 1,3,5,7,9…

Example : Political Party A : 60000/3 = 20000 (2 Seat)

Total Votes : 100000 Political Party B : 28000/3 = 9333 (1 Seat)
Total Seats : 5 Political Party C : 12000
Political Party A : 60000
Political Party B : 28000 Political Party A : 60000/5 = 12000 (2 Seat)
Political Party C : 12000 Political Party B : 28000/3 = 9333 (1 Seat)
Political Party C : 12000

© Saar Concepts
Proportional Representation • Round 4
- Again compare votes of all Parties
Highest Average Method - Here A and C has equal vote
- Give 1 seat to both
Sainte Lague Series : 1,3,5,7,9…

Example : Political Party A : 60000/5 = 12000 (2 Seat)

Total Votes : 100000 Political Party B : 28000/3 = 9333 (1 Seat)
Total Seats : 5 Political Party C : 12000
Political Party A : 60000
Political Party B : 28000 Political Party A : 60000/5 = 12000 (3 Seat)
Political Party C : 12000 Political Party B : 28000/3 = 9333 (1 Seat)
Political Party C : 12000 (1 Seat)

Largest Remainder Method

It is based on the use of two types of Quotas

Total no. of Votes/Total no. of Seats Hare Quota

Total no. of Votes/Total no. of Seats + 1 Droop Quota

100000/5 = 20000 Example :

Total Votes : 100000
Hare Quota : 20000 Total Seats : 5
Political Party A : 60000

© Saar Concepts
Political Party B : 28000
Political Party C : 12000
Proportional Representation • Round 1
- See which Political Party has
Largest Remainder Method votes equal to quota .
- Give 1 seat for 20000 votes
Hare Quota : 20000 subtract 20000 from it
- Give 3 seats to A and
Example : subtract 60000 from it
Total Votes : 100000
Total Seats : 5 Political Party A : 60000 (20000 * 3) [ 3 Seats]
Political Party A : 60000 Political Party B : 28000
Political Party B : 28000 Political Party C : 12000
Political Party C : 12000
Political Party A : 60000 – 60000 = 0 [ 3 Seats]
Political Party B : 28000
Political Party C : 12000
Proportional Representation • Round 2
- See which Political Party has
Largest Remainder Method votes equal to quota .
- Give 1 seat for 20000 votes
Hare Quota : 20000 subtract 20000 from it
- Give 1 seat to B and subtract
Example : 20000 from it
Total Votes : 100000
Total Seats : 5
Political Party A : 60000 – 60000 = 0 [ 3 Seats]
Political Party A : 60000
Political Party B : 28000 (1 seat)
Political Party B : 28000
Political Party C : 12000
Political Party C : 12000

Political Party A : 60000 – 60000 = 0 [ 3 Seats]

Political Party B : 28000 – 20000 = 8000 [1 seat]
Political Party C : 12000
Proportional Representation • Round 3
- See which Political Party has
Largest Remainder Method votes equal to quota .
- If no candidate has votes
Hare Quota : 20000 equal to quota
- Give 1 seat to the party with
Example : largest remainder left
Total Votes : 100000 - In this case its Cr
Total Seats : 5
Political Party A : 60000
Political Party B : 28000
Political Party C : 12000

Political Party A : 60000 – 60000 = 0 [ 3 Seats]

Political Party B : 28000 – 20000 = 8000 [1 seat]
Political Party C : 12000 [1 seat]
Electoral System
Quota can be calculated using
Hare Quota or Droop quota
Single Transferable Voter
Winning a Seat requires Vote equal to Quota

Also called Hare – Clark Step 1. Voters rank their preferences of Candidates
System in Australia
Step 2. Counting : First Preferences of all voters are
Used in Ireland and counted and Candidates are ranked
Malta Parliamentary
Election and Senate Step 3. Elimination : When no Party gets absolute
election in Australia majority then lowest ranked Party is eliminated

Step 4. Redistribution : Votes of Eliminated candidate is

Additional Member System

• Also called Mixed Member Proportional System

• Used in German Bundestag, New Zealand (House of Representatives), Scottish
Parliament and Welsh Assembly in UK
• It is the combination of Plurality System (FPTP) and Proportional Representation
System
• Voters get two votes :
- One Vote for the Candidate (elected through (FPTP)
- One vote for Party (for measuring Vote Share)
• Party has to have seats equal to its vote share
- Party vote share is 30 %
- Party wins 20 seats according to FPTP

© Saar Concepts
- 10 seats will be additionally added to Party from Party list in order to make
the vote share equal to the number of seats.
Electoral System

Factors affecting Electoral System

• District Magnitude
- Whether it is Single Member Constituency or whether whole country is
treated as One Single Multimember Constituency
- When more seats are to be shared then it is easier to achieve fair
distribution

• Intra Party Choice

- Close List : Voters can not change the list prepared by party
- Open List : Voters can change the list prepared by party.
- Cumulative Voting : Voters can mix candidate from two or three different
Lists.
It is called ‘Panachage’ in Switzerland and Luxembourg
© Saar Concepts
Electoral System

Effect of Electoral System on Party System

• Duverger’s law
- Plurality or FPTP produce Two Party System
- Proportional Representation produce Multi Party System

- Duverger talks about two types of Effects of Electoral System

• Mechanical Effect
› In FPTP system small parties are excluded from the system
• Psychological Effect
› Under FPTP, People vote strategically to avoid small Parties

Effect of Electoral System on Party System

• Rae/Riker’s Proposition
› Plurality system produce two party system and PR system prduce
multiparty system

• Sartori’s Tendency law

• Cox Coordination argument

Government

Interest Groups Political Parties

Governed

• An Interest Group (or Pressure Group) is an organized association that aims to

influence the policies and actions of government.

• Interest Groups differs from Political Parties in these three respects

- They seek to exert influence from outside, rather than to win or exercise
government power
- They typically have narrow issue focus, they are usually concerned with
specific cause or interest of a particular group.
- They seldom have broader program or ideological features.

• Important Works in the field of Interest Groups in Comparative Politics

- Arthur Bentley : ‘The Process of Government’ (1908

• ‘Society is nothing other than complexity of groups composing it’

- David Truman : ‘The Government Process’ (1958)

- Gabriel Almond : ‘A Comparative Study of Interest Groups’ (1957)

- Joseph la Palombara : ‘Interest Group in Italian Politics’ (1964)

- Arend Lijphart : ‘The Politics of Accommodation’ (1975)

• Important Works in the field of Interest Groups in Comparative Politics

- Peter B Clark and James Q Wilson in their work : Incentive System : A theory
of Organization (1961) says that people join Interest groups because of
three incentives
• Material Incentive
• Solidarity Incentive
• Purposive Incentive

• Mancur Olson : ‘The Logic of Collective Action – Public Goods and Theory of Groups
(1974)
• People join interest group when joining such a Group will be
beneficial to them.
© Saar Concepts
Types of Interest Groups

• Almond’s Classification
- Anomic Groups
• These are spontaneous groups that form suddenly when
many individual respond similarly against an event.
- Non Association Groups
• These Groups are not well organized
• They are informal Organization based on catse, religion,
ethnicity, Region and Religion etc
- Institutional Groups
• They are found within a Larger Establishment or
Institution
• Eg. Teacher’s Association in an University

• Almond’s Classification
- Associational Group
• They are formed explicitly to represent the interest of a particular
group
• Example : Trade Union, Agriculture Interest Group

• Other Classification
- Sectional Groups
• Also called protective or functional groups
• It is formed to the represent interest of volunary
• Eg. Trade Union, Business Bodies

- Promotional Groups
• They are set up to advance shared values
• These groups emphasize collective rather than selective benefits
• Eg Environmental Protection Groups, Human Right groups.

• Other Classification
- Insider Group
• They enjoy regular, previleged and individually access to government
• Government consult before making Policies or forein rules

- Outsider Group
• They do not have direct access to governmental authorities.
• They often use violent methods to make their voice heard.
• Outsider status is an indication of weakness.

• Other Classification
- Insider Group
• They enjoy regular, previleged and individually access to government
• Government consult before making Policies or forein rules

- Outsider Group
• They do not have direct access to governmental authorities.
• They often use violent methods to make their voice heard.
• Outsider status is an indication of weakness.

• Interest Groups don’t have power to make authoritarian decisions themselves, their
success in achieving their objectives their objective depends on influencing Political
Institutions to adopt the policies and measures they advocate

• Jeffry Berry notes that Interest Groups adopts four different types of strategies
- Legal : It includes the tactics of litigation and administrative intervention

- Confrontation : It includes protests and demonstrations.

- Information : It includes such tactics as releasing researched information

against government.

- Constituency Influencing : It covers such tactics as organizing letter writing

© Saar Concepts
campaign and protest in constituencies.
Constitution
and Constitutionalism
Constitution
A body of higher order legal rules,
principles and norms

That specifies how all other legal norms

It Constitute the Political
are to be produced, applied, enforced and
System of a country
interpreted

• It establishes various organs of government.

• It specifies power and function of these organs.
• It lays down the legislative procedure
• It contains a list of fundamental rights
• It establishes legal means for protecting rights

• The word Constitutionalism refers to the commitment, on the part of any

political community, to accept the legitimacy of, and to be governed by the
constitutional rules and principles.

• It is the commitment to live under a constitution and according to the

constitution.
- But this commitment varies across countries.
- In any specific country, it can be strong or weak and its character can
change over time.

• Prof. Carl Friedrich : ‘Constitutionalism refers to ‘limited’ government, situation

wherein the constitution effectively restrains those who control the instrument
of coercion’
© Saar Concepts
Constitutionalism

• Koen Lenaerts : ‘Constitutionalism means limited government operating under

the rule of law’

• Michel Rosennfeld : ‘Modern Constitutionalism requires imposing limits on

the power of government, adherence to rule of law, and
protection of fundamental rights.’

• Concept of Constitutionalism is related to the principle of ‘Rule of Law’

• It is a constitutional principle that is accepted throughout the liberal democratic

state.

• Law provides a Legal framework within which all are required to act.
- No one can use his or her discretionary decisions.
• Rule of law is also described as government of the laws and not of men.

• A. V. Dicey : ‘Introduction to the study of the laws of the Constitution’ (1885)

1. No one should be punished except for breaches of law
2. Rule of law require ‘Equality before law’
3. When law is broken, there must be punishment
4. Rights and liberties of people should be enshrined in the law.

• Written Constitution
- All the constitutional principles are enshrined in the form a law.
- These laws are codified in the form a single Authoritative Document
- Written Constitution involves judicial supremacy.

• Unwritten Constitution
- Constitutional provision are not codified into a single legal document.
- It is also based on norms, custom tradition of the society.
- Because of the absence codified document, legislature enjoys
sovereign position. There is legislative supremacy
- Example : UK , Israel and New Zealand
- Legislature can make and unmake any laws
- Parliament in UK and Knesset in Israel

• Rigid Constitutions
- Amendment Procedure is very difficult.
- Special majority is needed for amendment
- USA : 2/3rd majority in both houses and ratification by 3/4th of the States

• Flexible Constitutions
- Amendment procedure is simple
- Constitution can be amended by simple majority

• Relationship between
- Principle of Constitution
- Working of Constitution

• Walter Bagehot : ‘The english Constitution’ (1867)

- Dignified Part of the Constitution
• The Monarchy and House of Lords
- Efficient Part of the Constitution
• The Cabinet and the House of Commons

• Effective Constitution : Provisions of the constitutions are implemented

Constitution has capacity to limit the power of Govt
• Nominal Constitution : Constitution describes the power of govt but it fails to
limit them.
© Saar Concepts
Constitutional Review

• Constitutional Courts
- This Model is followed mainly in Europe and in countries like Germany,
Austria, France
- A Separate Court is established to decide upon the constitutional validity
of a law.

• In Countries with Constitutional Courts, these are the three procedures that are
mainly followed to activate a review process
- Abstract Review : Review before the enactment of laws
- Concrete Review : Review on the request of Judiciary.
- Individual Review : Review on the request from private individual.

• How can we ensure that the provisions of the Constitution are always followed
in a society ?
- By establishing a mechanism for Constitutional Review

• Two Models of Constitutional Review

- Judicial Review (US Model – Decentralized Model)
- Constitutional Courts (European Model – Centralized Model)

• Judicial Review
- Judiciary review a law and decides on its constitutional validity
- US Supreme Court gave itself the Power of Judicial Review in the
Marbury vs Madison Case (1803)
- The duty of the Judiciary is to resolve disputes and constitution is
also a law.
© Saar Concepts
- In US all Courts within Judiciary can exercise Judicial Review Power
Political Parties
Political Parties
To form and run Government

Autonomous Objective : To gain control of

Organization of People Governmental Power

Nominate Candidates for

election

Nominated Candidates
contest election

• Robert Huckshorn :
- ‘a Political Party is an autonomous group of citizens having the
purpose of making nomination and contesting elections in the hope
of gaining control over governmental power through capture of
public office and the organization of government’

• Three features of Political Parties

- Their objective is to attain governmental power.
- They nominate candidate and contest election.
- It is an autonomous group of people with some level of organization.

• Cadre or Elite Party

- These were the earliest form of political parties.
- They developed in an era of highly restricted voting rights.
- They were small parties that largely reflected the interest of an elite
class
- Party was not organized beyond the boundaries of a particular
constituencies
- Organizationally, Elite parties were not complex.

• Mass Parties
- The extension of voting led to the formation of Mass Parties.
- The Mass Parties developed from second have of the 19th century.
- The Mass Party begins with a core of leaders who organize a party
central office with the aim of developing a party so as to be to win
elections and ultimately gain public office.
- Unlike Elite Parties, Mass Parties depend on the maintenance of high
level of party memberships.
- Organizational Structure is complex.

• Catch all Party

- The idea of ‘Catch all Party’ was developed by Otto Kirchheimer.
- Mass Party began to lose its influence after second World War II.
- The Political and economic development of the modern state made
distinction solely based on class less effective.
- To win elections and gain seats in national legislature, Political Parties
needed to broaden their appeal.
- The aim was to catch all categories of vote, not just traditional
voters based on social division
- Catch all Parties would appeal to all sections as opposed to a specific
section of the society.

• Cartel Parties
- The concept of Cartel Parties was developed by Katz and Mair.
- By the last quarter of 20th century, even the Catch all Parties model was
under considerable pressure.
- Growth of Interest Groups, NGOs etc gave citizens both the abilities and
opportunities to bring pressure on Government without the help of
Political Parties
- Parties Loyalties and membership began to erode.
- Political Parties come together to form a Closed Group and decide to
to use the resource of the government for their own survival.
- Cartel Political Party is a Party which uses the resources of the state
to maintain its position within the political system
• Here we can see Inter Party cooperation rather than
conflict
© Saar Concepts
Political Parties

• Business Firm Model

- The concept was developed by Hopkin and Paolucci
- Political Parties become a wholly owned subsidiary or an organ of
a big Business Company.
• Members of Political Parties include the staff of the company
- The example is ‘Forza Italia’, a party created by Silvio Berlusconi,
Silvio Berlusconi was a business man who went on to become the PM of
Italy.

• We understand Political Parties as organizations that regularly compete for public

office and governmental power.

• The formation of Political Parties is generally associated with the extension of

suffrage (Voting Rights) and the development of representative government.

• Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan gives a theory explaining the formation
of Political Parties.
- Most contemporary parties originated from the radical socio economic
and Political changes between the mid 19th Century and the first two
decades of 20th century.

19th and 20th Century

Radical Socio economic and

Cause of the rise of Political Parties
Political Changes

Industrialization and Urbanization

Industrial Revolution
Divisions / Cleavages Political Parties
National Revolutions

Territorial Cleavages/Divisions
Formation of liberal democratic
Nation States Functional Cleavages/Divisions
© Saar Concepts
Formation of Political Parties : Lipset and Rokkan

National Revolutions

Center-Periphery Cleavage/Division

• Conflict between central govt. and regional groups

• Regional Parties, Ethnic Parties, Linguistic Parties

State-Church Cleavage/Division

• Conflict between Secular State and Religious authorities

• Rise of Conservative Religious Parties

Industrial Revolutions

Rural-Urban Cleavage/Division

• Conflict between prosperous urban and poor rural areas

• Agrarian and Peasants’ parties

Workers-Employers Cleavage/Division

• Conflict between Working Class and Capitalist Class

• Worker’s Party, Socialist Parties, Social Democratic Parties

• Anson D Morse
- The education and organization of Public opinion
- The administration of government.

• Lord Bryce
- Union : Keeping party together
- Recruitment : Bringing in new voters and leaders
- Enthusiasm : exciting and rousing voters.
- Instruction : Informing and educating voters
- Selection : the selection of party candidate.

• Anthony King
- Structuring the vote
- Integration and Mobilization function
- Leadership recruitment
- Organization of government
- Policy Formulation

• Klaus and Beyne

- Goal Attainment
- Interest articulation and aggregation
- Mobilization and socialization
- Elite recruitment and government formation

• Peter Mair
- Integration and Mobilization of Citizenry
- Articulation and Aggregation of Interests.
- Formulation of Public Policy
- Recruitment of Political Leaders and nomination of candidates
- Organization of Parliament and Government

• Richard Katz and Peter Mair distinguishes between three faces of Political Parties

- Party on the Ground :

• Party act like a voluntary membership organization
- Party in Central Office :
• Party acts like an organization with its own staff,
branches, budgets, secretaries etc
- Party in Public office :
• Party act like an organization responsible for running the
government.

• V. O. Key gives similar roles of Political Parties but with different names

- Party in Electorate
- Party as Organization
- Party in Government

• Maurice Duverger gives four types of Party Structures

- Caucus
• Structure adopted by Elite parties with little membership
- Branch
• Structure adopted by Mass Parties with huge membership
- Cell
• Adopted by Communist Parties and Parties were membership
is based on Occupation
- Militia
• Adopted by Fascist Parties
• These parties also have Private Military.

Within the Political System

of a country

Number of Political Parties that actively Compete

Party System refers to
and Cooperate

To acquire Governmental Power

• Two main elements of Party System :

- Number of competing units i.e. number of Political Parties
- Size and Strength of the Political Parties

Which Parties are included in a

Party System ?

According to Giovanni Sartori

Whether a party can be considered

Coalition Potential
as an acceptable coalition partner

Whether a party can influence other

Blackmail Potential
parties

© Saar Concepts
These two conditions decide whether a Party
can be included in a Party System or not
Types of Party System

• Party System in Non Democratic Countries

- Single Party System

• Here only Party id legal
• Apart from one single party no other party is allowed to exist
• Eg. Communist Party in Soviet Union

- Hegemonic Party System

• Here more than one party is allowed to exist but all power is
concentrated in one Single party
• This party dominate and control all other parties
• Eg. Existing System of Egypt and Algeria

• Party System in Democratic Countries

- Dominant Party System
- Two Party System
- Multi Party System
- Bipolar System

• Dominant Party System

- These Party Systems are characterized by one very large Party that
dominate all other parties
- This Party gets majority in all elections continuously for decades
- In this systems all parties are legal and allowed to compete in
free and fair election with Universal Adult Franchise.
• No other parties receive majority
- There is no alteration of power and dominant party does not need to build
coalition
- Eg. Party System India from 1947 to 1975

• Two Party System

- A Two party system is one in which two fairly equally balanced large
parties dominate the party system.
- Two Parties have comparable sizes and fairly equal chances of winning
the election.
- Because both parties are large, the winning party is likely to receive
absolute majority of seats forming single party government without the
need for Partner

• Multi Party System

- It is the most common form of Party System which exits in majority of
liberal democratic states
- This is also the most complex form of Political Party System
• In multiparty system, the number of Parties range from 3 to double
digit figure
• Non of the party is able to get majority on its own
- Since no single party has an overall majority, the result is that parties must
form coalition in order to form government

• Sartori divides Multi Party system into two types

1. Moderate Multi Party System
2. Polarized Pluralism or Polarized Multi Party System

• Moderate Multi Party System

- Number of Political Parties is below 5.
- Political Parties are ideologically similar
- At the center there is one or two big parties but there are small parties as
well.
• It is with the help of small parties that a coalition is going to
govt.
- The type of competition among parties is ‘Centripetal’.

Left Center Right

• Polarized Pluralism or Polarized Multi Part System

- Polarization : There is a large ideological difference between Parties
Some parties are even anti-system
- Centrifugal Completion : Party at the extremes are not only interested in
in gaining power but also to establish new form
a new form of government.

Left Center Right

Ideological Spectrum

• Bipolar System
- Bipolar system combines elements of both, multiparty system and two party
two party system
- Here coalitions rather than Single Parties are important players.
- There are generally two large Coalitions and power rotate between

• Murice Duverger
- Two Party System
- Multi Party System
- Single Party System

• Sartori :
- Competitive System
- Non Competitive
- Competitive System
• Polarized Pluralim
› Simple Two Party Pluralism
› Moderate Pluralism
› Extreme Pluralism
• Two Party System
• Predominant Party System
• Atomized System

• Sartori :
- Competitive System
- Non Competitive
- Non Competitive System
• Single Party System
› One Party Totalitarianism
› Party Authoritarian
› One party Pragmatic
• Hegemonic Party System
› Ideological Hegemonic party
› Pragmatic Hegemonic Party

• Jospeh La Palombara
- Competitive System
• Hegemonic System
• Turnover System
- Non Competitive System
• One party Authoritarianism
• One Party Pluralistic
• One Party Totalitarian

• Jean Blondel
- Two Party System
- Two and a Half Party System
- Multiparty with Dominant Party System
- Multi party without Dominant Party System

• Almond
- Authoritarian party System
- Dominant Authoritarian System
- Competitive Two Party System
- Competitive Multi Party System
- Working Multi Party System
- Immobilist Multi System

It is a form of Collective Parties involved : Groups,

Action Individuals, Organizations

Against a common and Collective Action against :

clearly identified Government,
opponent Policymakers or Rulers

Launched in order to get a Goal : Bringing Social

particular goal Transformation

Features

• Social Movements try to bring about Political and Social Change by challenging the
Government and Political Elites

• They give voice to those who are excluded, deprived and disadvantaged.

• They are based around one particular issue.

• Social Movements are Contentious in nature. So they are an example of Contentious

Politics.

How Social Movement is Constituted

• A Social movement is constituted by a network of Multiple Individuals, Groups and

organizations.

• They all are informally united to achieve a common goal.

Strategy Adopted

• Protest Politics : Protests and Demonstrations in Public Sphere

• Information Politics : Collecting credible information and displaying them strategically

at carefully selected sites.

Domains of Social Movements

• According to Anthony Giddens, there are 4 domains of Social Movements :

- The Political Sphere

- The Workplace
- The Environment
- Issue of Peace

Types of Social Movements

• David F. Aberle has identified 4 kinds of Social Movements

• This categorization of Social Movements is based on two questions
- Who is the movement attempting to Change ? (Individual or Society)
- How much change is being advocated (Minor Change or Radical Change)

1. Alternative Social Movements

• Individual level change
• It brings minor change

2. Redemptive Social Movements

• It is also individual level change
• But it tries to bring radical change.
© Saar Concepts
Social Movements

Types of Social Movements

3. Reformative Social Movements

• Social level Change/Changes occur at social level
• It brings minor changes at social level.

4. Revolutionary Social Movement

• It is also a social level change
• But it tries to bring a radical change in the society.

Stages of Social Movements

• Blumer, Mauss and Tilly have identified following four stages of a Social Movement :

1. Emergence
- Social Movement is created
2. Coalescence
- The movement grows big, many new groups are added
3. Bureaucratization
- Social Movement develop its own Rules and Procedure
4. Decline
- Social movement may succeed or fail but in both the cases
the movement finally goes into decline

Theories or Models of Social Movements

• Classical Model of Social Movement

- Social Movement arises because of the breakdown of the normal social
life.
- If government takes such decisions or make such policies which disturbs the
normal pattern of day to day life and causes harm to many then such
decagons leads to feeling of anger, complaint and Grievances.
- These anger, complaints and Grievances leads to social movement.

Theories or Models of Social Movements

• Classical Model of Social Movement

- In the Classical Model there are some who criticize Social Movement
- Negative Conception of Social Movement
• Collective behavior is like a mob or crowd behavior which can disturb
the stability of the society.
• ‘The Crowd’ (1895) by French Sociologist Gustave le Bon

- In response to this Criticism, William Kornhauser in his most famous book

‘The Politics of Mass Society’ (1959) says
• Social Movement provide a source of empowerment to the people
who are isolated and excluded.
• Social movement actually contribute to the social order by providing
© Saar Concepts
a mechanism for social innovation and social integration
Social Movements

Theories or Models of Social Movements

• Relative Deprivation Theory

- People get the feeling of deprivation when they compare themselves to other
in the society that they do not have what others are having.
- This deprivation is relative because the feeling is based on the comparison
with others.
- When large number of people feel deprived in this way then it can lead to
Anger and resentment in society which can ultimately lead to Social
Movements

- Important Proponents :
• Ted Gurr : Why Men Rebel (1970)
• Karl Polyani, he basically talks about Economic Deprivation
© Saar Concepts
Social Movements

Theories or Models of Social Movements

• Resource Mobilization Theory

- The theory was proposed by Sociologist John McCarthy and Mayer Zald.
- According to this theory, anger, discontent and grievances against authority
is quite common in the society, but all these anger, discontent and grievances
do not lead to Social Movements.
- Social Movement develops not from an aggregate rise in discontent but from
significant increase in the level of resources available to support
collective protest activities
- Such Resources include : Knowledge, Money, Media, Solidarity, Internal and
External Support from a Political Elite.

Theories or Models of Social Movements

• Political Process Model or Political Opportunity Structure Approach

- The approach was developed mainly by Doug McAdams
- Other proponents include : Hanspeter Kriesi
- The main idea of this approach is that the chances for success and
mobilization of social movements organizations are strongly dependent on
the opportunities created and offered by the Political System

New Social Movements

• It refers to the bulk of Social Mobilizations that took place in western societies
between 1970s and 1990s.
- These movements were called new at the time in order to distinguish them
from the old ‘labor movements’ which had dominated the mobilization for
collective action in the west till1960s.

• Examples of New Social Movements

- Environmental Movements, Anti-Nuclear Movements, Peace Movements,
Solidarity Movements, Women’s movement, human rights movement
- Anti Globalization Movement
• Naomi Klien
- No Logo : Taking aim at the Brand Bullies (2000)
© Saar Concepts
- The Shock Doctrine : The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (2007)
Social Movements

Old Social Movements New Social Movements

• Launched by Oppressed and • Launched by well educated and

disadvantaged wealthy individuals
• Concerned with socio economic • Concerned with quality of life
advancement issues
• Movements explained from ‘Mass • Movements explained from
Society’ Perspective : Erich Fromm rational and instrumental
calls it ‘Flight from Freedom’ perspective
• Movements are class based • Movements are not class based
they are broad based.
Laclau and Mouffe called it
‘Democratic Pluralism’
© Saar Concepts
Revolutions
Revolutions

• Revolutions are rapid changes in the institutions of government, carried out by non
institutional means and usually with the support of popular groups mobilized for
demonstration, local revolts, guerilla warfare, civil war and mass strike.

• Theda Scocpol : ‘State and Social Revolution’ (1979)

- ‘Social Revolutions are rapid, basic transformation of a
society’s state and class structure’
• Neumann :
‘Sweeping, fundamental change in political organization, social
structure, economic property control and pre dominant myth
of a social order’
Revolutions

• Trimberger :
‘an extra legal takeover of the central state apparatus which destroys
the economic and political power of the dominant social group of the
old regime’

• Huntington :
‘a rapid fundamental and violent domestic change in the dominant
value and myths of a society, in its political institutions, social
structure, leadership, government activity and policies’

• John Dunn :
‘Revolution is a form of massive and violent social change’
Revolutions
• A S Cohan :
‘a process by which a radical alteration of particular society occur over
a given time span’

• Meusel :
‘When the upper class can not and the lower will not continue the old
continue the old system’ then revolution occurs.

• Chalmers Johnson : ‘Revolutionary Change’ (1982)

‘When a society loses its state of equilibrium or when its values and
environment are not synchronized then revolution occur’

• Crane Brinton : ‘Anatomy of Revolution’ (1938)

‘drastic and sudden substitution of one group in charge of running a
territorial political unit with another group’
Revolutions
• S N Eisenstad : ‘Revolution and Transformation in Society’ (1978)
- He syas that revolution involve three principle components :
• Violence
• Novelty
• Total Chnage
Types of Revolutions
• Constitutional Revolution :
- Revolutions that sought to replace traditional monarchies or empires
with Republics bound by newly written constitution that would limit
the power of Government.

• Examples :
- American Revolution (1775-1783)
- French Revolution (1789)
- Revolution of 1848 in France.
- Iranian Revolution of 1905
- The Chinese Republican Revolution of 1911 (Xinhai Revolution)
- Turkish Revolution of 1919
Types of Revolutions
• Anti Colonial Revolution
- These revolutions are aimed to end the rule of foreign country.

• Example :
- Latin American Revolution (1808 – 1828)
- The Vietnamese Revolution (1954)
- Algerian Revolution (1962)
- Indian Independence Movement (1947)
- Mozambique and Angola Revolution (1974)
Types of Revolutions
• Communist Revolution :
- Revolutions inspired by the historical theories Karl Marx, intended to
overturn the existing regime and replace them by Communist system of one
party rule

• Example :
- Russian Revolution (1917)
- Chinese revolution (1949)
- Cuban Revolution (1959)
Types of Revolutions
• Anti Dictatorial Revolution
- Revolutions launched for removing the decade old long dictatorships.

• Example :
- Mexican Revolution of 1911 (Dictator : Porfirio Diaz)
- Nicaragua Revolution of 1979 (Dictator : Somoza)
- Iran Revolution 1979 (Monarch : Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi’
Types of Revolutions
• Yellow Ribbons : The Philippines in 1976

• Orange Ribbon : Ukraine in 2004

• Rose Revolution : Georgia (2003)

• Tulip Revolution : Tulip Revolution’ (2003)

• Velvet Revolution : Czechoslovakia (1989)

• Cedar Revolution : Lebanon (2005)

Colonialism and
Forms of Colonialism
Colonialism Colonialism and Imperialism

Period between late 19th to Age of

mid 20th Century Imperialism

Imperialism Colonialism

Latin Root : ‘Imperium’ ; Latin Root : ‘colonia’ ;

Order or Command Settlement in foreign soil

It signifies power and Power exercised through conquest and

authority of one country settlement of other territory

It is a policy of extending the control and Direct method

territory © Saar Concepts

authority of one country over foreign
Indirect method
Colonialism Colonialism and Imperialism

Period between late 19th to Age of

mid 20th Century Imperialism

Imperialism Colonialism

Latin Root : ‘Imperium’ ; Latin Root : ‘colonia’ ;

Order or Command Settlement in foreign soil

It signifies power and Colonialism does not simply

authority of one country mean living in foreign
territory

It is a system of subjugation and domination of one It implies living and dominating

Justifying Colonialism

• Argument of Propagation of Christianity

- Propagation of Christianity in those countries which did not follow this
religion.
- People in these countries were seen as Non Believers and it was legitimate to
convert these people into Christianity and for this purpose Colonialism was
required.

• Argument of ‘Terra Nullis’ (Empty land)

- A land lying vacant and unused was considered as ‘Common Property’ for all
- Any one who mixes his labor into the land and makes its productive becomes
the owner of that land.
- John Locke was the most important proponent of this argument
© Saar Concepts
• He said private property arise by mixing labor into common resources
Colonialism

Justifying Colonialism

• Argument of ‘Civilizing Mission’

- Colonialism was justified because it helped to civilize barbaric population
- European Civilization was portrayed as the most developed civilization of the
world.
- It was considered as a duty of the Europeans to civilize the non European
people of the world.
• And to perform this function Colonialism was required.
• This was also called ‘White Man’s Burden’
- J S Mill was the most important proponent of this idea
•Mill said that there are some countries in the world which are not
capable of ‘Self-Government’ and this countries must be colonised
for their own benefit.
© Saar Concepts
Colonialism

Forms of Colonialism

• Settler Colonialism
- The objective of the Colonialism is to settle a large number of people in the
foreign territory permanently, ,making it a second home.
- Settler Population gradually becomes the majority in the foreign territory

• Planter Colonialism
- The objective of colonialism is to occupy foreign land in order to grow some
commercial crops like : Sugar, Coffee, Cotton and Ruber.
- Labor demands for these plantations are satisfied by the native population

Forms of Colonialism

• Extractive Colonialism
- Here colonialism is done to extract rich natural resources of the foreign
territory.
- Extractive Colonialism does not necessarily entail permanent settlement

• Trade Colonialism
- In this colonialism, foreign territory is developed as a Source of
Raw Material and Market of Manufactured products.
- The Colonized territory provide the parent country raw material and the
parent country manufactures raw materials and supplies them to
market of the colonized territory.

Colonialism and Anti Colonial Struggle

• Colonialism refers to the desire to rule and dominate the less powerful
• Colonialism is done either for
- For Economic Exploitation of foreign territory
- For Strategic reasons
- As a competition for Colonial Expansion
• Colonialism is not a modern phenomena ; Greeks, Romans, Ottomans and many more
have practiced it.
• Modern European Colonialism : Beginning in 15th century, the five major European
powers of Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands and Great Britain started the
process of modern European Colonialism.
- It is the most important phase of Colonialism since it impacted the
entire world.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism and Anti Colonial Struggle

• Expansion of Modern European Colonialism :

- By 1930s, Colonialism has expanded to 84.6% of the land surface of Globe.
- Only parts of Arabia, Persia, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Tibet, China, Russia,
and Japan had never been subject to any European Colonial Power.

• Factors leading to the successful spread of European Colonialism :

- Technological Superiority :
- Military Superiority

• Anti Colonial struggle started along with colonial rule in several colonies.
- Native and local population of the Colonies revolted and launched several
movements against their Colonial Powers.
- These revolts and movements were called Anti Colonial Struggle.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism and Anti Colonial Struggle

• Decolonization :
- It is the process of termination of colonial rule.
- Successful anti colonial struggle led to the abolishing of foreign rule and
complete Political Independence of the colony.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism in America

• On October 1492, Sea Navigator and Explorer of Spain, Christopher Columbus

discovered the unknown continent of America.
- Discovery of America by Columbus was an accidental Discovery.
- Columbus left the Port of Palos in Spain with his three ships to search for
a Sea Route to Asia and East Asian Countries like India and Indonesia.
- He thought he could circle the earth and directly reach Asia.
- But instead of reaching Asia he discovered America.

• Spain and Portugal were two Great Powers of Europe at that time.
- Both competed for colonizing the ‘New World’ of America
- In order to avoid conflict, a treaty was signed between them in 1494.
- The treaty was : ‘Treaty of Tordesillas’ 1494.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism in America

• ‘Treaty of Tordesillas’ (1494)

- The treaty was negotiated between Spain and Portugal.
- The treaty divided the world into two parts : East and West
- Eastern part was given to Portugal to colonize and Western Part was given to
Spain to colonize.

• Between 1497 and 1498 – Portuguese Explorer and Navigator Vasco da Gama
discovered sea route to India and south east Asia.
• Both East and West was now open to the reach of European Colonial Powers

• In these areas, Spain and Portugal was followed by other European Powers like Britain,
France and Netherlands.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism in America

• Decolonization in Americas :
- In 1776, thirteen Colonies of Britain declared themselves independent from
Britain.
- In 1804 Haiti declared independence from France
- In 1821, Mexico achieved independence from Spain
- In 1822, Brazil won its independence from Portugal

• Munroe Doctrine of 1823

- In order to stop further colonization of North and South America, USA came
with a doctrine in 1823 and that is called ‘Munroe Doctrine’.
- It was USA’s Policy of opposing colonialism in Americas.
- It stated that further efforts by European Powers to take control of any
independent state in Americas would be viewed as unfriendly.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism in South Asia and South East Asia

• By the beginning of 19th century, South Asia and South East Asia was under the control
of Britain, France and Dutch (Netherland).
- These European powers first came as traders because this region was famous
for its Spices, Cotton and Indigo.
- Discovery of sea route to Asia in 1498 provided direct access to these regions
to the Europeans.
- They first established their Trading Posts in these regions.
- Gradually they started interfering in the local politics of these regions.
- Whenever government became weak in any country, these European Powers
took advantage and colonized those countries.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism in South Asia and South East Asia

• By the beginning of 19th century, South Asia and South East Asia was under the control
of Britain, France and Dutch.
- In 1858, India went into direct rule of Britain.
- Ceylon or Sri Lanka was took into direct control of Britain in 1815
- By 1886 Burma (Myanmar) was also annexed.

• South East Asia was divided among European Powers in the following way :
- Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong was under British control
- Indonesia was under the rule of Dutch.
- Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam was controlled by France.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism in South Asia and South East Asia

• Japanese Imperialism
- When we talk about colonialism in Asia, it is important to discuss about the
first Non European and Non Western country which practiced colonialism in
20th Century.
- Japan occupied Korea in 1905 and Annexed it in 1910.
• Korea remained under Japanese control until 1945.
- Japan invaded the Chinese territory of ‘Manchuria’ in 1931.
• After that Japan established a puppet government in Manchuria
• The puppet government remained in power till 1945.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Colonialism in Africa

• Berlin Conference (1884 – 1885)

- It is also called ‘Congo Conference’ or ‘West Africa Conference’
- The conference was organized by European Countries to divide the continent
of Africa for colonization among each other.
- Right to colonize Africa was divided among European countries who participated
in the conference.

- Berlin Conference is also called ‘Scramble for Africa’

Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Patterns of Anti Colonial Struggle

• Most of the colonial powers were forced to grant independence to their colonies by
the anti colonial struggles carried out in the colonies
• All colonies did not follow any uniform pattern in their struggle against their colonial
rulers

1. National Independence Movements

2. National Liberation Movement
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Patterns of Anti Colonial Struggle

• National Independence Movement

- Here the aim is to replace foreign government with national government.
- Here the goal is limited to the attainment of Political Independence
- Eg, India, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya

• National Liberation Movement

- Here anti colonial struggle have two objectives :
• Removing foreign government
• Bringing complete restructuring of society in order to completely
remove the injustices and exploitation of colonial rule
• Eg. Vietnam, Congo, Angola
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Stages of Anti Colonial Struggle

• According to historian, Geoffrey Baraclough, there are three stages of any anti colonial
struggle :
1. Proto Nationalism
- It refers to the earliest phase of anti colonial struggle
- People have not yet become aware of their rights and need for
complete independence
- Social groups and political movements demands reforms within
the system of colonial rule
2. The Rise of New Leadership
- At this stage nationalism becomes mature and people start
feeling patriotic about their country.
- With the arrival of new patriotic leaders, the goal of the struggle
becomes complete independence from Colonial Rule.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Stages of Anti Colonial Struggle

• According to historian, Geoffrey Baraclough, there are three stages of any anti colonial
struggle :
3. Mass Movement
- National Movement become Mass Movement where all sections
of society take part
- The movement become so strong that colonial authority is
required to use force against the people.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Decolonization

• The process of termination of colonial rule is described as decolonization.

• Anti colonial struggle first became successful in Asia and then in Africa
• After WW II, we can divide the process of decolonization in two phases

• Phase I of Decolonization : Asia

- Philippines achieved independence from Britain in 1946
- India achieved independence from Britain in 1947
- Indonesia achieved independence from Netherland in 1949
- Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam were recognized as sovereign states in 1946
but were formally granted independence by France in 1954
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Decolonization

• The process of termination of colonial rule is described as decolonization.

• Anti colonial struggle first became successful in Asia and then in Africa
• After WW II, we can divide the process of decolonization in two phases

• Phase II of Decolonization : Africa

- Egyptian Sudan and Malay achieved independence from Britain in 1957.
- Gold Coast Ghana achieved independence from Britain in 1957
- Nigeria achieved independence from Britain in 1960
- Cyprus, Sierra Leone achieved independence from Britain in 1961
- Algeria achieved independence from France in 1962
- Kenya and Zanzibar became free in 1963
- Namibia achieved independence from South Africa in 1990
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

Postcolonial Theory and Neocolonialism

• Did Decolonization bring complete independence with it ?

- Compete Independence refers to Political Independence, Cultural Independece
and Economic Independence

• Post Colonial Theory :

- Decolonization only brought Political Independence but it did not bring
Cultural and Institutional Independence.
- Dipesh Chakraborty says ‘Decolonization was never Complete’
- According to Postcolonial thinkers, we continue to live under the cultural and
institutional dominance of west.
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

• Prominent Post Colonial Thinkers and their works :

- Homi K Bhabha
• His most important work : ‘ The Location of Culture’ (1994)
• ‘Mimicry and man : The Ambivalence of colonial discourse’
• He gives the concept of ‘Ambivalence’ and ‘Mimicry’
- Edward Said
• His most famous book is ‘ Orientalism’ (1978)
- Frantz Fanon
• His books are : Black Skin White Masks (1952)
The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
- Leela Gandhi : Post Colonial Theory – A Critical Introduction
- Arjun Appudurai : Modernity at Large – Cultural dimension of globalization
(1997)
- Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak : ‘Can the Sualtern Speak ?’
Anti Colonial Struggle and Decolonization

• Neocolonialism :
- Kwame Nkrumah : Neocolonialism – The Last Stage of Imperialism (1965)
- Decolonization did not bring with itself Economic Independence
- Asian and African countries continue be under the economic dominance
of their former colonial masters
- This time the colonial dominance is established indirectly through
Globalization and International Institutions like World bank and IMF.
Civil Society
Civil Society

Civil Society

All the activities that take place in Public Sphere

outside the realm of Government

It includes Interest Groups, NGOs, Media, Trade

Unions, Self Help Group, Professional Associations,
Activists etc

Civil Society

It basically refers to the autonomous groups that exist

in society.

With the spread of democracy number of such groups

has increased in society

What influence these groups have on the overall

political system ?

Civil Society

• Political thinkers have always highlighted the importance of voluntary association

for a society and its Political System

• Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau

- Social Contract was made between free citizens in a peaceful manner.

• Adam Fergusan : ‘Essay on the History of Civil Society’ (1767)

• Hegel
- Saw Civil society as something separate from the state
- People engage in various commercial, social and cultural activity.

Civil Society

• Alex de Tocqueville
- Democracy in America
- He was impressed by the American habit of founding association
- Associational life of the people of America was the reason behind the
success of American Democracy.

• Antonio Gramsci
- Civil society the site where consent is manufactured by the ruling class
• Church, School, Trade Union, Media and other cultural groups

Civil Society

• Jurgen Habermas : ‘Structural Transformation of Public Sphere’ (1962)

• Robert D Putnam
- Making Democracy Work : Civic Tradition in Modern Italy (1993)
- Bowling Alone : The Collapse and revival of American Community (2000)

• Civil society focus on public end over private end.

• It relates to State but does not seek to control it.
- Associations act as intermediaries between individual and state
• It encompasses pluralism and diversity
• It helps a country transition to democracy.
• It has an effect on the citizen’s participation in various political activity.

• Concept of Uncivil Society

- Section of civil society that challenge liberal democratic values
- They use violence, they follow dogmatic ideology, they indulge
rule breaking
• Booth and Richards uses the term ‘Uncivil Society’ for Central American Societies
•
• © Saar Concepts
Kopecky and Mudde : ‘Uncivil Society : Contentious politics in post communist Europe (2003)
Stephen Kotkin : ‘Uncivil Society’ (2009)
Political Theory
Meaning Nature and Approach
Political Theory : Meaning and Approaches

• What is Political Thought and Political Philosophy ?

• What is Political Science ?
• What is Political Theory ?
• Nature of Political Theory
• Approaches to Political theory :
→ Traditional Approaches
→ Modern Approach
• Behaviouralism and Post Behaviouralism
• Debate : Decline and Resurgence of Political Theory
• Debate : End of Ideology

• They refer to systematic reflection and study of political reality.

→ It includes study of Political Institutions, Political Practices, how people live
under a Political authority, why they obey it and when they challenge it.
• Political Thought is the Political Philosophy of a particular Philosopher
→ It includes classic texts like : Republic, Leviathan, Prince etc
• Political Thought and Philosophy both are :
→ Normative, Prescriptive and Speculative in nature
→ Both are more concerned about values

102. Political Science

• It adopts scientific method for the study of political phenomena

• It is based on empirical and logical statement because empirical and logical statements are
capable of verification.
• It is value neutral and focuses on facts
© Saar Concepts
103. Political Theory

• ‘Theory’ originates from the Greek word ‘theoria’ which means well focused mental look.
• Theory is combination of elements of both Science and Philosophy
•George Catlin : ‘The theory of Politics is itself divided into Political Science and Political
Philosophy’
• Political Theory not only has a Normative , but also an empirical part.
• A Theorist is both a Scientist and Philosopher

104. Political Theory as History

• Study of Politics is a historical study.

• One can never understand a text without context.
• Advocate : George H Sabine

105. Political Theory as Philosophy

• Values are indispensable Part of Political Theory

• Advocate : Leo Staruss
→ What is Political Philosophy ?

106. Political Theory as Science

• The study of Politics should be based on observation and experience.

• As a science, Political Theory should generate – Neutral, dispassionate and objective
knowledge.
• Proponents :
→ Arthur Bentley (The Process of Government – 1908)
→ George Catlin (The Science and Methods of Politics – 1921)
→ David Easton (The Political System – 1953)
→ Robert Dahl (Modern Political Analysis – 1961)

107. Comparative Approach

• Drawing Generalizations from comparison

• According to J S Mill, there are three forms of Generalizations
→ Through the Process of Difference
→ Through the Process of Indirect Difference
→ Through the Process of Agreement

108. Historical Approach

• Emphasis upon historical evidence for a proper study of Political Phenomena

• Prominent Advocate : George H Sabine
→ Seeley – ‘Political Science without history has no roots and history without
Political Science has no fruits’
→ Freeman – ‘Politics is current History and History is current Politics’

• Charles Merriam and David Easton Criticized Historical Approach

• Karl Popper called it ‘Historicism’
→ The Poverty of Historcism

109. Philosophical Approach

• Focus on What ought to be rather than what actually is. (Prescriptive and Normative)
© Saar Concepts
• Advocates : Plato, St. Augustine, Rousseau, Hegel , Leo Strauss
Approaches to Political Theory : Modern

110. Behaviouralism

• It was born out of the inadequacies of Conventional Approaches

• It aims to discover regularities in people’s behaviour.
→ This can lead to theories which can have predictive value.
→ It involves collection of quantifiable data through survey research.
• It claims that Politics can be a value free Science
“Better to be wrong than vague”
• Advocates
• Graham : Robert
Wallace Dahl, Nature
– Human Karl Deutsch, David
in Politics Easton, Lasswell, Almond and Powell
(1908)
• RobertMerriam
• Charles Dahl : Components of Behaviouralism
– New Aspects of Politics (1925)
→ Verification, Technique,
• Lasswell – “Psychopathology
Pure Science. © Saar Concepts
Quantification,
and Politics” Value
and “Politics Free,
: Who getsSystematisation,
what, when andand
how”
Approaches to Political Theory : Modern

111. Post Behaviouralism

• Post Behaviouralism is corrective in nature and an extension of behavioralism.

• Main demand of Post Behaviouralists :
→ ‘Action’ and ‘Relevance’
• Robert Dahl calls for ‘Credo of relevance’
• Post Behaviouralism demands for a value oriented agenda for behavioural research
→ Empirical Approach is not discarded.
→ But it is integrated with norms and values
→ Values are inseparable from Politics
• Post Behaviouralism demands that Knowledge must be action oriented.

112. New Institutional Approach

• People’s Choices shaped by Institutions

• State is not only affected by society but state also affects society.
• Olson and March are its advocates

113. The Vienna Circle

• Experience is the only source of knowledge. (Positivism)

• Advocates : Moritz Schlick, Gustav Bergmann, Rudolph Carnap, Herbert Feigl, Rose Rand

114. The Chicago School

• The School Founded by Charles Merriam

© Saar Concepts
• Introduced Quantitative methodologies and empirical investigation
115. Frankfurt School (Critical Theory)

• School of Neo-Marxists thinkers

• It emerged at the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt (Germany)
• Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Habermas

• Some Scholars talk about decline and some revival of Political Theory.
•According to some scholars, traditional political theory is irrelevant for the present
situation
• Brogan : ‘Whether any such discipline as Political Science exist’
→ Germino : ‘The thesis is seriously inerror’
• Verney – ‘Politics has reached its dead end’
→ Berlin : ‘Political Theory will not wholly perish from earth’
• Dahl : ‘In English Speaking World Political Philosophy is dead’
→ Plamentaz : Political Theory is much needed as any other science
• Some scholars like C B Machpherson, Cobban – talk about resurgence of Political Theory
→ They criticize Positivism and Empiricism
→ There is undue importance on facts and over emphasis on Scientific method
• Dante Germino – ‘Beyond Ideology : The Revival of Political Theory’
→ Political Theory is today rising from the ashes of its own destruction.

• The term Ideology was coined by Destutt de Tracy

• Karl Mannheim : ‘Ideology and Utopis’
→ Ideology is a value or belief system.
→ It provides an action plan to justify the status quo or seeks to reform or
reconstruct the society .
• After 2nd World War, some social Scientist in USA began advocating ‘end of ideology’
theory or ‘deideolization’ :-
→ Daniel Bell – ‘The End of Ideology’
→ S.M Lipset – ‘Political man’
→ J K Galbraith – ‘The Coming of Post Industrial Society’
• Basic Argument :
→ Industrialized Societies – be it USA or Russia – all are pursuing similar
development path.
→ In western society – there is a ‘Democratic Liberal Consensus’

• There are Scholars who reject the ‘end of ideology thesis’

• Richard Titmus (Essays on the Welfare State
• C B Machpherson (Democratic Theory)
- Post Industrial Societies are nothing but market societies.
• C Wright Mills (The Marxists)
- There is no ideological end in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Soviet Block
• David Aiken
- End of ideology is a utopian fantasy
- It means end to discourse , to communication and argument

• Meaning and Definition

→ Max Weber’s Definition of State
• Study of State in Political Science
→ Before WW II
→ During Behavioral Revolution
→ After Behavioral Revolution
• Origin and Development of State
→ Origin of State in Europe
→ Treaty of Westphalia
→ Charles Tilly’s Theory of origin of state
• Theories of State
→ Liberal Theory
→ Pluralist and Neo Pluralist Theory
→ Marxist Theory
→ Neoliberal Theory
→ Elitist Theory
→ Feminist Theory © Saar Concepts
Lecture Overview and Objective

• Role and Responsibilities of State

→ Minimal State
→ Developmental State
→ Social Democratic and Welfare State
• Impact of Globalization on State
→ Debate on the decline of State
• Post Colonial State
→ State in Developing Countries and Advanced Developed Countries
→ Hamza Alawi’s concept of ‘Overdeveloped State’

• State is an abstract entity – State is not a material object – It is a conceptual abstraction

comprising of :-
→ A Government
→ A Population
→ A Territory

•Article 1 of Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (1933) lists 4 criterion of
Statehood :-
→ Population
→ Territory
→ Government
→ Recognition by other States
• A State is a set of institutions and specialized personnel that :-
→ Regulates important aspects of the life of a territorially bounded population

© Saar Concepts
→ Backs it regulation by forces if necessary
→ Recognized as a state by other similarly constituted states.
State : Meaning and Definition

• One of the most influential definition of State is offered by Max Weber :

→ “State is a Human Community that Claims the monopoly of legitimate use of
Physical Force within a given territory”
- This is a sociological and functional definition of state
- He emphasizes on what state does
- Key to Understanding State not lies in laws and constitutional documents
- Key to understanding State lies in the means by which government rule is sustained
→ Coercion
→ Control over Coercive means
→ Control and organization of force that is used for its rule

• Prior to World War II, study of politics focused mainly on the study of institutions in western
European Countries
→ Formal Theories examined the working of State in detail
→ State was viewed as an autonomous entity with a large degree of power on its own

•The Behavioral Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, altered the focus of Political Enquiry
Completely
→ There was an emergence of Society centered approach
→ Political Scientists retreated from the study of state.
• Sociologist Edward Shills argued : ‘The State was one organization within a broader array of
organization existing at the center of society’

• By 1970 and 1980s, this Sociological approach came under criticism

→ Theda Skocpol reintroduced State as an autonomous actor in her essay
“Bringing the State back in” (1985)

• Joel Migdal argues in his book “State and Society” (2001)

→ State is not an Independent Actor but a Central Organization in Society

• Nordlinger and Gabriel Almond

→ Society has the ability to influence to exert a large degree of influence on the state but
the State also has ability to influence society.

• According to Quentin Skinner :

→ It was only in the sixteenth century that the word State acquired a meaning close to
modern sense

• Prior to the birth of Modern State Sovereignty in Europe :

→ Power, authority and allegiance were shared among different actors : Prince,
Parliament, Pope, Holy Roman Emperor, Dukes and Counts
→ No effective Central Government existed
→ Sense of order and social identity was provided by Christianity

• This Fragmented and Decentralized system of Government is Known as ‘Feudalism’

• Joseph Strayer identifies three characteristic features of Feudalism :-
1. Fragmentation of Political Power
2. Public Power in Private Possession
3. Armed forces secured through private agreements

• Arrival of Principle of Sovereignty :-

→ Jean Bodin’s ‘Six Book of the Republic’ (1576)
→ Thomas Hobbes’ ‘Leviathan’ (1651)
- Both of them reacted to the extreme political violence and instability in Europe
during their time.
- Strong State idea was proposed as a solution to these problems

• Principle of Sovereignty established a new basis on which to conduct politics

→ State emerged in 16th and 17th century Europe as a system of centralized rule that
succeeded in subordinating all other groups and institutions.

• Treaty of Westphalia 1648 – signed at the end of ‘Thirty years of war’

→ It established the principle of territorial sovereignty
→ Formalized modern notion of statehood
→ Established the State as the Principle actor in domestic and foreign affairs.

• According to Charles Tilly :-

→ The Central factor that explains the development of modern state was its ability to fight
war
→ “War made the State and State made the War”

• In between 1555 and 1648 there were 112 wars in Europe

→ There were civil wars, religious war, trade wars on seas and wars of conquest in the
world

• European Rulers could not avoid wars, State were seen as ‘War Machines’
→ It was the demand of the wars that caused the death of feudal order
→ The more centralized and absolutist a state – better capacity to raise sufficient finance
for growing military expenditure
• All these greatly increased the coercive power of the state
→ State extended its control to the population by developing more extensive system of
administration and development
© Saar Concepts
State
Theories of State
Theories of State

• Liberal Theory of State :

→ Found in the writings of social contract theorists like Hobbes and Locke
→ They regard State as a necessary evil.
→ State has emerged out of a voluntary agreement or social contract.
- Individual recognized that only the establishment of a sovereign power could
safeguard them from insecurity
→ State is an ‘Umpire’ or ‘Referee’ capable of protecting each citizen from encroachment
of his or her fellow citizen

• Pluralist Theory of State :-

→ Power is dispersed amongst a wide variety of social groups
→ Rough equality exists among organized group and interest
→ State is an arena in which different social groups negotiate.
→ None of these social group has power enough to control the state.
→ The Ruler is usually seen as a Neutral arbiter between competing interests.

• Pluralist Theory of State :-

• English Pluralists : GDH Cole, J N Figgis, H Laski

- Centralized State has to be replaced by a new institutional order that placed multiple
groups at the center of its organization
• American Pluralists : Robert Dahl’s concept of ‘Polyarchy’
- The existence of multiple centers of powers none of which is wholly severing will help

• Neo Pluralist Theory of State :-

→ Neo Pluralist theory of the State has been developed by writers such as J K Galbraith,
Charles Lindblom, Lowi and McConnel.

• In the real world, some interests have more leverage than others in the State’s Policy agenda :
→ All organized interests are not equally powerful
→ In a Capitalist economy – Business enjoy advantages which other group clearly don’t have

• Neo Pluralists accept that a Liberal Democracy is a ‘Deformed Polyarchy’ in which business
usually exerts pre eminent influence
→ J K Galbraith in his book “The Affluent Society” (1962)
→ Charles Lindblom in “Politics and Market” (1977)

• Marx did not see the State as necessary social formation :

→ He predicted that as class conflict will end, the State would ‘Wither Away’
→ The fully communist society would be stateless
→ Before this stage there will be a temporary stage of ‘Dictatorship of Proletariat’
• Marxist Theory of State :-
→ He believed that State is Part of a ‘Superstructure’ that is determined by the Economic
base
→ State is nothing but an instrument of Class Oppression.
• Two Versions of Karl Marx’s Theory of State can be explained :-
1. Communist Manifesto :-
- State is an instrument in the hands of economically dominant class
- “Executive Committee for managing the common affairs of Bourgeoisie”
- Similar View held by Lenin in “State and Revolution” (1917)
2. The Eighteenth Brumaire of Loius Napoleon (1852)
- Marx discussed the possibility of State’s Autonomy from ‘Class System’
- State could enjoy ‘relative autonomy’ from Class System

© Saar Concepts
→ the state appears to mediate between conflicting classes and so
maintains class system itself in existence.
Theories of State

•Since the 1960s – Marxists theorizing about state has been dominated by two competing
approaches :-
1. Instrumentalist Approach
- Ralph Miliband’s ‘The State in Capitalist Society’ (1967)
- State is portrayed as an agent or instrument of ruling class

2. Structuralist Approach
- Nicos Poulantzas in ‘Political Power and Social Classes’ (1968)
- State enjoys ‘Relative Autonomy’ from class system
- State acts to safeguard the social system in which it acts.
- The role of the state is to serve the long term interest of the capitalist class.

• Neoliberal Theory of State

→ Neoliberalism is the revival of classical liberalism
→ Neoliberals are committed to a radical form of Individualism
→ They criticize intervention of state in economic and social life.
→ Neoliberalism talks about ‘Minimal State’ which only performs protective functions.

• According to Neoliberals :-
→ State is a big threat for both Individual Liberty and Growth
→ State is always ready to interfere in every aspects human existence.

•We are experiencing growth in the State Intervention in the social and economic sphere of
society.

• Forces that have led to the growth intervention :-

1. Samule Britten’s “The Economic Consequence of State” (1979)
- The democratic process encourages politicians to outbid one another by making
vote winning promises to the electorate

2. Problem of ‘Government Overload’

- The concept of Government Overload was given by Prof. Richard Rose
- The range of social and economic problems that government is expected to
solve has increased but Government's capacity has decreased

3. Bureaucratic and Government Oversupply

- William Niskanen (1971) has suggested that ‘Big’ governmnet has been
generated from within the machinery of the governmnet
- Pressure for the expansion of the state comes from civil servants and other

• Elitist Theory of State

→ They believe that behind liberal democracy there lies the permanent power of a
‘Ruling Elite’
→ According to them : Political Power always lies in the hand of a small elite and concept
of Political Equality is a myth.
→ Classical Elitists :
- Gaetano Mosca – The Ruling Class
- Robert Michels – Political Parties
- Vilfredo Pareto – The Mind and Society
The Rise and Fall of Elite

• Contemporary Elitist thinkers :-

1. Joseph Shumpeter
- ‘Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy’ (1944)
- He gave the theory of ‘Democratic Elitism’

© Saar Concepts
→ The electorate can decide which elite rules, but can not change the fact
that power is always exercised by an elite.
Theories of State

• Contemporary Elitist thinkers :-

2. James Burnham
- His theory of ‘Managerial Revolution’ is very important
- A managerial class dominate all industrial societies, both Capitalist and
communists by virtue of their technical and scientific knowledge and
administrative sklils

3. C Wright Mills
- ‘The Power Elite’ (1956)
- US Politics is dominated by the ‘Big Business’ and the military, and President’s
office
- They decide the larger government policy decisions.

• Feminist Theory of State

1. The Neutral State

- Liberal feminists have conceptualized state as a ‘Neutral’ Arbiter between
interest groups
- They have recognized that state institutions have always been dominated by
men
- They argue that State can be ‘captured back’ from the interest and influence of
the state.
- More women in the state would result in more women centered policies

→ Major Proponents : Betty Friedan (Feminine Mystique -1962)

Susuan Moller Okin (Justice, Gender and Justice - 1989)

• Feminist Theory of State

2. The Patriarchal State :

- Radical, Marxists and Socialist Feminists analysis of the state presents a
fundamental critique of the notion of State in general and liberal feminist
notion of state in particular
- They define State in terms of its patriarchal nature
→ Patriarchy signifies the rule of father or rule of male
→ State is essentially an instrument of male power which works
to promote gender inequality and maintain male supermacy
- Proponent : Kate Millte (Sexual Politics- 1970)
Cathrine MacKinnon

• What should be the desirable roles and responsibilities of state

1. Minimal State :
- It is essentially a negative view of state
- Role of the State is to prevent individuals encroaching on the rights and liberties of
others
- State is mere a protective body : Its core function is to provide a framework of peace
and Social order.
- Robert Nozick calls the Minimal State a ‘Night Watchman State’

1. Developmental State :
- The best example of minimal state were those countires such as UK and USA during the
period of early Industrialization
- The later a country industrialize the more extensive will be the state
- A Development State is one that inetrvene in economic life with the specific purpose of
promoting industrial growth
© Saar Concepts
Roles of State

• What should be the desirable roles and responsibilities of state

3. Competition States :
- States which pursue strategies to ensure long term competitiveness in a globalized
market
- Tiger Economies : Export Oriented Economies of South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore

3. Social Democratic State

- State intervention guided by both developmental and socio economic priorities
- State is seen as a mean of enlarging liberty and promoting justice

- Social Welfare : Adoption of welfare policies for the individual empowerment and
social well being of the citizens
→ Beveridge Report (1942) – foundation of Welfare State in UK

• In Political Science there is debate surrounding impact of globalization on Sovereign State

•It has been argued that the state authority have been undermined by the growing importance of
global economy, the market, major corporations, non state actors and International Organization
1. Hyperglobalists :
- Globalization is a very powerful economic and technological force
- Rise of Globalization is causing decline of State in a significant ways.
- Power shifting from State to Global Market and MNCs
→ ‘Beyond Sovereignty’ – Soroos
→ ‘Post Sovereign Governance’ – Jan Aart Scholte
→ ‘Borderless World’ – Kenichi Ohmae
→ ‘Sovereignty : An Organized Hypocrisy’ – Stephen Krasner

•It has been argued that the state authority have been undermined by the growing importance of
global economy, the market, major corporations, non state actors and International Organization
2. Sceptics :
- State retains power and authority over many vital issues including aspects of
Globalization itself
- Globalization has been created by the State and exists to serve their interests

2. Transformationalists :
- Globalization has brought some important changes in the role and
significance of State
- It has transformed the State rather than simply reducing or increasing its
Power
→ We can not deny that economy and financial markets have been
Globalized : Countries are always prone to Financial Crisis
→ State sovereignty in traditional sense cannot survive

© Saar Concepts
- It is difficult to reconcile economic sovereignty with a globalized economy
- Philip Bobbit talks about ‘Market State’ (Postmoedrn or competition State)
Post Colonial State and State in Developed and Developing Countries

• State Formation in Developed and Developing Countries :-

→ Developed and Industrialized Countries :-

- Formation of State in the west was characterized by a long, gradual but also
violent process
- Frequent exchange of territory came to halt with Treaty of Westphallia
• After this treaty a new international system came to Existence
characterized by – ‘Nation State’
• Statehood – It is the political and institutional side of a country
• A Nation is defined as group of people having uniform culture and
ethnicity
- European countries at the time of their formation had only one function :
Provision of Security

• State Formation in Developed and Developing Countries :-

→ Developing Countries :
- Aim of anti-colonial movement was to take back the State Power
- The Post Colonial State assumed centrality of Social Transformation
- These countries are not only required to provide security but also
adequate welfare to its poor population
- They are also faced with the task of establishing a ‘Nation State’

•When Asian, African and Latin American Countries became independent – there was
tremendous confidence in the capacity of the state in bringing about much needed social,
economic and political transformation :-
→ Post colonial state was expected to reverse the colonial legacy by playing an
Interventionist role in society.
→ Development was perceived as something that could be imposed from above
: Powell, Pye, Verba, Coleman, WW Rostov

• A more critical approach was adopted by Neo Marxists Theorists :

→ External Determinant was given much more importance in explaining the poor
condition of Post Colonial Developing coutry
→ Important theorists : A G Frank, Immanuel Wallerstien, Ruy Marini, Samir Amin
Issa Shivji, Mehmood Mamdani
- Capitalism is an International System characterized by exchange between
technically advanced and backward state through a world market

© Saar Concepts
- Core States develop and there is exploitation and Underdevelopment of
periphery state
Hamza Alvi’s Concept of Overdeveloped State

• Hamza Alvi talks about the nature of Post Colonial State under World Capitalist System :
→ ‘State in Post Colonial Societies : Pakistan and Bangladesh’ (1972)
→ He characterized Post Colonial State in Pakistan and Bangladesh as
‘Overdeveloped State’
- State was creation of ‘Metropolitan Power’ lacking indigenous support
- State remained relatively autonomous from dominant classes
- As a result, the state was particularly powerful as compared to
leading agrarian and industrial class
- The state is controlled by bureaucratic and military oligarchy and has a
‘Relative Autonomy’ from other classes.
- The State through its ideological and coercive apparatus dominate all
indigenous forces

• The theme of Relative Autonomy is used by Pranab Bardhan for Indian context in his book “The
Political Economy of Development”

© Saar Concepts
• John Saul : ‘The State in Post Colonial Societies : Tanzania’
Meaning of Democracy
Lecture Overview and Learning Objectives
1. Meaning of Democracy
2. Different Theories and Models of Democracy
- 13 different types of democracy
3. Assessment and Measurement of Democracy :-
- Freedom House Index
- Polity IV Dataset
- Bertelsmann Transformation Index (BTI)
4. Process of Demoratization
- Difference between Democratic Transition and Democratic Consolidation
5. Future of Democracy

• Democracy is form of Collective Decision Making that presupposes some form of equality among
participants.

• In a Democratic System :
→ There are procedures and institutions for capturing the views of citizens and
translating them into binding decisions
→ People are regarded as Free and Equal – There is Political Equality among masses

• The term Democracy has Greek Roots

→ ‘Demos’ refers to people and ‘Kratos’ to Power, capacity and rule
- Democracy refers to the power and capacity of people to do certain
things in Public or Political Realm

• Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (Speech) : ‘Democracy is a government of the people, by

the people and for the people’

• Who are ‘the People’ ?

→ Does it include ‘Entire Mass’
→ Or only those whose interests are affected

• What kind of power do they exercise and what is it exactly that they are supposed to do ?

1. Direct form of Democracy :-

- People exercise some kind of direct control and authority over their society
- People not only participate in deliberations but are also responsible for
their implementations

2. Indirect Form of Democracy :-

- People are represented by others who make decisions on their behalf
- People generally do not participate in the decision making process

• It is a form of Direct Democracy that operated in the Polis or City States of ancient Greece
- It denotes particularly the system of rule that developed in Athens during the fourth and
fifth century BCE
• According to Greeks – ‘Democracy’ (Demokratia) is that form of City State constitution in which :
- People rather wealthy Elite held the decisive political authority
- Ancient writers contrasted democracy with rule by few (Oligarchy or Aristocracy) and
rule by one man (Monarchy or Tyranny)
• How it worked :-
→ People ruled through meetings of popular assembly to which all citizens were invited
→ Court System or Juries were also controlled by Ordinary Citizens.
→ Governing officials were either chosen by lot or were elected during assembly
meetings

• Plato was the most important critique of Classical Democracy :

→ He attacked the principle of Political Equality on the ground that mass of the people

• Classical democracy could operate only by excluding a large mass of people from political
activity :-
→ Slave, Women and Foreigners had no political rights

• The classical model of direct popular participation have been kept alive in :-
→ Township meeting of New England in USA
→ Pure form of Direct Democracy exists in Swiss Cantons of Appenzell Innerrrhoden and
Glarus
−The assembly of People is called ‘Landsgemeinde’
- People assemble in open air on a certain date to decide and vote on a certain
law of their society
- Use of Referendums : For repealing a law
- Use of Initiatives : For creating laws

• Watch our Video on ‘Athenian Democracy 'on our Youtube Channel.

• Democratic ideas were revived in 17th and 18th century but in a form that was very different
from the classical democracy of ancient Greece.

• Early liberal thinkers thought of Democracy as a Device through which citizens could protect
themselves from encroachments of government.
- Democracy came to mean a system of ‘Government by Consent’
- The government would operate through Representative Assembly

• A Utilitarian Defense of Democracy was provided by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill (An Essay
on Government – 1820) :
- They demanded Universal Adult franchise
- Voting in regular and competitive elections ensures the accountability of those who
govern

• Democratic ideas were revived in 17th and 18th century but in a form that was very different
from the classical democracy of ancient Greece.

• Two Thinkers talk about Developmental Democracy :-

- Rousseau (Extreme Version – Totalitarian Democracy)
- J S Mill (He is also called a Reluctant Democrat)
• Rousseau’s view on Democracy :-
→ For Rousseau, Democracy is a mean through which human being can achieve freedom
and Autonomy.
→ For Rousseau, Freedom means Self-Government. (Freedom lies in obeying the laws one
prescribe to oneself)
- This is an idea of Direct Democracy as opposed to electoral democracy
- For Rousseau, Will of a Person can not be represented
• Freedom means obedience to ‘General Will’ which is the ‘Real Will’ of each citizen
→ Here we will be able to achieve both Political and Economic Equality
- “No citizen shall be rich enough to buy another and none so poor as to be forced
to sell himself”
• General Will can be defined and imposed from above by a Dictator

© Saar Concepts
→ An individual can be forced to be free
→ Jacob Talmon calls Rousseau an architect of ‘Totalitarian Democracy’ (1952)
3. Developmental Democracy

• John Stuart Mill’s view on Democracy is presented in his book :

- ‘Considerations on Representative Government’ (1861)
•According to Mill, democratic method of decision making is better than non democratic method
in three ways :-
1. Democracy forces the decision makers to take into account the interests, rights and
opinions of most people in society
2. Because Democracy brings a lot of people into the process of decision making , It can
take advantage of many sources of information
3. Democracy has educational value, it enhance the moral qualities of citizen when they
participate in Decision making

• Mill did not believe that all political opinion are of equal value :
• Mill proposes a system of Proportional Representation and Plural Voting
→ He advocated giving more votes to the better educated sections of the society
→ It is for this reason that C L Wayper called him a ‘Reluctant Democrat’

• First systematic development to pluralist thought is the contribution of James Madison to :-

- The Federalist Papers (1787-1788 : Co-author – Alexander Hamilton and John Jay)

• According to Madison is :-
- There should be Multiplicity of Interests and Groups in society
- Each such group should possess Political Voice.
- Government should be based on Separation of Power
→ This form of Democracy is called ‘Madisonian Democracy’ – Rule of Multiple
Minority

• Most influential modern exponent of pluralist theory is Robert Dahl :-

→ A Preface to Democratic Theory (1956)
- In this book Dahl formulates the democratic theory of ‘Polyarchy’
→ Who Governs? Democracy and Power in American City (1961)
→ After The Revolution : Authority in a Good Society (1971)
→ Polyarchy : Participation and Opposition (1972)
→ A Preface to Economic Democracy (1986)
→ Democracy and its Critics (1989)

• For Robert Dahl, Democracy is an ideal type of Political System.

- According to Dahl, existing democracies are non ideal democracies
- He argues that a true democracy does not exists.
- For these non ideal democracy he uses the term ‘Polyarchy’
→ Dahl describes Polyarchy as Government by various groups in society, where
each group tries to achieve its narrow objective through electoral politics.

• According to Robert Dahl, Polyarchy has 8 Components or 8 Institutional Requirements :-

1. Right of Political Leaders to compete for votes
2. Free and Fair Elections
3. Right to vote
4. Right to run for Public Office
5. Freedom of Expression
6. Alternate source of Information
7. Associational Autonomy : Everyone has right to form Political Parties and Interest Group
8. Governmnet policies depends on votes and other expressions of preferences
• Dahl illustrates how Polyarchy Functions in America in his book ‘Who Governs’ :-
- He carried out an empirical study of the distribution of power in New haven, USA
- He concluded that no ruling or permanent elite was able to dominate the
political process
- New Haven is an example of polyarchy.

• Robert Dahl’s Five Principles of Traditional Democratic Theory :-

- He presents these five principles in his book ‘Democracy and its Critics’ (1989)
1. Effective Participation :
- Citizens must have both ability and opportunity to participate in Political life
2. Voting :
- Each citizen’s vote should have equal value
3. Enlightened Understanding :
- Citizens must know themselves what is best and good for them
4. Final Control over Agenda :
- Citizens must have the ability to help form the actual agenda
5. Inclusiveness
- Democratic processes should be available for every one

• Democracy is an illusion, because Political Power is always exercised by a Privileged Minority or

Elite :-
→ Classical Elitist Thinkers : In a Democracy Political Power is always concentrated in the
hand of Political Elite
- Gaetano Mosca
- Vilfredo Pareto
- Robert Michels
→ Contemporary Elitist Thinkers : In a Democracy different Elite compete for Political
Leadership - There is an Elite Power Competition
- Joseph Shumpeter (Democratic Elitism)
- C W Mills

• Anthony Downs (Economic Theory of Democracy)

• Classical Elitist Thinkers :-

1. Gaetano Mosca : ‘The Ruling Class’[1896 (1939)]
- In all societies, two classes of people appear, a class that rules and a class that is ruled
- Elites have certain material, intellectual and moral superiority over those they govern

2. Vilfredo Pareto : ‘The Mind and Society’ (1916)

- He suggested two types of Political Elites on the basis of Psychological traits
→ Foxes : Who rule by cunning and are able to manipulate the masses
→ Lions : Whose domination is achieved through Force and Violence
- ‘Circulation of Elite’

3. Robert Michels : ‘Political Parties’ (1915)

- In all organizations power is concentrated in the hands of small group of dominant
figure who can organize and make decisions.
- ‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’

© Saar Concepts
• All three men characterized vision of fully democratic and egalitarian society as ‘Utopian’
6. Elitist Theory of Democracy (Minimalist Democracy)

• Contemporary Elitist Thinkers :-

1. Joseph Shumpeter : ‘Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy’ (1942)
- It is not the case that people have no power in a democracy.
- Elite : The leading figure from a number of competing interest groups – ‘Elite’ is not a
unified but a fractured body.
- In a democracy, individual acquire power to decide by means of a competitive struggle
for people’s vote
- The Electorate can decide which Elite rule but can not change the fact that power
is always exercised by Elite.
→ This idea is called ‘Democratic Elitism’ or ‘Competitive Elitism’.

• Contemporary Elitist Thinkers :-

2. C Wright Mills : The Power Elite (1956)
- It is an influential account of power structure in USA
- The Power Elite in USA comprises of three groups :-
→ Big Business (particularly related to defense sector)
→ US Military
→ Political Leadership surrounding the President
- This Power Elite has access to highest level of executive branch of the government.

•
3. Anthony Downs : Economic Theory of Democracy
- Electoral Competition creates a Political Market in which Politicians act like
entrepreneurs. Their aim is to get Government Power.
- Individual Voters behave like Consumers : they vote for the party which fulfill their
preferences
- It is this system of open and competitive election that guarantees democratic
rule.

• Contemporary Elitist Thinkers :-

4. C Wright Mills : The Power Elite (1956)
- It is an influential account of power structure in USA
- The Power Elite in USA comprises of three groups :-
→ Big Business (particularly related to defense sector)
→ US Military
→ Political Leadership surrounding the President
• This Power Elite has access to highest level of executive branch of the government.

© Saar Concepts
Democracy - 2
7. Participatory Democracy
• Participatory democracy is a form of government in which people have the
opportunity directly and actively participate in the decision making process :
→ Citizens enjoy a central role in the decision making process

• The theory of Participatory democracy has its roots in the direct democracy of ancient
Greece.

• Three Contemporary thinkers of Participatory Democracy :-

© Saar Concepts
7. Participatory Democracy
• Participatory democracy is a form of government in which people have the
opportunity directly and actively participate in the decision making process :
→ Citizens enjoy a central role in the decision making process

• The theory of Participatory democracy has its roots in the direct democracy of ancient
Greece.

• Three Contemporary thinkers of Participatory Democracy :-

1. Carole Pateman : ‘Participation and Democratic Theory’ (1971)
→ Benefits of Participatory democracy :-
• Psychological Benefits : Human being realize their full potential
• Political Benefits : Political empowerment of citizens
• Social Benefits : Home, family and private sphere also democratize
• Economic benefits : Direct control of productive activities
© Saar Concepts
7. Participatory Democracy
• Three Contemporary thinkers of Participatory Democracy :-

2. C B Macpherson : ‘The life and time of Liberal Democracy’ (1977)

- He seeks to democratize already existing institutions.
- Proposes a hybrid of direct and representative democracy
- Proposes a ‘Pyramidal’ Political System with direct democracy at the
base and representative democracy above.

2. C B Macpherson : ‘The life and time of Liberal Democracy’ (1977)

3. Benjamin Barber : ‘Strong Democracy’ (1984)

- He wants participatory democracy to encompass all sectors of society
- Democratic decision making should go beyond politics to include
economic and social life too.

© Saar Concepts
8. Representative Democracy
• Representative democracy is a form of government in which the citizens of the state
exercise their sovereignty through legitimately elected representatives
- Citizens choose their representatives by voting in elections
- The chosen representative usually meet in a legislature or parliament to
make laws.

• The basic assumption of representative theory of Democracy :-

→ Elected politicians will act in accordance with the will and interest of the
people.

1. Delegative Democarcy as ‘Liquid Democracy’

- It is form of democracy whereby an electorate has the option of
vesting voting power in delegates rather than voting directly themselves
- Voters can delegate their vote to other participants

1. Delegative Democarcy as ‘Liquid Democracy’

- It is form of democracy whereby an electorate has the option of
vesting voting power in delegates rather than voting directly themselves
- Voters can delegate their vote to other participants

1. Delegative Democracy as explained by Guillermo O’ Donnel

- Delegative Democracy refers to the political system of countries of
Latin America like : Venezuela, Bolivia and Ecuador
- Chief Executive or the President while elected in periodic elections,
has almost absolute power
- There is no ‘Horizontal Accountability’ – Institutions like Judiciary, Courts
Legislature, bureaucracy are unable to limit the power of the President
© Saar Concepts
10. Majoritarian Democracy

• Arend Lijphart talks about three models of democracy :

- Majoritarian Democarcy
- Consensus Democarcy
- Consociational Democracy

• Majoritarian Democarcy :-
→ Majoritarian democracy is also called ‘Westminister’ Model of
democracy
→ Country with this model of Democracy tend to have homogeneous
society

• Concentration of executive power in one party which has majority.

• Dominance of Cabinet in decision making
• Two Party System
• Majoritarian and Disproportional System of election
• Unitary and Centralized Government
• Unicameral Legislature
• Interest Group Pluralism
• No written Construction and Constitutional Flexibility
• Absence of Judicial Review
• A Central Bank controlled by Executive

© Saar Concepts
11. Consensus Democracy
• A Consensus Democracy is regarded by Lijphart as a better form of democracy in
societies that are culturally heteregeneous.
- This form of democracy is best suited for societies that have cultural and
linguistic diversities.
• Ten features of Consensus Democracy
→ Power sharing in Coalition Cabinets
→ Separation of power between executive and legislature
→ Multiparty System
→ Proportional Representation
→ Interest Groups
→ Federal and decentralized Government
→ Strong Bicameralism
→ Judicial Review
→ Independent Central Bank
© Saar Concepts
12. Consociational Democracy

• It is a specific form of Consensus Democracy that is present is present in societies

that are deeply divided along religious, ethnic and cultural line.

• Lijphart proposes about ‘Consociational Democracy’ in his book

→ ‘The Politics of Accomodation’ (1976)

© Saar Concepts
13. Deliberative Democracy
• Under Deliberative Democracy, our discussion will focus on these areas :-
→ What is the difference between Deliberative democracy and other forms of
democracy ?
→ What are the importance of deliberations in democracy ?
→ How can we implement the principles of deliberative democracy ?

•Deliberative Democracy is a form of democracy that places communication, debate,

discussion and deliberations at the centre of democracy rather than just election and
voting.
→ The term ‘Deliberative Democracy’ was coined by Joseph Bessette in 1980

→ Jurgen Habermas :-
- He is considered as ‘father of deliberative’ democracy
- His ‘Theory of Communicative Action’ is very important.
- His book ‘Between facts and Norms’ (1996)
→ Seyla Benhabib : ‘Democracy and Difference’ (1996)
→ Simone Chambers : ‘Deliberative Democratic Theory’ (2003)
→ John Dryzek : ‘Deliberative Democrcy and Beyond’ (2000)
- He calls deliberative democracy as ‘Discursive Democracy’

→ Deliberations are valuable as it results in better quality decisions

- Through give and take of arguments, participants can learn from each
other
- They can expand their knowledge

→ Deliberation is important for the legitimacy of the law

- Only those laws are legitimate which gets the consent of all those who
are going to get affected by it.

• The sites of deliberations :-

→ Legislature or Parliament
→ Participatory deliberative institutions
→ Public Sphere – a concept developed by Habermas

© Saar Concepts
14. Agnostic Democracy
• The most prominent thinker of Agnostic democracy is Chantal Mouffe :-
→ She presents her theory of ‘Agnostic Democracy’ in her book
‘The Paradox of Democracy’ (2000)

• Chantal Mouffe was a radical critic of Deliberative Democracy :

→ Deliberatibe democracy demands for consensus in society
→ Theorists of agnostic democracy understands politics as driven by conflict
and not consensus.
→ They emphasize on preserving the social diversity rather than eliminating
diffrences

© Saar Concepts
15. Cosmopolitan Democracy
• Cosmopolitan democracy attempts to apply some of the principles, values and
procedures of democracy to global politics.

• Their aim is not to substitute existing state with a world political system
→ Their aim is to devolve more power and functions to existing international
organizations and strengthen international norms, covenants and
international organizations

• Advocates of Cosmopolitan Democracy :-

→ David Held : ‘Democracy and Global Order’ (1995)
→ Mary Kaldor : ‘New and Old Wars’ (1999)
→ Richard Falk : ‘On Human Governance’
→ John Rawls : ‘The Laws of the people’ (1999)

A Process through which a non democratic political system

becomes a Democracy

When Democratization process begins

After complete breakdown of authoritarian regime

With the beginning of liberal reforms in the authoritarian regime

A Process through which a non democratic political system

becomes a Democracy

When Democratization process begins

Samuel P Huntington The Third Wave : Democracy in 20th Century (1991)

Three Waves of Democratization

Samuel P Huntington’s Three Waves of Democratization

• Voting rights expanded in Western Europe and USA First Wave

• Also called Long Wave | {Reverse Wave : 1922 to 1942} (From 1828 to 1926)

• Began after WW II ( Largely a result of Decolonization) Second Wave

• Limited to Asia and Africa | {Reverse Wave : 1958 to 1975} (From 1945 to 1962)

• Started after fall of Communist regime in East Europe Third Wave

• 25 years of Democratization| {No Reverse Wave yet} (From 1975 to 1990)

Democratization includes two steps :

Initial transition from an authoritarian to electoral

democracy

Samuel P Huntington’s 5 Criteria Consolidation of Democracy

for Transition

1. Past Democratization Efforts

2. Equal level of economic development
3. Support for democracy by International Community
4. Reform efforts during World wide wave of democracy
5.
© Saar Concepts
Peaceful installment of democratic government.
Democratic Transition and Democratic Consolidation

Mode of Democratic transition

Pacted Transition

Bottom up Transition

Top Down Transition

Democratic Consolidation

Narrow meaning :
• Survival of Electoral democracy
• No chance of going back to authoritarian regime

Broad meaning :
• Deepening of democracy
• Going beyond electoral democracy
• Institutionalization of democratic procedure
• Shift in political culture

Three types of indices

1. Freedom House Index

• Began in 1972
• Uses scale between 1 (Free) and 7 (Unfree)
• 1 to 2.5 : Free
• 3 to 5 : Partly free
• 5.5 to 7 : not free

Three types of indices

2. Polity IV Dataset
• Developed by Political Scientists
Monty G Marshall and Keith Jaggers
• Classifies countries on a scale of -10 to +10
• -10 to -6 : Autocracies
• -5 to +5 : Anocracies (neither autocracy nor democracy)
• +6 to +10 : Democracy

3. Bertelsmann Transformation Index

• Launched in 2003
• It uses 17 indicators

© Saar Concepts
• Score given using scale from 1 to 10
• Categorize countries as democracy and non democracy
Future of Democracy

After Cold War, Democracy became the most

common form of Government around the world

Francis Fukuyama in his book ‘End of History and the

Debate over Future of
Last Man’ talks about triumph of
Democracy
Liberal Democracy

Ability of new democracies to overcome obstacles in

the path of implementation of democratic system

Illiberal Fareed Zakaria in his book ‘The Future of Freedom :

Democracy Illiberal Democracy in home and abroad’

Pseudo Democracy © Saar Concepts

Larry J Diamond
Rights
Meaning of Rights

• Difference between ‘Right’ and ‘Rights’ :

- Right (singular) : Correct Action
- Rights (Plural) : Legitimate Claim or Demand

•Rights are those claims of the individuals that are recognized by the society and
enforced by the government.

• These claims can include :-

• Difference between ‘Right’ and ‘Rights’ :

- Right (singular) : Correct Action
- Rights (Plural) : Legitimate Claim or Demand

•Rights are those claims of the individuals that are recognized by the society and
enforced by the government.

• These claims can include :-

- Claim to have something : Right to life, Right to Work, Right to equality etc

• Difference between ‘Right’ and ‘Rights’ :

- Right (singular) : Correct Action
- Rights (Plural) : Legitimate Claim or Demand

•Rights are those claims of the individuals that are recognized by the society and
enforced by the government.

• These claims can include :-

- Claim to have something : Right to life, Right to Work, Right to equality etc
- Claim to do something : Freedom of Expression, Freedom of association

• Difference between ‘Right’ and ‘Rights’ :

- Right (singular) : Correct Action
- Rights (Plural) : Legitimate Claim or Demand

•Rights are those claims of the individuals that are recognized by the society and
enforced by the government.

• These claims can include :-

- Claim to have something : Right to life, Right to Work, Right to equality etc
- Claim to do something : Freedom of Expression, Freedom of association
- Claim not to be treated in certain way :-
• Right against exploitation, Right against
discrimination

• Theory of Natural Rights :-

- Theory of natural rights is based on the idea of human equality
- Rights are natural because they are not given by society or government
• Rights are ‘Pre-Political’ and ‘Pre-Social’
- Natural Rights are inalienable
• Society or government can not take these rights away
- Natural Rights according to Hobbes :-
• ‘Right to Self Preservation’
- Natural Right according to John Locke :-
• ‘Right to life, liberty and property’

• Theory of Historical Rights :

- Proponent : Edmund Burke
- Rights are product of customs and traditions
- Customs and traditions are turned into rights

• Theory of Legal Rights :-

- Developed as a criticism of Natural Right theory
- Proponent : Jeremy Bentham and John Austin
• Bentham called natural rights as ‘Nonsense upon stilts’
- Rights can only exist in a legal framework
• There can be no right without a Lawgiver

• Social Welfare Theory of Rights :

- Proponent : Non Marxist socialists like Harold Laski
- All rights are basically social rights
• Rights as social claims are given by society
• Rights ensures welfare of individual as well as the community

• Libertarian Theory of Rights :

- Proponent : Robert Nozick
- Rights are natural and inalienable
- Rights are absolute, it can not be taken away by state
- According to Nozick : Rights can not be general, they are always particular
• ‘Particular rights over particular things held by particular persons’

• American Jurist talked about 4 forms or 4 types of Rights in his book :

- ‘Fundamental legal conceptions as applied in Judicial Reasoning’ (1923)

• According to Wesley Hohfeld, 4 type of Rights are :-

1. Rights as Claims (Claim Rights)
2. Rights as Privilege (Privilege or Liberty Rights)
3. Right as Power (Power Rights)
4. Right as Immunity (Immunity Rights)

• Wesley Hohfeld explains each rights by using two terms :

- Opposite :
• If you are having one thing, what is that which you can not have
- Correlatives :

© Saar Concepts
• If you have something, what kind of action it imposes on others
Wesley Hohfeld’s Classification of Rights

• Right as Claims
- If you have Claim Right, you can demand something from other person
- Other person is under the duty to perform it
• Correlative : Duty
• Opposite : No Claim

• Rights as Privilege
- It is also called ‘Liberty Rights’
- If you have privilege or liberty rights then you can do whatever you want
• Opposite : Duty
• Correlative : No Claim

• Right as Power
- These are legal abilities empowering someone to do something
- If you have power :
• Correlative : Liability (What others have to do)
• Opposite : Disability (What you cannot do)

• Power as Immunity
- If you have immunity you can resist the power of others
• Correlative : Disability
• Opposite : Liability

• David Lyson categorize these rights into two categories :

- Active Rights : Privilege and Power Rights

• Lawrence Becker has classified rights into three types :

1. Derivative Rights :
- These Rights are derived from prior existing Duties in others
- First duties are established then rights come into existence

2. Original Rights
- Natural Rights are the example of Original Rights
- They are originate with Persons
- First comes Rights and then duties

3. Concurrent Rights
- Rights and Duties arise simultaneously

• There are two theories answering the question :’Who can have rights?’ :
1. Will Theory or Choice Theory of Rights
2. Interest Theory or Benefit Theory of Rights

• Will Theory of Rights :

- Proponent : HLA Hart, Immanuel Kant
- Having a right involves being in a position to control the performance of
duty
- Right holder must be in a Position to enforce his Rights

• Non Human Animals, Fetuses, Inborn Babies, Young Children,

Trees and Environment can not have rights

• There are two theories answering the question :’Who can have rights?’ :
1. Will Theory or Choice Theory of Rights
2. Interest Theory or Benefit Theory of Rights

• Interest Theory of Rights

- To have a right is to benefit from the performance of an enforced duty
- You can have rights if the rights protect your interests
- Right Holder need not be in position to assert his rights

• Non Human Animals, Fetuses, Young Children, trees and

environment can also have rights

• Legal and Moral Rights

- Legal Rights : Rights enshrined in laws and enforced through courts
- Moral Rights : These are moral claims that have no legal sanctions

• Negative and Positive Rights

- Negative Rights : The holder of such right is entitled to non interference
- Positive Rights : These rights impose demands upon government for social
welfare

• Individual and Collective Rights

- Individual Rights : Rights held by individual and recognized by state
- Collective Rights : Rights help by groups of people
Proponent : Will Kymlicka

• Animal Rights :
- Animals have rights in the same sense as human beings do
- Proponent : Peter Singer , ‘Animal Liberation’ (1975)

• Meaning of Power

• Dimensions and Bases of Power

• Authority :
- Difference between power and authority

• Legitimacy :
- Sociological and Normative View
- Concept of Legitimation Crisis

• Hegemony :
- Antonio Gramsci’s view of Hegemony
• Ideology
© Saar Concepts
Power
Power Over : a negative view
Latin Roots

‘Potestas’ Command and Domination

‘Potentia’ Capacity and Ability

Power to : Positive View

Understanding Power in Social and

Social and Political View
Political Context

Social and Political View

Power is ‘Probability that one actor within a

Max Weber social relationship will be in a position to carry
out his or her will even against resistance’

Power is ‘Relationship among actors in which

Robert Dahl one actor induces other actor in a way that
they would otherwise not act’

Scholars proposed a number of revision to this original view of power

They highlighted the Multidimensional nature of power

Ability to influence the Decision Making Power as Decision Making

•P. Bachrach and M. Baratz in their work

‘Two Faces of Power’ (1962) described it
Power as Agenda Setting or
as ‘Power as Non Decision Making’
Power as Non Decision Making
•Capacity to obstruct a decision from
being taken

Power as Thought Control

•It is influencing, shaping, determining and

manipulating People’s decisions, preferences and
their wants.

• Michelle Foucault : Capillary Power

• Vanace Packard : ‘The Hidden Persuader’ (1957)
• Herbert Marcuse : ‘One Dimensional Man’ (1964)
© Saar Concepts
Bases of Power French and Raven : ‘The Bases of Social Power’ (1959)

1. Legitimate Power : Power held by the holder of a formal position

2. Referent Power : Power enjoyed on the basis of Personality trait and
personal qualities.
3. Reward Power : Power based on the ability to provide reward for desired
behavior
4. Coercive Power : Power based on the potential to inflict punishment
5. Expert Power : Power based on skills and expertise of a person

6. Information Power : Power based on the ability to control the availability and
accuracy of information
7. Connection Power : Power based on one’s network of people.

A way of influencing People’s behavior without

persuasion and coercion

Power is the ability to influence people’s behavior

Not persuasion or
coercion Authority is the Rightful use of power

Authority is based upon the acknowledgement of a

Basis of Obedience
‘duty to obey’

Status, Expertise and

formal post
© Saar Concepts
Power - 2
Legitimacy

It is the quality that transforms Power into Authority

How Power becomes Legitimate

Legitimacy depends upon

Sociological or
belief of subjects about Max Weber
Attitudinal View
Agent’s right to rule

Legitimacy is determined by
Normative
Moral and Normative David Beetham
View
considerations
© Saar Concepts
Legitimacy

Max Weber Three Sources of Political Legitimacy

Based on Long Established Customs and

Traditional Authority
Traditions

Based on the qualities of Individual’s

Charismatic Authority
Personality

Based on Legally defined formal

Legal Rational Authority
set of rules
© Saar Concepts
Legitimacy

David Beetham ‘The Legitimation of Power’ (1991)

Power must be exercised according to established rules

Rules must be justified by the shared belief of the people

People must express their consent to the government

Habermas book : ‘Legitimation Crisis’ (1973)

Contradiction and conflict between logic of capitalist accumulation and people’s

demand for welfare

For building of legitimacy : Political and social rights are extended

Increased demand for social welfare and social equality

Unfulfilment of these demands leads to legitimation crisis in capitalist countries

Dictionary Meaning : Supremacy or domination

The concept is used in two sense

International Level

A country can assume a position of Hegemon in

the International System

Domestic Level

Karl Marx Predicted

Economic Inequality in Capitalist Countries Communist Revolution

Antonio Gramsci

No Communist Revolution in Working class were

western Europe supporting Capitalist system

A new form of Power is used by Capitalist Class

Hegemony

It is exercised at the level of Rule of society in its entirety

civil society

Ideological Domination

Expanded role of State Political Domination

Economic Domination

Gramsci Bringing Social Revolution extremely difficult

Two Steps Strategy

Creating a Counter Hegemony

Restructuring Civil Society War of Position

Capture of State Power War of Maneuver

Gramsci Concept of ‘Passive Revolution’

It is a Revolution from above

It includes small economic and political change which does not

produce any social change

Society is changed in small degree but its basic structure is not

altered

The term ideology coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy

Study of ideas or science of ideas

Ideology can be understood in two ways

Descriptive Approach

Critical and Evaluative Approach

Descriptive Approach

•Explain conditions under which certain concepts, belief system and

moral ideas become influential
• Study of the formation and evolution of socially influential ideas

Critical and Evaluative Approach

•This approach adopted by Karl Marx and Engels in their book ‘German
Ideology’.
• Ideology refers to a set of ideas that serve to justify the rule of
dominant class
•Ideology refers to ‘False Consciousness’ – Ideology produces a distorted
view of society
© Saar Concepts
Ideology

End of Ideology

• Karl Mannheim : ‘Ideology and Utopia’ (1929)

- He anticipated the end of utopian thinking
- There is absence of utopian thinking in modern liberal society
- ‘Sociology of Knowledge’ : All our beliefs and ideas have social origins

• Daniel Bell : ‘The End of Ideology – On the exhaustion of Political Ideas and beliefs
in the 1950s’ (1960)
- There is end of Major ideologies
- Emergence of parochial ideologies

• Francis Fukuyama : ‘End of History and the Last Man’ (1992)

Idea of equality came into

History of the Concept prominence in 18th century

Critical attitude Greek Philosophers

Before Christianity
towards Equality Plato and Aristotle

Idea of Equality gets But the idea limited to

After Christianity
Prominence Religion

It becomes a driving
Equality becomes a force behind various
After Enlightenment
© Saar Concepts
Political Ideal revolutions and
reforms
Types of Equality

1. Moral Equality :
- Underlying assumption is : Equal Moral Worth of every human being
• Each human being is of equal worth
- The idea of equal worth arose with Christianity
- This idea of equal moral worth is present in all forms of equality

2. Legal Equality or Equality before Law

- The idea emerged as a reaction against the legal system of medieval
European Society
• Society was divided into different classes that were subject to
different Legal Order
• Members of Aristocracy and Clergy enjoyed legal Privileges
- The idea of Equality before law was promoted to reject these Privileges

3. Political Equality :
- Core idea is : Politically Power should be equally distributed among the
masses.
• Political Decision Makers should be chosen by elections in which
each member of the electorate cast one and only one vote and
all votes are given equal value

3. Equality of Opportunity :
- Equality of Opportunity is of two types
• Formal Equality of Opportunity
• Substantive Equality of Opportunity

4. Equality of Opportunity :
• Formal Equality of Opportunity :
- Career Opportunities should be open to all
- There should be no discrimination on the basis of Caste, Color, Creed
Religion, Language or any other social background
- It is concerned only with bringing everyone on the same line before
the competition

• Substantive Equality of Opportunity

- It is concerned with the removal of obstacles that stand in the way of
personal Development
- Access to educational resources and other sources of advantage be
equalized for all

4. Equality of Opportunity :
→ R.H. Tawney
- He Criticizes equality of opportunity principle in his book
‘Equality’ (1931)
- He calls Equality of Opportunity Principle as ‘Tadpole Philosophy’

5. Equality of Condition or Equality of Outcome

- It is the most radical version of equality
- Marxists Thinkers advocate for economic equality
• Economic Equality stands for material equality
> Equal level of income, living standard
• Louis Blanc describes principle of economic equality in a communist
society as “from each according to his ability and to each according
to his need”

→ Ruut Veenhoven decribes three ways for establishing equality of

condition :
- Redistribution of Power
- Redistribution of Knowledge

• Three Types of Equality of Condition

1. Equality of Welfare
- Advocated by Utilitarian Thinkers
- Equal Happiness and Well Being for all

2. Equality of Resources
- Advocate : Ronald Dworkin – His book ‘Sovereign Virtue’
- Resources available to each person should be equal in value

3. Equality of Capability
- Advocate : Amartya Sen – His article ‘Equality of What?’
- Two or more persons are equal when their capabilities are equal
- Capability is the ability of performing a Function

• Inequality is a problem faced by many societies and government must try to reduce
such inequalities

• Why should inequality be reduced ?

- Political Reason : Inequality is a threat to the stability of the society
- Humanitarian reason : No one should be deprived of a decent life

• Affirmative action is one way by which inequality can be reduced in society

• Affirmative action refers to the policies aimed at ensuring that the members of
historically disadvantaged group are given preferential treatment in government
jobs and admissions to educational institutions :
- This is done to ensure their social, economic and educational upliftment
in society
© Saar Concepts
Affirmative Action

• Hoffman and Graham refers to 4 types of Affirmative action policies :-

1. Encouragement : The job is advertised in the newspaper read by the targeted

community

2. Tie-Breaking : If two people are ‘equally qualified’ then the person from
disadvantaged group is chosen

3. Handicapping : Higher edibility criteria is set for candidates from wealthy

background

4. Quota System : A certain percentage of job and seat is reserved for

members from disadvantaged group

Liberty or Freedom denotes a condition where an Individual

is considered free

Freedom From Freedom to

Freedom From an Obstacle or Freedom to do something or

restriction become something

Benjamin Constant

Liberty of Ancients Active Participation in Politics

Liberty of Moderns Freedom to be left alone

Isaiah Berlin ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’ (1958)

Negative Liberty Freedom means lack of restrictions

Positive Liberty
© Saar Concepts
Freedom means doing what is worth
doing or realizing one’s potential
Liberty

G. C. MacCallum ‘Negative and Positive Freedom’ (1972)

He tries to combine Negative Liberty and Positive Liberty and

gives one single definition of Freedom

His definition is called Triadic Definition of Freedom

‘X’ is free from ‘Y’ to do or be ‘Z’

Modern State Collection of Citizens

Who are to be called Citizens ?

What are the Rights and Duties

accompanying Citizenship ?

Citizenship Eg. Passport

Membership of a Political Community Legal Status

A Person’s rights and duties that

Liberal Theory of Republican or Communitarian

Citizenship Theory of Citizenship

• Narrow view of Citizenship • Broad View of Citizenship

•Citizenship refers to the membership of a •Citizenship refers to the active

Political Community participation of the members in the
Political activities and Public Sphere.
• Citizenship is a legal status that is granted
to the members of a community • Citizenship is more than a legal status, it
denotes performance of Activities
•Here focus is on the Rights and Liberties
that come along with Citizenship. • Here Focus is on Duties

Liberal Theory of Republican or Communitarian

Citizenship Theory of Citizenship

• Supporters :
- Aristotle : Citizenship is the condition
self rule. It is the practice of ruling
and being ruled.

- Machiavelli and Rousseau

- Quentin Skinner, Adrian Oldfield

J.G.A Pocock

© Saar Concepts - Alasdair MacIntyre, Michael Sandel

Michael Walzer
Theories of Citizenship

Liberal Theory of Republican or Communitarian

Citizenship Theory of Citizenship

• T H Marshall’s Concept of Citizenship

• According to Marshall, Citizenship refers to the full membership of a political community.
• Rights associated to citizenship evolve in stages :

1. Civil Rights : These are rights necessary for individual freedom

Freedom of Speech, Assembly, Movement, Equality before law

2. Political Rights : It provides individual opportunities to participate in political life

Right to vote, Right to stand for election, right to hold public office

3. Social Rights : These rights guarantee citizens a basic minimum standard of living

© Saar Concepts
These include right to basic economic welfare and social security
Social Rights are provided by Welfare State
Acquisition of Citizenship

• State has the power to grant or take away Citizenship

- 1930 Hague Convention specified that
‘It is for each state to determine under its own law who are its nationals’

• Importance of Citizenship :
- Right to Citizenship is considered a ‘Human Right’
- Article 15 of UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares Right to
Citizenship as a Human Right
‘Everyone is entitled to a citizenship and citizens cannot be arbitrarily
deprived of their citizenship or denied the right to change it.

1. Jus Sanguinis
- Citizenship on the basis of descent
- Citizenship determined by blood lineage
- Followed by UK and other European States

2. Jus Soli
- Citizenship on the basis of Place of Birth
- Citizenship is conferred upon those born within the
State’s Sovereign Territory
- Followed in US and France

1. Naturalization

3. Naturalization
- Naturalization is a person’s acquisition of citizenship of a state whose
citizenship he or she did not acquire at birth.
- Conditions for naturalization commonly include :
• Minimum demonstrated time of residence
• Knowledge of National Language
• Knowledge of the society
• Proving one’s loyalty to the state

• Multicultural Citizenship
- Proponent is Will Kymlicka
- Multicultural Citizenship should be adopted in societies that are plural and
diverse
- State should grant these groups special language and cultural rights

• Differentiated Citizenship
- Proponent is Iris Marion Young
- Differentiated citizenship is also applicable in societies with diversity
- Citizenship should accommodate differences that exists in pluralist
societies

• Cosmopolitan Citizenship
- Proponents are Martha C Nussbaum and Kwame Anthony Appiah
- Citizenship should extend beyond the boundary of states
- People have moral obligation towards each other as human beings

• Postnational Citizenship
- Proponent is Yasemin Soysal
- Civil rights and duties can cross state borders.
- It talks about the possibility of having multiple citizenship.

He was born in Versailles (France) in 1924

His most Important

Publication

The Post Modern Condition : A Report on

Knowledge (1979)

It was with this book that Postmodernism

came to be applied in Social and Political
Theories

The period of Modernity is The Enlightenment Project

Over has failed badly

The Project aspired to create a more Rational World with

Freedom, prosperity and happiness fro all

With the help of Reason we transformed Sci-Tech, This is called

We developed ideas like Liberalism, Capitalism, Bureaucracy Postmodernism

The Outcome of Enlightenment Project has been We have lost our faith in
Disappointing Universal Grand Theories

Incredulity towards Meta-Narratives

Loss of faith in Meta-Narratives

It includes – Religion , Meta-Narratives or Grand Theories or Ideologies are

Ideologies like capitalism, – big Stories that we use to justify our activities,
Liberalism, Socialism etc institutions and values

We have lost our faith in Universal Belief Systems and

Grand Theories

We have rejected the claims of Universal Truth – this

Post After

Postmodernism

Modernism Modernity

A Historical Period An Intellectual Position

Objectivism
It comes after Pre Capitalist
and Pre-modern Period We can study the world objectively and arrive at a
single Universal Truth

A mode of life and social

Period after Enlightenment
organization that emerged in
and Scientific Revolution
17th century Europe
1. Structural Differentiation
Philip Selznick : Four Reasons 2. Secularization
for the arrival of Modernity
© Saar Concepts
3.
4.
Atomization
Rational Coordination
What is Postmodernism ?
Postmodernism

A Historical Period An Intellectual Position

Constructivism
A Post Industrial society

World can not be studied Objectively and we can

not arrive at single Universal Truth
Came into existence in 1970s
and 1980s as result of Antifoundationalism

There is no Universal Truth but a billion of

1. Rapid advancement in Individual Truth
Technology
2. Globalization © Saar Concepts
Application of Postmodernism in Political Science

• To show that ‘Dominant Narrative’ may not be correct

- Dominant narratives are explanations of most basic questions
of society which are widely accepted by the people.

• Postmodernism tries to show the hidden Power Interests behind these

narratives.

•Postmodernism tries to show that these dominant narratives cause

great deal of damage to those who do not conform to these narratives.
- These people are called marginalized and oppressed

1. Jean Francois Lyotard

2. Michelle Foucault

3. Jacques Derrida
4. Jean Baudrillard

• Jacques Derrida

- According to Derrida :
• There is no objective truth
• Elites use their power to help society construct a dominant narrative
about the reality
• These grand narratives are used to oppress social minorities and
non elite
• These dominant narrative serve the power interest of elite

→ ‘Deconstruction’ :
- It is the technique developed by Derrida by which hidden power
interest of dominant narratives can be uncovered.

• Jean Baudrillard

- According to Jean Baudrillard

• There is no objective truth
• Social Reality is constructed by power elite to promote their
interest in society
- The method developed to uncover the hidden power interest
of dominant narrative is called ‘Semiotics’
→ Some important books by Jean Baudrillard :
• Simulacra and Simulation (1981)
• The Perfect Crime (1996)

• The first name likely to be associated with the ideology of Socialism is that of
Karl Marx :
- Yet Socialism came centuries before Marx
- Plato’s Republic can be regarded as the earliest version of Socialism
• Communism of Wives and Property for Guardian class

• Utopian Thinker Sir Thomas Moore’s Socialism (1478-1538)

- He advocated communal ownership as an antidote to the sins of pride, envy
and greed.
- In his book ‘Utopia’ (1516) he imagines a fictional society
• This will be a socialist society where Money will be abolished
• Every Household contributes some good or service to the community
• Everyone is entitled to withdraw what they need from society’s

• In the aftermath of English Civil War (1642-1651)

- Several Socialist and Communist sects came up during this period.
• They were called ‘Diggers’ and ‘Levelers‘
• They believed that God created earth for all to be used commonly.

• All these Socialist views were from Agrarian Society

- The workers were Agricultural laborers.

• This older agrarian vision of Socialism was challenged after coming of Industrial
Revolution
- In the late 18th and early 19th century – peasants and farmers migrated to
towns and cities to work in factories and industries
- Capitalism made the condition of these workers pathetic

• © Saar Concepts
Many thinkers arose to criticize the ill effects of Capitalism in Society
Socialism and Marxism

• Saint Simon (1760-1825)

- He was a French Aristocrat who criticized Laissez Faire Capitalism
- He advocated for a Planned Economy.
• He believed that in an planned economy, no one will suffer and needs
of each one will be fulfilled in the economy.

• Saint Simon’s disciple Auguste Comte took the idea further

- Comte called himself ‘Positivist’
- He also emphasized the importance of scientific planning, prediction and
social control.

• Both Saint Simon and Auguste Comte represented a centralized version of Socialism

•
© Saar Concepts
But there were others who advocated for a decentralized version of socialism
Socialism and Marxism

• Charles Fourier
- He was a French Socialist
- He said that in a commercial society there is mad pursuit of wealth. People are
only concerned about earning money and profit.
- He advocated for the establishment of an ideal Harmonious Society
• This society was called by him ‘Phalanstery’
• It would a community of about 1600 people.
• People here will work freely and spontaneously
› Principle of Attractive labor will be followed
• People will share their labor and will work for mutual benefit.

• Robert Owen (1771-1858)

- He was a British Capitalist who was appalled by the effects of early capitalism
- So later in his life he became an ardent Socialist

• In 1800, in New Lanark , Scotland, Robert Owen established a model textile factory
that was radically different from existing factories
- The working condition was very good.
- Working hours were less and children were not allowed to work

• Owen described his socialist views in ‘A New View of Society’ (1813)

• In 1824, Owen took his idea to North America

- On a 30000 acre land he established a socialist community called
‘New Harmony’
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Marxism

• Early Socialists were concerned with remedying the ill effects of

Industrial Capitalism which was basically Poverty and Inequality.
- These Socialist often imagined of Ideal Society as a solution
- But none of them developed a thorough analysis of Capitalism

• They were thus called ‘Utopian Socialists’

- Because though they were critical of what they saw but their solutions were
unrealistic and unattainable.

• Marx and Engels publish their book ‘Communist Manifesto’ in 1848

- According to Engels, Communist Manifesto is a move away from Utopian to
Scientific Socialism

• Scientific Socialism claimed to be based on an analysis of history and social condition

- It also claimed to have a scientific knowledge of the development and cause
of social change.

• Using this new scientific method, Marx predicted that Capitalism would be replaced
by communism through a revolutionary struggle by the working class.
- Working class would act like the agent of change in society.

• What is Socialism ?
- It is a Critique, a vision and a strategy.

• Critique of Industrial Capitalism

- Early Utopian Socialists and Scientific Socialists both provide a critique of
Industrialized western society.
- Capitalism create a vast inequality of wealth and living conditions
- In Capitalism there is exploitation of working class by capitalist class
• Exploitation simply means that the working class do not receive the
full value of their labor as portion of it is taken away by capitalists.

• Vision of the good society

- Capitalism is regarded as an exploitative economic system which has either to
be controlled or abolished

• Two alternatives for a good society

- For Marxists, good society would mean a classless society where capitalism
have been totally abolished and where there is collective ownership of
means of production

- For other socialists, Good society can be created by reducing the ill effects of
capitalism. For example by reducing poverty and inequality.

• Strategy : Reform or Revolution

- For Revolutionary socialists like Marxists, good society can be created by

revolutionary means

- Reformist Socialists demand that any kind of violent revolution is both

undesirable and unnecessary.

• Variants of Socialism

- Communism
• It is type of revolutionary socialism
• According to some scholars, If Marxism is the theory then Communism is
is its practice.
• Some features of communism
› In a communist society, State plays a very important role. There is
state ownership of means of production. State even control the
minds of people through ideology and propaganda
› Marx and Engels predicted that with the coming of socialism State
will ‘Wither Away’ but in communist society state is institutionalized
› In Communist society you will find the most radical form of equality.

© Saar Concepts
› Communists believe that Socialism can be established only through
violent worker’s revolution
Socialism and Marxism

• Variants of Socialism

- Communism

• Karl Marx did not propose the model of Communism that we had seen
in 20th century Soviet Russia or present day China and North Korea

• We get the idea of Communism only when we add Lenin or Stalin or

Mao to the philosophy of Marxism.

• Lenin developed the idea of ‘Vanguard Party’

Stalin and Mao added the dimension of Absolute Control of society
and people by the state to Marxism.

• Variants of Socialism

- The ‘New’ Communism

• There are scholars like Slavoj Zizek, Alain Badiou, Jodi Dean and Gianni
Vattimo who are collectively called as ‘New Communists’
• They try to outline a much more positive notion of Communism, free
from its association with such authoritarian regimes as Soviet Union, or
China.

• Variants of Socialism

- Social Democracy.
• Social Democracy is associated with reformist socialism
• While revolutionary socialism advocates the necessity of revolution,
social democrats believe that socialism can be brought about
through peaceful method

• Marxists believe that State is an instrument of Capitalist class with which it

exploits the working class
› Social Democrats regards state as being able to be used as a vehicle
for social reforms. Eg Creation of Welfare state
• Capitalism itself can be made more humane and more socialist, there

• Variants of Socialism

- Fabian Socialism
• The ideology is closely linked with the labor party in Britain
• The Fabian society was formed in 1884 with the aim of implementing
socialist values within democratic societies through reformist
and gradualist method.
• Fabian Society is an academic society, historically associated with
HG Wells, George Bernard Shaw, Sydney Webb
› They had little faith in the working class being able to see the
benefit themselves.
› Socialism must be something introduced and developed from
above.

• Variants of Socialism

- Ethical Socialism
• This variant of socialism develops a moral critique of capitalism akin to
utopian socialism
• They want to promote socialist values such as community and cooperation
but at the same time maintain the liberal focus on liberty and rights
• Most important proponent of Ethical Socialism is R H Tawney
- His famous book is ‘The Acquisitive Society’ (1920)

- Third Way
• It attempts to find a desirable political and economic position
between socialism and Capitalism, or left and right wing
•
© Saar Concepts
The Key theoretical proponent of the ‘Third Way’ is
Anthony Giddens.
Ecologism
The term Ecology was coined by German
Ecologism
Zoologist Ernest Haeckel in 1866

Green Political Theory

A Concern for protection of natural

Environment

A Fundamental restructuring of the institutional

basis of economic and political life

Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962)

Barry Commoner’s ‘The Closing Circle’ (1971)
Club of Rome’s ‘The Limits to Growth’ (1971)

All these publications created a perception of global

Environmental Crisis

Important publications in Political Theory related to Environment

• William Ophul’s Ecology and Politics of Scarcity (1977)

• Robert Heilbroner : An inquiry into the human prospect (1980)
• Peter Hay : A Companion to environmental thought (2002)
• Aldo Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac
• David Schlosberg’s Defining Environmental Justice: Theories , Movement and
Nature (2007)
• Andrew Dobson : Citizenship and Environment (2003)
• Timothy Luke : Capitalism, Democracy and Ecology – Departing from Marx (1999)
• Val Plumwood : Environmental Culture (2002)
• Robyn Eckersley : ‘The Green State-Rethinking democracy and sovereignty’ (2004)
• Ernst Friedrich Schumacher ‘Small is beautiful’ (1973)
• James Lovelock : ‘Gaia’ (1979), The Age of Gaia (1989)
© Saar Concepts
Ecologism

Important publications in Political Theory related to Environment

• Murray Bookchin :
- Post Scarcity Anarchism (1971)
- The Ecology of freedom (1982)
- Remaking Society (1989)
• Rudoplh Bahro
- Socialism and Survival (1982)
- From Red to Green (1984)
- Building the Green Movement (1986)
• Carolyn Merchant
- The Death of Nature (1980)
- Radical Ecology (1991)

• Deep Ecology
- Advocate : Arne Naes
- It seeks to get to the root of the environmental problem
- Complete overthrow of existing liberal capitalist order
- Eco Centric or Bio Centric orientation
• All forms of life equally valuable
• Human being just one part of the web of life

• Shallow Ecology
- It is also called Environmentalism
- It advocated gradual solution to the environmental problems
- It does not support complete overthrow of exiting liberal capitalist order
- Anthropocentric in orientation

• Eco Authoritarianism
- Advocate : William Ophuls and Robert Heilbroner
- It is concerned mainly with immediate environmental crisis
- They seek a short term institutional solution to an environmental problem
- Suspension of Democracy is generally considered necessary for the solution
environmental problems.

Skeptical Environmentalism

• It is associated with Bjorn Lomborg

- His works takes inspiration from economist Julian Simon
- Julian Simon in his works like ‘The Resourceful Earth’ and ‘The Ultimate
Resource’ has argued that with human intelligence and technological
advancement we will be able to solve environmental problems
• According Lomborg :
- No such thing as environmental problem exist
- Environmental condition of developed countries is getting better day by
day.
- With economic growth and development, the environmental condition of
even developing country will get better.

© Saar Concepts
40
Benito Mussolini
and Fascism
Benito Mussolini and He was a Key figure in the
Fascism development of Fascism

Fascism is different from

Hitler’s Nazism (also called National
Socialism) in one way

Hitler’s Nazism was also a ‘Racist

Ideology’

Nazism = Fascism + Racism

Mussolini was born in

He began as a Socialist and Marxist
1883

Later he became part of a small group

In 1945 he was captured and murdered of Extreme Nationalist

Hitler rescued him and installed him as ruler The group demanded that Italy should
of Northern Italy Participate in World War I

In 1943 he dismissed and arrested

Later Mussolini built a Fascist
In 1936 he entered an alliance with Hitler Paramilitary Organization called
‘Rome – Berlin Axis’ ‘Black Shirts’

He seized power in 1922 and ruled Italy for

next 21 years © Saar Concepts
Benito Mussolini and
Fascism

First : Fascism Glorifies State

• State represents the Unified People

Second : Fascist economy is based on Corporatism

•The economy should be organized on corporatist

basis.
•Different sectors of economy are represented by
corporations of workers and employers.
• Corporations will plan everything cooperation with
the state.

Third : Fascism Glorifies its leaders

•Mussolini called himself ‘il Duce’ and Hitler ‘der

Fuhrer’ – both the term meaning leader.
• The leader is the symbol of people and their strength
• The leader is best of his people and has proved this
by having struggled to the top.

Fourth : Fascist leaders are not Autocrat but Demagogues

• They appeal directly to the masses of the people.

•They arouse mass passion and maintain a high degree
of mass solidarity.
• They control and use mass media for propaganda
• Great emphasis is put on symbolism

Fifth : Glorification of War

•It is in the war that a nation is most united and

disciplined.
• During war people have a sense of purpose and pride
• Fascist regimes tend to be highly militaristic

© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism

He is credited with the revival of

His Major Works
Normative Theorizing in Political Science

A Theory of Justice (1971)

Political Liberalism (1993)
Laws of People (1993)

Rawls develops theory of Justice which

‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971)
he calls ‘Justice as Fairness’

To arrive at his theory, Rawls uses the

old device of Social Contract
But Rawls Contract theory is different
from that of Hobbes and Locke’s theory

Rawls does not use the social contract device to arrive at a Theory of Government as is
done by Thomas Hobbes and Locke in their version of Social Contract theory

The objective of Rawls’ Theory

To provide a criticism of Utilitarian theory of Justice

According to Utilitarianism , we can sacrifice the

interest and liberty of an individual for the overall
happiness of the community

Rawls says Individual liberty can not be sacrificed

He wants to build a theory of Justice that will not

Rawls Method
Original Position is located
Original Position
behind ‘Veil of Ignorance’

The aim is to design the kind of

It is characterized by a
society into which we will move after
lack of knowledge
leaving the Original Position

• People don’t know about their talents and abilities

• they don’t know which position they will occupy in What people don’t know
the society

• People will know about scarcity of resources

• It will be good for them to have as much Primary What people know
© Saar Concepts
Social Goods like : Rights,Liberties,Income, Wealth etc
John Rawls Original Position

Everyone is self-interested and want as much of the

Primary goods as possible

They do not know the position they will occupy in the

society they are going to create

r
People will arrive at Two Principles of Justice

Liberty Principle First Principle

Second Principle

Two Principles of Justice

Each Person is to have an equal rights to the most extensive

Liberty Principle
liberty compatible with similar liberty to others

This kind of liberty may give rise to

socio-economic inequality
Second Principle

Social and economic inequalities are justified if they are based

on these two principles

Equal Opportunity Principle

John Rawls

Two Principles of Justice

Second Principle

Social and economic inequalities are justified if they are based

on these two principles

Equal Opportunity Principle

Inequality attached to the positions and offices open to all

under condition of fair equality of opportunity

Difference Principle

Two Principles of Justice

Second Principle

Difference Principle

It is a Principle of Distributive Justice

This Principle becomes the basis of the

idea of ‘Welfare State’

Poor should be provided with a minimum acceptable

standard of living by taxing the wealth of the rich

Two Principles of Justice

Lexical Order

Liberty Principle

Equal opportunity
Principle

Difference Principle

These Principles can be tested and modified if necessary by a process of

Rawls on Civil Disobedience

Once Principles of Justice have They need to be

been decided Institutionalized

We need to create Majoritarian

Political Institutions

Minority have the right to This majority may disregard the

practice Civil Disobedience Rights and interests of minority

Through Civil Disobedience they can appeal to the

‘A Theory of Justice’ has been subjected to a great deal of

analysis and Criticisms

Rawls reacts to these criticism in his

© Saar Concepts
→ Burdened Societies
• The Laws of People contains 8 Principles
45
Michael Sandel
and Communitarianism
Communitarianism

Aristotle, Aquinas, A broad tradition of Political Thought that emphasize

Hegel, Rousseau the moral and political value of Community

1980s – Communitarian thinkers reacted to liberal

Political Theory of John Rawls, Robert Nozick and
Ronald Dworkin

Prominent Communitarian Thinkers Include

It neglects the essential roles that Virtues, traditions

and communal belongings play in our lives

People derive their identity from being members of

community

Liberalism prioritizes the ‘Rights’ over ‘Good’

Morally neutral between different

For Liberalism Principles of Justice
view of what a good life means

Aim of Liberalism is to construct an Impartial No one way of life is considered

and Neutral framework of ‘Rights’ good over others

Liberal State is Neutral and Impartial

Only aim is to Enforce Individual

Liberalism prioritizes the ‘Rights’ over ‘Good’

For Communitarians

The idea that State is Neutral ‘Rights’ can never be prior to

is an Illusion ‘Good’

Because Function of Rights is

The scheme of ‘Rights’ always to Protect certain Interest
advance some conceptions of
‘Good’ at the expense of
others ‘Interests’ are nothing but a
version of good

Michael Sandel

Major Works

• Democracy and its Discontents (1998)

• Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (1998)
• Public Philosophy (2005)
• Justice : What is the right thing to do (2010)
• What Money cant buy ? (2012)

Michael Sandel Criticizes Rawls idea of Original Position

Michael Sandel Michael Sandel Criticizes Rawls idea of Original Position

According to Rawls

In order to arrive at Principles of We must place ourselves in Original Position

Justice and Under Veil of Ignorance

Behind the ‘Veil of Ignorance’ we do not

Michael Sandel Michael Sandel Criticizes Rawls idea of Original Position

Unencumbered Self

People can stand back from all of their inherited values and
communal attachment and freely make decisions

We can stand outside the Community framework

Human nature can be understood independent of the

community

This is the basic assumption of Rawls that Sandel rejects

Michael Sandel Michael Sandel Criticizes Rawls idea of Original Position

According to Sandel

Human beings are ‘Encumbered Selves’

Human Beings are The beliefs, desires and relationships that make us who
‘Situated Self’ we are – are all social and communal

They are not The ‘Self’ is constituted by the very community

‘unanchored’ but are attachments that Rawls wants us forget
always anchored to their

Charles Taylor

His major works

• The sources of the Self (1989)

• The Malaise of Modernity (1991)
•Multiculturalism : Examining the Politics of
recognition (1994)
• A Secular Age (2007)
• Essay “The Diversity of Goods” (1982)

Charles Taylor

A communal context is precondition of Individuality

Liberal theorists Only focus on Individual and Negative Liberty

They ignore the communal context required for

the enjoyment of individual liberty

They put more emphasis on Rights than Duties

His most important contribution in Political theory is in

the field of Distributive Justice

He is a Communitarian Thinker

Major Works

Thick and Thin (1994)

Spheres of Justice (1983)

Thick and Thin

There are two types of Moral Arguments

Thin Moral Arguments

Moral Principles that are shared by everyone and all cultures.

Eg. Political Tyranny is wrong, Oppression of poor is wrong

Thick Moral Arguments

Moral Values that are particular to given Culture

© Saar Concepts
These moral values depend o the history and culture, practices
and traditions of the members of a particular community
Michael Walzer

Spheres of Justice

This is Walzer’s most important

Work

Critique of Rawls Theory Pluralist account of theory of

of Justice Distributive Justice

Complex Equality

Just Distribution of Social Must take into account Cultural Particularities and
Goods moral values of a particular community

Principles of Justice should This argument is against Rawls’ argument who

reflect shared understanding of wants us to forget the influence of community.
members of a community

Different Social Goods have different values

There must be Plurality

Each Social Good occupy its own Sphere of Justice
of Distributive Principles

Health care Economic Wealth Education

Need Hard Work Merit

Nobody should receive better healthcare – simply because they

have more money or higher educational qualification

Robert Nozick says

Liberty vs. Equality Liberty and Equality are Libertarianism
incompatible

For John Rawls and Liberty and Equality are

Ronald Dworkin compatible

Liberal Egalitarianism

They try to bring

‘Equality’ more central

Inequality arising out of natural lottery

Rawls is not concerned
with them
Inequality in Natural Endowments

Rawls include many

undeserving poor in the
Who is really least category of disadvantaged
advantaged ?

By Choice : Disadvantaged as a
No Compensation needed
result of their own action

By Chance (Luck) : Disadvantaged as

In his book
‘Sovereign Virtues’

Ethical Individualism

Principle of Equal Importance

→ Everyone is important and human life should
be successful rather than wasted

Principle of Special Responsibility

Equality of Recourses

How Resources to be Distribution must distinguish between

distributed in society deserving and undeserving poor

Thought experiment : Shipwrecked Survivors

They agree to divide the resources

Case I Everyone has same natural talents
of the Island equally among them

Price of a Resource depends on

Everyone is given 100 Clam shells
the collective preference

Ambition Sensitive Distribution Goods people receive depends upon their choices

No one receives preferential treatment

The Distribution is Just if
All started with 100 clamshells
If it Passes the ‘Envy Test’

“No Division of resources is an equal division

, if, once the distribution is complete,
any one survivor would prefer someone else’s
bundle of resource to his own bundle”

Envy Test Fails

“Endowment-sensitive” Distribution
when the Distribution is

Distribution that is affected by the difference in

ability and natural talents

This will produce Income and other inequalities

Just
Endowment Insensitive Distribution
Distribution will be

We can ensure this by creating a

People are denied information about

Prior to the Auction
their natural talents

People given opportunity to purchase Insurance

against ‘Bad Luck’ and other Handicap

People spend some Clam shells to buy the

Insurance

They will compensation in Those who will have Bad

the form of extra resources Luck

Just Distribution

Ambition Sensitive

Endowment Insensitive

Nozick’s Political ideas are presented in

his most famous work

Other important Works “Anarchy , State and Utopia” (1974)

• Philosophical Explanations (1981)

• The Examined Life (1990)
• The Nature of Rationality (1993)
• Socratic Puzzle (1997)
• Invariances in the Structure of Objective World (2001)

“Anarchy , State and Utopia” (1974)

An attempt to reaffirm the Values and Beliefs of

Classical Liberalism

Central Premise of Classical Liberalism

Libertarianism Doctrine of Inalienable Natural Rights

Each Individual is endowed by nature with Rights

that no Government may infringe without their
Consent

Criticizes Rawls Theory of Welfare

“Anarchy , State and Utopia”
State and Theory of Justice

Theory of Minimal State

Entitlement Theory of Justice

Theory of Minimal State

Only Kind of state that is justifiable is

‘Minimal State’

State would be required to do no more than

Protective Functions

State will have no rights to make welfare or Social

Security Provisions for some citizens by taxing others

Nozick presents a modernized version of Locke’s

Theory of Minimal State
Social Contract Argument

Feel the need of protection against

People in the State of Nature
crime and invasion

People would mutually protect themselves Mutual Protection Agency

People will pay Specialists to protect them Commercial Protection Agency

There will be competition between

Dominant Protection Agency
different Protection Agencies

This will acquire monopoly over legitimate use

Entitlement Theory of Justice

Nozick adopts an Entitlement

Is it Just for You to have X, Y or Z ?
conception of Justice

The answer should not be based on whether you need X, Y or Z

The answer should be whether you deserve it or not

Whether you are Entitled Whether you have acquired the right to use them in Just
to it or not manner and in Just situation or not

Entitlement Theory of Whatever arising from just situation from just step is
Justice
© Saar Concepts itself Just
Robert Nozick

Right to Property

For Nozick Right to liberty is same as Right to Property

Right to Property arise in two ways

1. Just or Legitimate Acquisition

→ When someone peacefully acquires something that
is not already owned by someone else.

2. Just or Legitimate Transfer

→ When property is transferred from one owner to
another by some established legitimate process

Right to Property

Any distribution of property that does not violate these two condition is Just

No body can have any other claim against property of another, no matter how
great actual inequality is

If poor are to be assisted by the Rich, this must come

from act of Private Charity

It can not come through Social Welfare mechanism

Nozick’s Entitlement Theory of Justice

It Includes three principles

1. Principle of Just Acquisition

2. Principle of Just Transfer
3. Principle of Rectification of Injustice

She is a Libertarian Thinker

She gives the Philosophy of Rational Selfishness, Limited

Government, Individualism and Moral Capitalism

Her Philosophy is known as

“Objectivism”

The Fountainhead (1943)

Atlas Shrugged (1957)

Objectivism

It is Philosophy that Justifies Capitalism

Capitalism is a Moral System

Capitalism enables the rational individuals

to reap full benefits of his or her labor

Redistribution of wealth through tax and

welfare program is immoral

It Penalizes the headworker

50
Michele Foucault
and the Concept of Power
Michele Foucault

He was born in 1926 in France

He began as a Marxist thinker but in 1950s got strongly influenced

by the philosophy of Nietzsche and French Structuralism

Structuralism

Our natural assumption about our freedom to think and act as we

wish is illusionary

Human Activity is governed by deep internal structure, complex

sets of rules – which unconsciously work to severely constrain

His Major Works

• Madness and Civilization (1961)

• The Birth of Clinic (1963)
• The Order of things
• The Archeology of Knowledge
• Discipline and Punishment
• History of Sexuality

Genealogy

Foucault calls his method of study as Genealogy

Concepts such as justice, rights, good etc are not

discerned by reason – but are rather the result of
power struggle

Genealogy studies the way in which what we

count as knowledge is the result of power struggle
between different proponents of an idea

© Saar Concepts
This is called Genealogical analysis of Ideas
It flows from Top to Bottom
Michele Foucault
Power is Repressive
Capillary Power
Traditional Definition of Power

Old Model of Political Power based on Centralized Sovereign is no more applicable

Power was Direct

The King’s Head has been ‘Cut-Off’
and Visible

Sovereign was not involved in In Pre modern and early modern society –
Individual’s life beyond certain limits Power flowed from sovereign to subjects

This Type of Power is called Modernity has reconfigured the flow of

Capillary Power

This Type of Power is called Modernity has reconfigured the flow of

Capillary Power Power – It now originates from everywhere

Power is not something concentrated in one Place

Power erupts from different points of Social Network

Capillary Power means power over life – ‘Biopower’

Power is Productive
and Constitutive
A constant pressure is applied on Individual at Every point

Power is not only

Repressive © Saar Concepts
We are shaped by Power – Our Life is determined by power
without our own knowledge about it
Michele Foucault

Governmentality

• It is also called ‘Conduct of the Conduct’

It talks about breaking customs and traditions

and establishing new order

It talks about Conserving

They have advantage
Customs Traditions
of being proven in time

Conservatives are suspicious of any social or political

change in the name of Innovation or revolution
Conservatives are

© Saar Concepts
They have a Conservative View of Human Nature :
Humans are both intellectually and morally imperfect
not against change
or reforms
Conservative Thinkers

1. Edmund Burke
- Regarded as father of Modern Conservatism
- His book, ‘Reflections on the revolution in France’ (1790)
- The word ‘Conservatism’ was coined by Vicomte de Chateubriand

2. Joseph de Maistre
- He was also a critic of French Revolution
- His conservative thoughts were heavily influenced by religion

3. Samuel Taylor Coleridge

- He was a British Conservative Thinker
- He focused on the impacts of industrial revolution on society

4. Robert Nisbet
- American Sociologist and Conservative Thinker
- His important book ‘Quest for Community’ (1953)
- He is critical of the consequences of Liberalism
- Liberalism has produced isolated and alienated individuals who are now
searching for community life.

5. Michael Oakeshott
- He is an English Conservative Thinker
- His important work ‘Rationalism in Politics and Other essays’ (1962)

- He is against ‘Political Rationalism’

• Political Rationalism is the belief that society can be organized
on the basis of abstract and imaginary Principles and theories

- According to Oakeshott, States can be of two types

• Enterprise Association : Such States are based on agreements
among members to pursue some common goal or purpose
• Civil Association : It only includes a body of Law that are used to
regulate society so people can pursue their own unique goal
© Saar Concepts
Conservative Thinkers

6. Leo Strauss
- His important works includes :
• ‘Natural Right and History’ (1953)
• What is Political Philosophy
- Strauss is particularly critical of liberalism
• His conservative political philosophy is rooted in pre-modern
Political Tradition
• Pre Modern Societies focused on Virtue and human excellence
• But the goal of modern society is prosperity, comfort and
stability.
7. The American Philosopher, Allan Bloom, adopts basic arguments of Strauss in
his influential book :
• ‘Closing of American Minds’ (1987)
© Saar Concepts
Ecologism
The term Ecology was coined by German
Ecologism
Zoologist Ernest Haeckel in 1866

Green Political Theory

A Concern for protection of natural

Environment

A Fundamental restructuring of the institutional

basis of economic and political life

Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962)

Barry Commoner’s ‘The Closing Circle’ (1971)
Club of Rome’s ‘The Limits to Growth’ (1971)

All these publications created a perception of global

Environmental Crisis

Important publications in Political Theory related to Environment

• William Ophul’s Ecology and Politics of Scarcity (1977)

Important publications in Political Theory related to Environment

Skeptical Environmentalism

• It is associated with Bjorn Lomborg

1. Introduction
2. Origins of Liberalism :
- The Historical Development
3. Core Values and Concepts of Liberalism :
→ Liberty
→ Democracy
→ Rights
→ Tolerance
4. Classical Liberalism
5. Neoliberalism
6. Social Liberalism
7. Difference between – Classical Liberalism, Libertarianism and Social Liberalism
8. Neoclassical Liberalism
9. Critics of Liberalism :
→ Feminist Critique
→ Communitarian Critique
→ Marxist Critique
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Introduction

• What is a life lived with or in freedom looks like ?

→ A life based, to the fullest extent possible, on our own choices
- Political power exercised in a way that respects that respects the importance of our choices
- Government can not override our choices unless they can provide a valid very good
reason for doing so.
- Other people are expected to respect our choices and allow us to live the kind of life
that we chose for us.

• But this idea of freedom and life lived according to our own choices is not absolute
∙ The choice of a person can not be absolute and there are some limits on
what a person can do to others.
∙ Limits are in the form of : Individual Rights, Limited and Constitutional Govt,
© Saar of
separation Concepts
powers.
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• Ideas that prevailed before the arrival of Liberalism as a distinct political movement in late 17th century :
→ Society ought to be organized in accordance with faith, tradition and religion
→ State and Political institutions were considered divinely ordained
→ Appropriate organization of society derived from religion
- Social and Political implications of these ideas
∙ Divine Rights of Kings and Absolute Monarchy
∙ State Religion
∙ Heredity and Privilege

• These medieval ideas came under criticism with the arrival of Enlightenment in Europe
→ Enlightenment was a period which saw advancement in knowledge gained through scientific
method
- Enlightenment undermined the religious view of world
© Saar
- It proclaimed thatConcepts
Individual reason had the potential to discover and understand the
way the world worked.
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• Enlightenment thinkers not only attempted to understand the natural world with the help of reason.
→ They also tried to understand human society and how it functioned without using any divine
explanation.

• Thomas Hobbes and his book ‘Leviathan’

→ Hobbes attempted to discover the rational principles for organizing the political system of society.
→ He used the argument of ‘State of Nature’
- In the ‘State of Nature’ people are absolutely free to chose how they wish to act.
∙ But perfect freedom leads to dispute which turns the situation into a state of war
- In order to avoid the ‘state of war’ people make an agreement, ‘A Social Contract’, to form
a government.
∙ People give up their liberty to live under an absolute monarch.
→ Hobbes is considered a ‘Proto Liberal’ because his conclusion restricts individual liberty.
- But what is© Saarradical
highly Concepts
and new about his ideas is that :
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• Thomas Hobbes and his book ‘Leviathan’

→ Hobbes is considered a ‘Proto Liberal’ because his conclusion restricts individual liberty.
- But what is highly radical and new about his ideas is that :
∙ Hobbes used the idea of a ‘Social Contract’ between a government and its citizen
as a justification for government authority and reason why people should obey
the government.
→ This idea of Government based on the consent of the ruled was highly
influential and was used by later liberals.

• John Locke’s ‘Two Treatises of Government’ (1690)

→ Locke is regarded as father of Liberalism
→ He also used the argument of social contract to justify the existence of state.
- But Locke’s basic ideas and thus his conclusions was very much different from Hobbes.
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• According to John Locke :

→ People are not totally free to act as they wanted in the state of state of nature.
- In the State of nature liberty does not mean license.
→ People are born with certain ‘Natural Rights’ that protected their life, liberty and personal
property from incursion.
- Every one has natural right to Life, Liberty and Property.
→ The reason that individuals enter into a social contract with government was that
- Government would be better able to protect and enforce these rights of individuals.
• So what is the function and role of Government ?
→ It is to guarantee a private sphere of liberty to individuals, in which they could live as they
personally chose.
• People need to be protected against both, government and other individuals.
- Power of the government must have clear limits defined in a Constitution
© Saarthat
- Any government Concepts
does not respect people’s right can lose its legitimacy and be
resisted by the citizens.
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• Locke was writing in a time in which a lot of reforms were taking place in England
→ Glorious Revolution of 1688
- England became a Constitutional Monarchy
- Parliamentary Sovereignty was established in England
- This led to the birth of first modern Liberal State in Europe.
→ Other significant development in England
∙ Habeas Corpus Act of 1679
∙ Bill of Rights 1689
∙ Act of Toleration 1680

• The demand for Individual Political Right started gaining momentum outside Europe
→ American Revolution 1776
- In 1765, tension between the British and their American colonies worsened.
- Settlers asked to pay taxes without proper political representation
∙ This led to American War of Independence
- In 1776, ‘Declaration of Independence’ was passed
∙ ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal – that
they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights – life
liberty and pursuit of happiness.’
- The new Constitution of USA (1787)
∙ A strong national government
∙ Separation of power between Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.
∙ American Bill of Rights (First 10 Amendments)
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• Back in Europe :
→ French Revolution
- It is an historical period in France spanning from 1789-1799
∙ Louis XVI was over thrown and Feudalism was abolished by a popular rebellion.
∙ The revolution swept away the old regime and established a new state where
individual had the opportunity to freely pursue their own aims.
- The most influential document to come out of French Revolution was
∙ ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens’
∙ The declaration was passed in the National Constituent Assembly in 1789
∙ The declaration aimed to provide that every male citizen live under the condition
defined by the values of liberty, equality and fraternity.

• Analysis of Trade and Economy by Early Liberal Thinkers :

→ Early liberal thinkers did not just focus their attention upon the relationship between government
and its citizen
- They also tried to understand the way trade and economy functioned.
→ Adam Smith
- ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations’ (1776)
- In his days, national wealth was understood as country’s stock of gold and silver.
∙ Importing goods was seen damaging and exporting was considered better.
∙ Taxes were imposed on imports and subsidy was given on exports
∙ Manufacturers and Merchants were granted monopolies by Kings.
→ This practice was called ‘Mercantilism’
- Smith Criticized Mercantilism
∙ He showed that free exchange of goods leave both sides better off.
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• According to Smith
→ The way to judge a Nation’s wealth is not by the quantity of gold and silver but the total of its
production and commerce
∙ The contemporary concept of ‘Gross National Product’ (GNP)
→ He argued that individuals should be left free to pursue their own interests and to make their own
economic choices.
∙ This provides the conceptual basis of the idea of ‘Free Trade’

• Period after French Revolution saw further development of the idea of Liberalism
→ Important works like Thomas Paine’s ‘The Rights of Man’ (1791) and Marry Wollstonecraft’s
‘The Vindication of The Rights of Women’ (1792) helped to encourage mass support
for democratic reforms.
• In 1839, a group of member of Whig Party, a political party committed to Parliamentary Sovereignty,
joined hands with some other© Saar Concepts
parties and called themselves ‘Liberals’
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• One thing we have to note is that there is a key challenge that liberal ideas must face :
→ Individuals have an interest in being able to make their own choices about how to live their own
lives.
- But allowing free choice may give rise to disputes as the freedom of one individual
can come into conflict with another
- A coordinating authority can itself come to form a threat to the liberty of citizens
→ Liberalism needs to establish a correct relationship between liberty and authority
- John Stuart Mill’s concept of ‘Harm Principle’
∙ The only grounds for an authority to interfere with liberties of individual would
be to prevent harm to others. (Other regarding and self regarding actions)
- Mill held certain liberties to be basic and fundamental
∙ Freedom of Conscience and expressions
∙ Liberty of tastes and pursuits
© Saar
∙ Freedom Concepts
of association
Liberalism
Core Values and Concepts

• Liberty :
→Liberty is the most important political value of liberalism
→ Primacy of liberty was first articulated by Locke :
- Liberty means that one should not interfere in the lives of others and one is free to pursue
one’s own goals as long as they do not limit the freedom of others.

→ Mill expanded on Locke’s view of liberty. According to Mill

- All people are born free and equal.
- A person need not defend this liberty, but rather those who seek to override it need to
provide justification for it.
∙ This is called Fundamental Liberal Principle
∙ Freedom is the standard way of being for all humans
∙ Those who seek to limit the freedom must provide rational for their action.
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Core Values and Concepts

• What makes an Individual free ?

→ What sort of conditions limit the liberty of individuals.

• Two competing way to answer this question

- Negative Liberty
- Positive Liberty

• Isaiah Berlin in his famous work ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’ (1958) explains the difference between
Negative Liberty and Positive Liberty

• Negative Liberty :
→ Freedom means being free from any physical or legal obstacle
→ Its negative in the sense it talks about absence of any kind of restraints or restrictions to
individual’s action.
- An individual can chose how they wish to act
∙ There should be no unnecessary barrier or restriction either from government
or governments.

→ For Negative liberty, it does not matter what kind of choice an individual makes or whether the
individual have the capability to act on the choice that is made.
- For Negative Liberty what matters is that option to make choices remain open to all.

→ Proponents : Steiner, Nozick, Hayek

• Positive Liberty
→ Here focus is on the Choices that people actually make and the way they make the choice.
→ It emphasizes not just choices but also the content of the choices
- Some choices are good and some choices are bad.
- To be free means to pursue choices that are considered good.
∙ You pursue good choices when you have ‘Self Mastery’

• Berlin Criticizes Positive Liberty. According to Berlin

→ If freedom consists in making the right sort of choices or making the choices in right way
- It is possible for people to be mistaken in the choices that they actually make.
→ Positive freedom allows someone else to impose a decision upon an individual
- The person imposing the decision can claim that such act can make the person more
free.
© Saar Concepts
∙ Eg. Rousseau's idea of ‘Forced to be Free’ in the context of ‘General Will’
Liberalism
Core Values and Concepts

• Other Conceptions of Positive Liberty : Freedom as ‘Autonomy’

→ T H Green
- A person can be unfree if he/she is subjected to an impulse or craving that cannot be
controlled. Eg. Being Alcoholic
- Being free means being free from such compulsions and acting in a self directing and
autonomous way.
- Freedom as Autonomy means
∙ Determining one’s self and shaping one’s life by rationally reflecting on one’s choices
goals.
→ Other supporters of the idea : Mill, Ronald Dworkin, Will Kymlicka

• Liberal Perfectionism : Joseph Raz and Steven Walt

→ An autonomous life in which individual make good choices is valuable.
© Saar
→ State should act in ways thatConcepts
promote autonomy and make it more likely that individual choose
valuable options.
Liberalism
Core Values and Concepts

• Democracy :
→ For liberals, Democracy is a form of government or system of rule that is consistent with
protection of individual freedom.
- A democratic system of rule attempts to be responsive to the choices of individuals.
- The democratic government is accountable and responsible to the people.

→ Are Democracy and Liberalism synonymous ?

- Some times, decision made by the majority may not be supported by the minority and this
may end up infringing the rights of those who did not support the decisions
∙ This situation is referred to as ‘Tyranny of Majority’
- One way of protecting individual freedom from such tyranny is to insist upon strong
individual rights that can not be easily overridden by democratic decisions.

• Rights :
→ The idea that there are certain things that people may not do to one another, or government may
not do its citizens.
- These limits are expressed in the language of rights.
→ Rights can also be seen as protections that places limits upon the ways that either government or
other individuals may treat them.
→ Key areas where liberals think individuals should be offered the protection of rights are :-
- Protection of their body and personal security
- Protection of the freedom of conscience, so that individuals can believe, think and express
themselves as they wish.
- Protection of due process rights, so that individuals do not get punished without a fair
trial.
- Political rights requiring government to be responsive and accountable to them.
- Property rights,© so
Saar
thatConcepts
individuals can own and control their property.
Liberalism
Core Values and Concepts

• Tolerance
→ Being able to live along side people with whom you do not share common belief and customs.
- This becomes much easier if state does not seek to promote any particular way of life,
instead, leave it up to individuals to make choices for themselves about how they
want to live.

→ Liberalism is committed to tolerance as an ideal in itself

- This means acknowledging the right each individual has to make their own life choices, even
if you personally disagree with how they want to live.

• From Classical liberal point of view, individuals are rational beings who are entitled to freedom to choose
how they wish to lead their lives.
• They believe that society in which individuals are allowed to pursue their own interests will be most
effective
→ If rewards are distributes in a meritocratic ways, this will encourage people to develop their
talent and work hard.

• Classical liberals supports the view of a Limited State

→ The role of a ‘Limited’ or ‘Minimal’ state is primarily limited to the maintenance of property
rights, domestic order and personal security of individuals.

• Classical Liberalism is also an Economic Doctrine :-

- It is the precursor of the present day idea of ‘Neoliberalism’.

• Basic tenets of Classical liberalism as an Economic Doctrine

→ Market is ‘Self-Regulating’. Any type of Government intervention in market is both unnecessary
and damaging.
→ Economy should be organized in such a way that greatest possible number of economic choices
are made by individuals and firms and not by Government.
- There should be free movement of labor and goods.
- Private ownership of business
- Open competition in the free market.
- Free trade with no government intervention.

• Role of government is limited to

→ Provision of public goods like Defense
→ Maintaining stable environment for
trade. © Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Neoliberalism

• Neoliberalism :

→ How Neoliberalism develops ?

- Free market economy and classical liberalism grew in popularity for hundreds of years.
- But in the first half of 20th century, much of the economic activity started coming under
tighter government control.
- After first world war and after rise of socialism and Marxism
∙ The dominant opinion started becoming critical of Liberalism

- Liberal democratic countries and government started taking active role in their economies.
∙ Liberal states transformed themselves into ‘Welfare States’.
∙ Government started providing key goods and services to their citizen through
development and welfare programs.
© Saar
- This transformation Concepts
of liberal states was influenced by the ideas of an English Economist
John Maynard Keynes.
Liberalism
Neoliberalism

• Neoliberalism :

→ How Neoliberalism develops ?

- According to Keynes
∙ Economies work best when steps are taken by government to manage them.
∙ Keynes held that a country’s total or aggregate demand for goods and services at any
time was what that determined the overall level of economic activity.
→ State intervention was needed to moderate ‘boom and bust’ cycle of
economic activity.
→ State needs to promote and maintain full employment
→ State needs to stimulate growth by increasing their spending in condition
of recession.

• Neoliberalism :

→ How Neoliberalism develops ?

- Keynesian Economic policies that called for greater intervention in the economy held sway
until the 1970s.

- In academic thought, Classical Liberalism was revived in the work of Austrian economist
F A Hayek and others of Mont Pelerin Society.
- The classical liberal idea which they wanted to keep alive was :
∙ Economies run best when they are left free from government intervention allowing
individual people to make their own choices.
- In his book, ‘The Road to Serfdom’ (1944) , Hayek Argued
∙ Collectivists policies are dangerous, attempts to plan and manage economies will
always ©
tendSaar Concepts
to be unsuccessful.
Liberalism
Neoliberalism

• Neoliberalism :

→ How Neoliberalism develops ?

- In his book, ‘The Road to Serfdom’ (1944) , Hayek Argued
∙ Collectivists policies are dangerous, attempts to plan and manage economies will
always tend to be unsuccessful.
∙ Such policies would always call for further controls
∙ As a result, government intervention in economies would eventually lead to
totalitarianism.
- 1970s faced many economic crisis, one such was ‘Oil Shocks’ of 1973
∙ When oil prices were raised in 1973, Price of petrol quadrupled overnight
→ This led to inflation and rising unemployment at the same time.
The situation was called stagflation.
© Saar
→ Post war Concepts
Keynesian Consensus on Economic Management came under
criticism.
Liberalism
Neoliberalism

• Neoliberalism :

→ How Neoliberalism develops ?

- 1970s faced many economic crisis, one such was ‘Oil Shocks’ of 1973
∙ When oil prices were raised in 1973, Price of petrol quadrupled overnight
→ This led to inflation and rising unemployment at the same time.
The situation was called stagflation.
→ Post war Keynesian Consensus on Economic Management came under
criticism.
- It was in this unstable economic environment that a new breed of liberals were born and
their ideology came to be called ‘Neoliberalism’.
∙ They sought to revive Classical Liberalism under the new found condition of
Globalization
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Neoliberalism

• Neoliberalism :
→ What is Neoliberalism ?
- It was in this unstable economic environment that a new breed of liberals were born and
their ideology came to be called ‘Neoliberalism’.
∙ They sought to revive Classical Liberalism under the new found condition of
Globalization
∙ Basic tenets of Neoliberalism :
→ Market is self regulating so there should be minimum intervention.
→ Economic success is best achieved by governments trying to reduce
their role in actively managing and regulating economy.
→ Neoliberal Policies : Deregulating the economy, Liberalizing trade and
industry and privatizing state owned enterprises.
→ All economic problems can be solved by free market and the resulting
economic growth will provide resources to solve socio-political problems.

- The awarding of Nobel Prize to Hayek and Milton Friedman in 1974 and 1976 confirmed the
rise to prominence of Neoliberalism.
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Neoliberalism

• Neoliberalism :

→ Milton Freidman : ‘Capitalism and Freedom’ (1962)

- Milton Friedman challenged Keynesian economics by suggesting that there is a natural rate
of unemployment and attempts to keep unemployment below this natural rate would
cause inflation to accelerate.
- Friedman developed a theory known as ‘Monetarism’. According to this theory :
∙ Government should abandon attempt to promote full employment and instead
focus on maintain stable economic condition free from inflation.
- Friedman’s idea of monetary policy influenced many governments in 1980s.
- He was also advisor to US President Ronald Reagan and British PM Margret Thatcher.

• Neoliberalism :

→ UK Prime Minister Margret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan of USA were prominent
Neo Liberal Leaders.
- They were vocal advocates of ‘Small State’ and Free Market Reforms.
- They were strong opponents of Socialism in any form.

• Neoliberalism set the world’s economic and political agenda from early 1980s to 2008-09
→ Global economic crisis of 2008 could have spelled the end of free market fundamentalism, but
this has not occurred.
- Neoliberal economic policies remain institutionalized in many states.
- Ability of governments to take an active role in the economy still remains weak.

• Neoliberalism :

→ Yet the future of neo-liberal economic model remains in question

- Governments around the world have been struggling to recharge their economies and
achieve previous level of growth.
→ Some Critics, like Thomas Piketty, predicts that the neo-liberal future will be one of low growth
and drastically increasing inequality.
- Without an alternate economic model being put in place, economic inequality will become
unsustainable leading to political instability.

• Theorists in the late 19th and early 20th century realized that :
→ Conditions of industrial capitalism could themselves pose a threat to freedom individual choices
→ Industrial Capitalism leave the majority of the population at the mercy of those with
greater economic power.
→ Economic conditions prevents individuals from achieving their aim.

• According to Social Liberalism

- Options and choices are only valuable to individuals if they have some means of
achieving them.
- Freedom is freedom to personal development and self-realization.
• Social Liberals thus take a more positive view towards State
→ They are more favorable towards welfare reforms and economic management than classical
liberalism.
→ They see a key role© of Saar
state Concepts
for maintain equality.
Liberalism
Social Liberalism

• J S Mill was the first liberal thinker to develop the idea of Social Liberalism
- Mill did not include freedom of economic choices in his list of basic liberties.
- Instead, Mill focused on those freedoms that are essential to the development of
individual identity. (Individuality)

• Fullest account of social liberalism comes from John Rawls’ Great work ‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971).
→ Principles of Justice are principles that free and equal rational persons would agree to as
fundamental terms of social cooperation.
→ Rawls asks us to imagine what organizing principles for society we would chose, if we knew
nothing about where within that society we would end up.
- Rawls wants us to be impartial in principles that we select.

• According to Rawls, three principles would be chosen from such a position

→ Basic Liberty : Individuals would want to ensure that their basic liberties are protected.
→ Equality of Opportunity : Individual’s life chances are not determined by their social
background
- No discrimination on the basis of race, color, sex, creed, etc
- Poor had as good access to education as the wealthy.
→ Difference Principle
- Any social and economic inequalities should be organized so that they are to the
greatest advantage to the least well-off.
∙ Inequality that benefit everyone, including the least well-off of society, are
justified.
∙ Inequality that are so wide to threaten people’s chances of attaining their
personal goals are unjustified.
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Differences

• It is very important to understand the difference between – Classical Liberalism, Libertarianism and Social
Liberalism (Social Liberalism is also called Modern Liberalism or High Liberalism)

• Basic difference between them lies in their conception of Economic Liberty.

• By liberty, we understand a sphere of human agency that ought to be legally respected and protected.
→ Economic liberties are liberties of the person as an economic agent.
→ Economic liberty requires the general protection of independent activity in economic matters.
- Economic liberty includes following activities
∙ Liberties of working
∙ Liberties of transaction
∙ Liberties of owning properties
∙ Liberties of using properties
© Saar Concepts
Liberalism
Differences

• Libertarianism
→ All of the economic liberties are supremely significant. Economic liberty is absolute.
Economic liberty is more important than any other liberties like civil or political liberty.
- Economic liberty can not be regulated or restricted for any reason except to
ensure that same economic liberty is available for all.

• Classical Liberalism
→ The economic liberties are treated as member of the set of liberties that must be given special
weight in order to secure a good society.
- Economic liberties are equally significant than other liberties. They are on par with other
liberties like civil and political liberties.
→ Full range of economic liberties should be treated as basic but not absolute.
- Classical liberals allow regulation of one economic liberty in order to enable the
©beSaar
other. It can Concepts
regulated to secure other basic economic liberties.
Liberalism
Differences

• Social Liberalism or High Liberalism

→ Economic liberty can and should be regulated in order to secure other social values and goods.
- Economic liberty is less significant than other values like Justice.
- They propose to limit or regulate economic liberty in order to ensure material
well being of the poor and disadvantaged.
∙ Economic liberties can be limited or regulated in order to advance the
more significant goal of Social Justice.

• Neoclassical Liberalism
→ Neoclassical liberalism is the midway between classical liberalism and Social or high
liberalism.
- It tries to combine the support for economic liberty of classical liberalism
with the concern for social justice of Social Liberalism.
→ Neoclassical liberalism combines a robust commitment to social justice with a commitment to
more extensive set of economic liberties than advocated by social liberals.
→ It bring together the concern for economic liberty and property rights with the requirements
of social justice and least well off members of society.

∙ Proponents : David Schmidt, Gerald Gauss, Charles Griswold, Jacob Levy etc.

• Conceptual limitations in liberalism can be highlighted from the following perspective

→ Feminist Critique of Liberalism

- According to Alison Jagger and Cathrine Mackinnon
∙ Liberalism do not recognize the asymmetry of power between men and women in world
- Liberal concept of power
∙ There exists asymmetry of power that renders women structurally less equal to
men in social, political and economic realm
- Emphasis on the idea of rational liberal individual do not give due importance to the
role that values like emotions and care play in moral and political life.
∙ Such a view has permitted men to denigrate women for their emotional nature.

• Conceptual limitations in liberalism can be highlighted from the following perspective

→ Communitarian Critique of Liberalism

- Liberalism is too individualistic. It view individuals as an asocial and atomized being
∙ Individuals are instead embedded within social context – shaped by their families,
groups and communities that surround them
- Liberalism rests on an account of individual that removes them from their proper social
context.
- According to Michael Sandel
∙ Our personal identity can not be independent of our social context.
∙ We need to give particular attention to local and particular values within which
our thoughts are based
- Therefore liberty of liberal individuals is a misguided myth because it ignores
the© Saar Concepts
collective nature
of social life.
Liberalism
Critique of Liberalism

• Conceptual limitations in liberalism can be highlighted from the following perspective

→ Marxist critique
- Liberalism’s lack of focus on class and productive dynamics of society, makes liberalism
ignorant of the social context that determines history.
∙ This blindness conceals the reality of unequal class power.
∙ Liberalism is a bourgeois ideology which serve to legitimize the capitalist
class relations.
- True emancipation can only be achieved through a collective reshaping of
productive relations.

Communism
Revolutionary
Stalinism
Marxism
Maoism
Marx and Marxism
Critical Theory
Revisionist Marxism
(Bernstein)
Social Democracy
Early Socialists
(Utopian Socialism)

Anarcho-Communism

Fabian Socialism
Non Marxist Socialism
Christian Socialism

• Socialism emerged as an ideology and movement in the late 18th early 19th century.
→ It emerged as a reaction to the perceived injustice and inequalities of the modern industrial
society and capitalism.

• But socialist ideas have been in existence even before the arrival of Capitalism
- Greek Philosopher Plato talked about Communism of Wives and property for the
Guardian Class in his book Republic.
- Early Christians also practiced socialist principles of common ownership and sharing

- Thomas More’s book ‘Utopia’ (1516)

∙ He imagines an ideal society in which there will no private property
∙ Money would be abolished
∙ Society will have a common storehouse of goods and services
- Every one will contribute to the society according to their capacity
- Every one can draw from the common storehouse according to their need

• But socialist ideas have been in existence even before the arrival of Capitalism
- Rousseau in his book ‘Origins of Inequality in Society’ criticized Private Property and claimed
that private property is the source of all evils in society
∙ Rousseau’s ideas have inspired many socialists but Rousseau himself was not
a socialist.
∙ Rousseau criticized private property but he never advocated for the abolition of
private property.

• Socialism emerges as an organized set of ideas only after the arrival of Capitalism.
- Socialism was a Criticism of Capitalism and its negative effects.
- Socialism tried to provide an alternative to Capitalism.

• Negative effects of Capitalism started emerging in European Societies in the early 19th century.
→ Economic inequality was rising
→ Gap between rich and poor was increasing.
→ Condition of factory and mill workers was becoming bad to worse.

• In response to these injustices of Capitalism, many key thinkers started raising their voice against
Capitalism.
∙ Henri de Saint Simon
∙ Robert Owen
∙ Charles Fourier

• Henri de Saint Simon

- He was not fundamentally against Capitalism but wanted to Capitalism equally beneficial
for the working class people.
∙ He claimed that capitalism only benefitted the Capitalist Class.
∙ It was through exploiting the workers that the capitalist built their wealth and richness.

- Henri de Saint Simon built an ideology to suggest reform in Capitalism

→ Industrialism
∙ It means that factory owners should keep in mind the needs and interests of
working class while managing the factory.

• Robert Owen
- Robert Owen was himself an industrialist
∙ But he was himself disturbed by seeing the poor condition of working class.
∙ He wanted to reform the factory system and the production method used in them
→ He said that production should be based on cooperation.

- In order to implement his ideas, in 1800, Owen established a model factory in New Lanark, Scotland
∙ The factory did not employ children and women.
∙ Factory took care of the education of the children of factory workers.
∙ Working condition was made very good and work hours were reduced.

- Owen highlighted the success of his experiment in his 1813 book, ‘A new View of Society’
→ Owen tried to persuade other capitalists to follow his model

• In 1824, Owen acquired 30000 acres of land in North America and established an experimental
communist society called ‘New Harmony’
- The experiment failed within 4 years.
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Utopian Socialism

• Charles Fourier
- He said that society should be divided into small-small community which would be self sufficient
and politically independent.
- He said that an ideal small community should have maximum of 1600 people.
→ He named these types of communities as ‘Phalanstery’.

• Problems with Early Socialism :-

∙ It was only concerned with the ill effects of capitalism on working class.
∙ It did not carry a thorough analysis of Capitalism and never called for its complete rejection.
∙ It tried to correct the ill effects of Capitalism by imagining Ideal Societies based on Community,
cooperation and fairness.
∙ Early Socialism only focused on what was wrong with society
∙ It did not say anything about how to change the society
– it lacked a political program for achieving the socialist goals.

• In 1848, Marx and Engels published ‘Communist Manifesto’.

→ Engels claimed that it was a move from ‘Utopian’ to ‘Scientific Socialism’
∙ The term scientific socialism was first used by Proudhon.

• Marx and Engels called their version of Socialism as ‘Scientific Socialism’ because :
- It was based on an analysis of the development of history and causes of societal change
- They claimed that their version of socialism had the capacity to predict what will happen
after capitalism and prove their prediction.

Class less, Common Ownership No Exploitation

Primitive Communism
and Primitive

Master and Slave

Slave Society
Means of Production : Labor

Exploitation of one
History

Feudal Lords and Serfs class by the other –

Feudal Society
Means of Production : Land Class struggle

Capitalists and Workers

Capitalist Society
Means of Production : Factory
Post-history

Classless, Common Ownership

Communism No Exploitation
and Advanced
Socialism and Communism
Marx and Marxism

• In the ‘Communist Manifesto 1848’ Marx claimed that :

→ The whole history of mankind has been a history of class struggle and conflict between
exploiting and exploited, ruling and oppressed.

→ The process has now reached a stage at which

- The Oppressed class i.e the Proletariat has understood the cause of their exploitation
- The Proletariat is now ready to attain their emancipation from the domination
ruling class i.e. the Capitalist.
- While emancipating themselves, the working class will emancipate the entire
society from all kinds of exploitation, class distinction and class struggle.
∙ Working class has an Historical role to perform because they will be
the agent of the revolution.
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Marx and Marxism

• In 1867, Marx published the first volume of his most famous book, ‘Das Capital’.
→ Marx presented a very thorough and detailed analysis of the contradictions of Capitalism
→ He explained how the Capitalist class exploits the working class for profit.
∙ Workers are Producers of products but are not the owners of their production.
∙ Workers are paid less than the value that they actually create.
∙ Surplus value is kept by the Capitalist in the form of profit.
∙ He predicted that this exploitation will soon reach its highest point and after
that there will be a Communist Revolution which will replace
capitalism with communism.
- A communist society will be a class less society where there will be no
exploitation.
- All the property and means of production will be collectively owned by
© Saar
all. Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Communism

• Marx – Engels Theory of Communism

→ The theoretical teachings of Marx and Engels can be broadly divided into two categories
- Critique of Capitalism and attempts to justify the inevitability of Capitalism’s demise.
- Ideas related to a futuristic society which will be fully egalitarian and just.
∙ This regime of the future was called ‘Communism’
∙ According to Marx and Engels, Communism would supplant capitalism through a
series of revolution initiated in the industrialized west and eventually spread
throughout the world.

→ This side of classical Marxism is not very well developed and thus contains
ambiguities and contradictions.
→ This side of Classical Marxism also offers a lot of room for various types
of interpretations.
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Communism

• Original Theory of Communism was provided by Marx and Engels

→ Lenin’s interpretation of it gave rise to ‘Leninism’
→ Stalin’s addition to Lenin’s ideas became ‘Stalinism’
- Based on Leninism-Stalinism is Mao Zedong’s teaching which is called
Maoism
- Communism and all its variants represents the revolutionary version
of socialism

• There is an Original Theory of Communism

Leninism

Revolutionary Marxism
Stalinism
(Communism)

Maoism

• Leninism has been a dominant branch of Marxism for most of the 20th century

→ This branch of communist ideology was named after Vladimir Lenin.

∙ Vladimir Lenin was the mastermind of the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the founder
of Soviet Union in 1922.

→ Leninism developed as a result of practical efforts to apply the teachings of Marx and Engels to
the Russian Condition.
- Leninism is thus focused on the practical solutions to specific problems of
organizing a successful revolution and building a socialistic economy and state.

• How Leninism is different from Classical Marxism ?

1. Lenin’s idea of ‘Vanguard Party’

∙ According to Marx, Communist organization would be a large, inclusive and broadly

based organization involving working class people.
→ But Lenin believed that the Communist Party should be small, exclusive
highly organized and tightly disciplined.
→ The Party would comprise of Professional Revolutionaries
who themselves did not belong to the working class.
→ The organization would educate and guide the masses for a violent power
take over.
- Such a party he called ‘Vanguard Party”
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Leninism

• How Leninism is different from Classical Marxism ?

1. Lenin’s idea of ‘Vanguard Party’

→ ‘Trade Union Consciousness’ vs ‘Revolutionary Consciousness’

- Without the Vanguard Party, workers will develop ‘Trade Union Consciousness’
∙ Workers will find the little benefits given by the Capitalists as attractive and
will think of reforming capitalism instead of abolishing it.

- It is only the Communist Party which can educate the masses and make their realize
their real interests and thus building in them ‘Revolutionary Consciousness’

• How Leninism is different from Classical Marxism ?

1. Lenin’s idea of ‘Vanguard Party’

→ Democratic Centralism
- Communist party claimed to represent the true interests of
workers and peasants : the Demos
- Inside the party free discussion was to be permitted
∙ But once a decision has been taken, discussion will have to stop and
everyone will have to follow the ‘party line’
- This notion of internal party democracy was called ‘Democratic Centralism’

• How Leninism is different from Classical Marxism ?

2. Lenin’s idea of ‘Agrarian Proletariat’

∙ In his well know book ‘What is to be done?’, Lenin proclaimed that peasantry is
essentially the ‘Agrarian Proletariat’
- Peasantry could be inspired by the professional revolutionaries to join the
industrial workers in deposing the imperial government, taking power and
establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat (temporary state).

• How Leninism is different from Classical Marxism ?

3. Lenin’s theory of Imperialism

∙ In the early 20th century, many questioned why capitalism did not collapse as predicted
by Marx.
- Lenin presented an answer in his work ‘Imperialism : The Highest Stage of
Capitalism’ (1916)
- According to Lenin, Advanced capitalist countries colonize less developed
countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
→ By gaining access to the markets in these countries and exploiting their
labor and natural resources, the imperial powers try to support their
ailing economies and buy off their industrial workers.

• How Leninism is different from Classical Marxism ?

4. Lenin’s ‘Theory of the Revolutionary Situation’

→ Lenin developed this theory in his work ‘The State and the Revolution’ (1917)
→ According to the theory of revolutionary situation, three conditions must be present
for a revolution to be successful :
i. A profound crisis within the power
ii. Unusual hardship suffered by the working class
iii. A Sharp rise in social unrest and political involvement of the masses

• Lenin died in 1924. From 1929 until his death in 1953, Stalin ruled the Soviet Union and its Communist
Party just like a dictator.

- He discontinued any economic freedom granted by Lenin’s NEP (New Economic Policy) 1921
- He moved to a full and massive centralization of Soviet State.
- To ensure that his version of Marxism-Leninism is not questioned and criticized
∙ Stalin eliminated all those whom he considered his political and ideological enemy.
→ The practice was called ‘Purging’
- He turned Education, Art, Literature and even science into tools of Propaganda
- He carried out a massive and forceful collectivization of agriculture
∙ Private sector quickly disappeared and Soviet citizens were forced to join collective
and state farms.

• Distinguishing features of Stalinism :

→ ‘Cult of Personality’
- Lenin had held that working class need a Vanguard party to guide it.
∙ But according to Stalin, Party itself needed the guidance of a – Single, all-wise,
all-knowing genius to guide it.
- ‘Cult of personality’ is used to denote the phenomenon of ‘Leader worshiping’
- Stalin was projected as an omnipresent, omnipotent and infallible God like leader.
→ This ‘Cult of Personality’ phenomena is common to most of the communist
regimes (Eg. China, Russia, North Korea and Cuba)
- This divine like qualities of political leaders is frequently exploited by communist leaders to
make up for the lack of legitimacy of their totalitarian states.

• Stalin’s brand of Communism was different from classical Marxism and Leninism in one crucial way

→ Stalin was first among Communists to attempt to use nationalist sentiments to inspire
passionate compliance among masses.
- Classical Marxism viewed nationalism as one of the tricks that the capitalists use to
deflect the proletariat from forming a unified front.
- Lenin also saw nationalism as a hindrance to the destruction of old regime.

→ Stalin recognized nationalism’s superior potential to unify masses.

- Stalin aligned himself to Russian Nationalism.

• Stalin’s brand of Communism was different from classical Marxism and Leninism in one crucial way

→ Stalin’s theory of ‘Socialism in One Country’

- This theory was propounded by Stalin in 1924 against Leon Trotsky’s idea of
Permanent Revolution
∙ Russian Revolution would also succeed as a part of world revolution that
undermined the Capitalism in General.

- Stalin argued that

∙ Socialism must be created and consolidated in one country before it can be
constructed anywhere else.

• Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921

→ Mao Zedong was a Library Assistant at Beijing University.

→ He was among the first to join the newly found CCP.

→ Mao could only read Chinese.

- At that time most of the works of Marx and Engels were not translated into Chinese.
- Only the ‘Communist Manifesto’ and some essays of Lenin were available in Chinese
which Mao read.
- Mao accepted Lenin’s idea of ‘Agrarian Proletariat’
∙ Lenin’s theory was better suited for China as it was also an agrarian society.

• Features of Maoism

→ Mao was influenced by Lenin’s analysis of Imperialism

- Mao transformed the idea of class struggle into an anti-imperialist
‘War of National Liberation’ waged by the people of economically backward nation
against their foreign capitalist oppressors.
→ Mao downplays the importance of urban proletariat.
- Mao said that the real revolutionary force is the ‘Peasantry’
- Mao claimed that revolution would begin in the countryside (Villages)
∙ As the rural revolutionary forces gained strength, they could then encircle the
cities and force them into submission.
→ Mao adopted Lenin’s idea of Vanguard Party and its centralized organizational structure.
→ Like Stalin, Mao also believed in ‘Cult of Personality’ and Propaganda
- He also took extreme steps to control those critical to his regime and ideology
Eg. Cultural Revolution

• It is often said that after the fall of the Soviet Union and its eastern European satellite states, the only
remaining communist regimes were those in China, Vietnam, Cuba and North Korea.

• North Korea
→ North Korea do not claim to be following either Marx, Engels or Lenin. They say that their
ideology is uniquely Korean
→ The official ideology of North Korea is called :
∙ Juche ( also called Kimilsungism after its originator – Kim Il Sung )
- The ideology means something like national self-sufficiency.

- But there is an element of Stalinism in Juche because the ideology emphasizes the
need of a ‘Great Leader’ who has absolute power and presides over a
totalitarian Police State.

Social Democracy

Revisionist Marxism

Critical Theory

• At the end of the 19th century some Marxists favored revising Marxian Theory in light of economic and
Political Developments that had occurred since Marx’s and Engels’s death.
→ This group of theorists came to be known as ‘Revisionists’
- Prominent among them was Eduard Bernstein
∙ Bernstein believed that some aspects of Marx’s theory was either false or
out of date and should be rejected or revised.

• In his 1899 book ‘Evolutionary Socialism’

→ Bernstein came to believe that an ‘evolutionary’ path to socialism was morally and politically
preferable to a violent and revolutionary one.
- Bernstein argued that Marxist socialists focused only on the ultimate goal or end i.e
the coming of socialist society – without worrying about the morality or
immorality of means used to arrive at the end.
- He said that a democratic and peaceful society can not come about by undemocratic
and violent means.
→ Bernstein argued that emergence of Welfare State and reforms within capitalism raised the
hope about peaceful transition to Socialism
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Social Democracy

• Social Democracy is associated with Reformist Socialism.

→ Revolutionary Socialists advocates the necessity of revolution but Social Democrats believe that :-
- Socialism can be brought about through peaceful reforms or
- There can be some middle ground between Socialism and Capitalism

• Social Democratic view of State :-

→ According to Marxists, State only serve the interest of Capitalists thus State can play no role in
building a socialist society and must be dismantled or abolished in order to establish true
Socialism.

→ Social Democrat regard the State as being able to be used as a vehicle for reforms.
- State can be used to put into practice the socialist values and beliefs.
∙ Best example for this is the establishment of Welfare States
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Social Democracy

• Another important view of Social Democrats is that Capitalism itself can be made more humane and
socialistic.

• According to Social Democrats, following reforms can work towards making Capitalism more humane
- Economic Policies that regulate Capitalism.
- Social Welfare programs that moderate inequality (Redistribution of Wealth)
- Nationalization (Public Ownership) of Key industries and economic planning
- Implementing Industrial Democracy or Policies of Codetermination.
∙ Elected employee representative sit on the companies’ supervisory board,
Board of Directors include a Labor Director elected from trade union.
∙ Codetermination allows employee a say in the management of the business.
- Democratic Governance
∙ Reforms should be brought through constitutional and parliamentary way.
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Social Democracy

• Important Proponents of Social Democracy

→ Eduard Bernstein : his books ‘Evolutionary Socialism’ (1911)
→ T H Marshall
→ Karl Polyani, ‘The Great Transformation’ (1962)

• Critical Theory is also called ‘Critical Western Marxism’

→ According to this approach, Marxian theory is best understood as a body of critical theory that
provide us a perspective from which we can critically understand the modern society.
- They claim that Marx was not only a theorist of Worker’s Revolution, Marx was also
a social scientist and social theorist.
- Marx supplied a wide ranging analysis of the inner workings of the modern capitalist
society.
∙ These theorists focus on Marx’s early works like ‘Paris Manuscripts’ where
Marx discusses about topics like human essence and alienation.
∙ These works do not include economic determinism that later became essential
part of Marxist theory.

→ These theorists organized themselves in the form of ‘Institute for Social Research’ (1923)
at Germany’s University of Frankfurt.
- Therefore it is also known as Frankfurt School of Critical Theory

• Frankfurt school of Critical Theory included thinkers like

→ Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Walter Benjamin, Erich Fromm and
contemporary critical theorists like Jürgen Habermas

• According to these thinkers :

- Marx had overemphasized economic and material factors and had underestimated the
influence of cultural or ideological factors in explaining social change.
- Ideological factors like – art, music, radio, movies and other cultural forms – create a
kind of false consciousness in the minds of ordinary men and women.
- People are indoctrinated to become passive workers and inert consumers instead of
active and democratic critical citizens.
- Such indoctrination is not direct but indirect, hidden and unconscious.
∙ It is the task of critical theory to uncover the sources of indoctrination and make
common people aware of their real interests.

Fabian Socialism

Anarcho-Communism
Non Marxist Socialism
Christian Socialism

• There are a number of other variants of Socialism which broadly share social democracy’s commitment to
a reformist approach

→ Fabian Socialism
- Fabian Socialism is associated with Labor Party in Britain.
- The Fabian Society was formed in Britain in 1884 with the aim of implementing socialist
values within democratic societies through reformist and gradualist methods.
∙ Members of the Fabian society included – H G Wells, George Bernard Shaw,
Sydney and Beatrice Webb, G D H Cole and William Clarke

- The word ‘Fabian’ is derived from the name of the Roman General Q. Fabius Maximus
→ Fabius was known for his delaying tactics.
→ He believed in the philosophy that one must wait patiently for the right
© Saar Concepts
moment. One should strike only when the right time comes.
Socialism and Communism
Fabian Socialism

• Key arguments of Fabian Socialism

→ There is an important debate in Socialism about how Socialism can be brought about and
how does it operates
- Marxists believe that Socialism must be a democratic movement from below and
must be brought by the Workers themselves.
- Fabians believe that Socialism must be something introduced and developed from above.
∙ They believe that Working class are not capable enough to bring and sustain
socialism themselves.

• According to Anarchists
→ State is an evil coercive institution that ought to be abolished and replaced by a system of
non coercive voluntary cooperation.
→ They argued that state is necessary as long as property is privately held
→ For Anarcho-Communists, abolition of state and abolition of private property are two sides of
same coin.

- Proponents
∙ William Godwin (Enquiry Concerning Political Justice – 1793)
∙ Leo Tolstoy (War and Peace)
∙ Peter Kropotkin (Mutual Aid - 1902)
∙ Mikhail Bakunin (State and Anarchy – 1874)
∙ Emma Goldman
© Saar Concepts
Socialism and Communism
Christian Communism

• Christian Communism is based on the Bible and the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth more particularly.
→ Among the most important texts for Christian socialists are the
∙ Sermon on the Mount
∙ Jesus’ Final Sermon

• In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus asks his audience to :

∙ To forgo earthly riches
∙ to love their neighbors and not judge them.

• In his final Sermon, Jesus says that

∙ He is present in the lowliest of human being and as we treat them so we treat him

• As the name implies, Market Socialism attempts to blend elements of a free market economy with social
ownership and public control of property.

• The main idea is that

→ Major resources – large factories, mines, power plants, forests, mineral reserves, and so on –
would be owned and operated directly for the public good
→ Private individuals will be free to own small business, farms, houses, cars and so on.
→ Middle sized firms will be owned by those who work in them.
→ All businesses even the publicly owned firms, will compete in market place for profits.
- Profit of the factory will be shared among the factory workers

• As the name implies, Market Socialism attempts to blend elements of a free market economy with social
ownership and public control of property.

• Scholars argue that some form of Market Socialism is going to be the future of Socialism in 21st century
→ It promises neither the utopia of early socialists nor the world of communism as Marx and
his followers imagined.
→ But this form of socialism does promise to promote cooperation and solidarity rather than
competition and individualism.

1. Introduction
2. Historical Origins and Development
→ First Wave Feminism
→ Second Wave Feminism
→ Third Wave Feminism
→ Fourth Wave Feminism
3. Core Concepts within Feminism
- Patriarchy
- Sex and Gender
- Feminist concept of Power
- Personal is Political
- Critique of Liberal Theory : Concept of ‘Sexual Contract’
- Intersectionality
4. Types of Feminism
∙ Liberal Feminism
∙ Radical Feminism

5. Types of Feminism
∙ Liberal Feminism
∙ Radical Feminism
∙ Socialist and Marxist Feminism
∙ Eco Feminism
∙ Black Feminism
∙ Post Colonial Feminism

• The vast majority of society contain profound inequality between men and women.
→ Millions of women currently live in societies, which deny them freedom and accord them a
second class status.

• The subordination of women take place in both liberal and non liberal states
→ Liberal states have also historically denied women equal rights.
∙ Eg. In Britain and US, Women were not allowed to vote until recently.
• Discrimination against women and their subordination remain a principal form of injustice in societies
throughout the world
→ We still live in a world in which women are given lower status than men and forced to face
such indignities and inequalities that are not imposed on men.

• Equality between Men and Women have not been achieved.

- Feminists ©
areSaar
thoseConcepts
men and women who believe that this equality between sexes must
be achieved.
Feminism
Waves of Feminism

• First Wave Feminism

→ First Wave of Feminism occurred between late 19th century and early 20th century.
- But Feminist scholars point out that the roots of feminist thought goes back to long time
back in history.
- There have been key figures in the past who have raised their voice against the
injustices faced by women
∙ Hildegard von Bingen : A German Nun who challenged the stereotypical role of
women in Catholic Church (1098 – 1179)
∙ Chritne de Pizan (1364 – 1430) : ‘The book of the city of ladies’
She outlined the importance of women’s contribution to society

• The First Wave of Modern day feminism began with Enlightenment and development of liberal theory. It is
associated with the work of two important figures
© Saar Concepts
- Olympus de Gouges
- Marry Wollstonecraft
Feminism
Waves of Feminism

• First Wave Feminism

→ Feminist scholars point out that the roots of feminist thought goes back to long time in history.
- There have been key figures in the past who have raised their voice against the
injustices faced by women
∙ Hildegard von Bingen : A German Nun who challenged the stereotypical role of
women in Catholic Church (1098 – 1179)
∙ Chritne de Pizan (1364 – 1430) : She outlined the importance of women’s
contribution to society

• The First Wave of Modern day feminism began with Enlightenment and development of liberal theory. It is
associated with the work of two important figures
- Olympus de Gouges
© Saar Concepts
- Marry Wollstonecraft
Feminism
Second Wave of Feminism

• Second Wave Feminism

→ Simon de Beauvoir’s ‘The Second Sex’ (1949)
∙ Rather than focusing on formal political rights, De Beauvoir’s analysis highlighted the
construction of social forces that subordinate women.

→ Biology, that means the capacity to reproduce, decides a women’s identity.

∙ But biology does not decide the character of a female. (‘Biology is not destiny’)
∙ Female characters i.e what is expected from a women is artificially constructed by the
society : this is called gender roles.
- ‘One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’
- These gender roles decide the position of women in society.
∙ Women is defined in opposition to Man (Dualistic Opposition)
- Women is every thing that a man is not.
- The qualities attached to women are considered inferior and that’s why
women occupy
inferior position
in society.
© Saar Concepts
Feminism
First Wave of Feminism

• First Wave Feminism

• First Wave of Modern day feminism began with Enlightenment and development of liberal theory. It is
associated with the work of two important figures
- Olympus de Gouges
- Marry Wollstonecraft

• These 18th century feminists reacted to the Enlightenment’s and liberal theory’s focus on Rationality
→ Enlightenment thinkers argued that since Man possess ‘reason and rationality’ so he is the
best judge for what is good and bad for him. He does deserve liberty and rights.
→ They argued that women are ‘non-rational’ and emotional so proper place for them is the
private sphere of family.
- In reaction to this, 18th century feminists argued that Women too possess Reason
© Saar Concepts
and Rationality because they are also humans, so they equally deserve everything
that Men get in society
Feminism
First Wave of Feminism

• First Wave Feminism

• Olympus de Gouges, a French playwright, wrote in response to French Revolution’s ‘Declaration of Rights
of Man and Citizen’ :
- ‘Declaration of the Rights of Women and Female Citizen’ (1791)
∙ Here she challenged the idea of male authority and inequality in gender relations

• Marry Wollstonecraft
- She published her influential book, ‘A Vindication of Rights of Women’ (1792)
∙ Women possessed equal reason to men and thus they should have the same rights.
∙ Women should not be confined to private sphere and dominated by men.
- Relegation of women to private, non rational sphere limit both their potential and intellect.
- For Wollstonecraft, the education of women and the development of critical thinking would
© Saar Concepts
allow women to understand their own situation and control their own lives.
Feminism
First Wave of Feminism

• First Wave Feminism

• Sarah Grimke’s ‘Letters on Equality’ (1838) presented similar position to that of Wollstonecraft.
→ She argued that Men benefitted from subjugating women and so continue doing this.

• John Stuart Mill

→ His book for Women’s cause – ‘Subjugation of Women’ (1869)
∙ He took a utilitarian position for the support of women.
∙ He argued that progress of society is hindered by the subordination of women.
∙ He supported for female suffrage.

• First Wave Feminism

• Core focus of feminist ideology in the first wave feminism were political, economic, legal and social
inequality that women faced in society :
→ Political Inequality : Lack of women’s right to vote
→ Economic Inequality : Women’s exclusion from certain types of works and their employment
on unequal terms to men.
→ Legal Inequality : Women’s exclusion from areas of protection by laws, such as matters of
property rights, divorce, loss of legal status after marriage
→ Social Inequality : Women’s exclusion within certain social institutions such as colleges,
universities, clubs etc

• First Wave Feminism

• First Wave Feminists recognized all these elements of women’s inequality but they primarily focused on
Political Equality and Political rights
→ They believed that Political Representation was the key to achieving other forms of
equality.

• The 1848 Seneca Falls Convention marked the start of the American Women’s Rights Movement.
→ Elizabeth Cady Stanton drafted the ‘Seneca Falls Declaration’
- It outlined the movement’s ideology and strategy.
- It demanded female suffrage.
• In Europe there followed the creation of similar movements
→ Women’s Social and Political Union in England (1903)
→ French Union for©Women’s
Saar Concepts
Suffrage (1909)
Feminism
First Wave of Feminism

• First Wave Feminism

• Suffragettes
→ Feminists fighting for the right of women to vote in elections were called ‘Suffragettes’

• Most major Western powers extended Right to vote to women in the first half of 20th century
- Canada in 1917
- Britain and Germany in 1918
- Austria and Netherland in 1919
- United States of America in 1920
- France in 1944
- Greece in 1954
- Switzerland in 1971
© Saar Concepts
Feminism
Second Wave of Feminism

• Second Wave Feminism

→ Second Wave Feminism emerged in the 1960s and 1970s and is associated with the
Women’s Movement and the work of feminists like
∙ Germaine Greer
∙ Marilyn French
∙ Betty Frieden
∙ Simon de Beauvoir
∙ Cathrine MacKinnon
∙ Andrea Dworkin

• Second Wave feminism grew out of the realization that

→ Gender inequality continued in liberal democratic states even though women in those states
had largely won equal legal rights.
→ Gains from first wave feminism in terms of political and legal terms were real but society
somehow worked to ensure continued subjugation of women

• Second Wave Feminists thus focus less on establishing equal rights and equality of opportunity
- Their focus was on revealing and reforming those indirect social, cultural, legal and political
forces which work to discourage women from availing themselves of their rights or
taking up the opportunities available to them.

- The focus is on uncovering the social forces which discourage women from pursuing a career
on an equal basis with men even though they have the right to do so.

- Therefore, Second Wave feminism focus not so much on the reform of legal rules and policies
but on the wider social norms and attitudes that guide our actions.
∙ Focus on Gender and Patriarchy
© Saar Concepts
Feminism
Second Wave of Feminism

• Second Wave Feminism

→ Whereas as First Wave Feminism fought for Women’s Enfranchisement, right to vote, access to
profession and right to own property.
- The second wave feminism talked in terms of ‘Liberation’ from the oppressiveness
of a Patriarchal Society.

→ For the Second Wave, the key sight of struggle was the construction of ‘Gender’
- The second wave feminists were committed to building a body of knowledge which
specifically addressed the ways in which women have historically been marginalized

→ Second Wave Feminism believed that it is possible to bring an enormous social change which
will undermine the existing Patriarchal Societal Structures.
© Saar Concepts
Feminism
Second Wave of Feminism

• Second Wave Feminism

→ Second Wave Feminism believed that it is possible to bring an enormous social change which
will undermine the existing Patriarchal Societal Structures.
- This gave rise to Radical and Revolutionary form of Feminism that focused on the need
to liberate women from subjugation.
- Germaine Greer
∙ One of the foremost voices calling for liberation rather than equality.
∙ She argued that equality would mean conforming to the standards of men’s lives
- Whereas liberation would mean women having the freedom to define their
own values and priorities.
∙ Her seminal text is : ‘The Female Eunuch’ (1970)

• Second Wave Feminism

→ Second Wave Feminism believed that it is possible to bring an enormous social change which
will undermine the existing Patriarchal Societal Structures.
- The emphasis on Liberation was evidenced by creation of Women’s liberation movements
in UK and US.
- These Women Liberation Movements (WLMs) developed collective action and
‘Consciousness Raising’ activities which highlighted and denounced cultures of oppressions
∙ Targeting beauty Pageants such as ‘Miss World Events’ to publicly highlight
the ‘Objectification of Women’ and construction of a particular
representation of female beauty.

∙ Feminists symbolically burned their clothes as artefacts of Women’s Oppression

• Third Wave Feminism

→ Third Wave feminism is best described as the feminism of younger generation of women who
acknowledge the legacy of second wave feminism, but also identify limitations in it

→ The start of the third wave was declared in ‘Ms. Magazine’ in 1992 by Rebecca Walker in an
article titled ‘Becoming the Third Wave’

• Third Wave feminism questions the second wave feminists’ Universalistic Claims
- They question the tendency of liberal feminist theory to speak for all women’s experience.
- They claim that second wave feminism is based on the perspective of white, privileged
women of west.
∙ Therefore second wave feminism ignore the oppression that women face on the
basis of their class, race, religion and other sexual identities.
- Third wave thus accepts diversity
and plurality within feminism.
© Saar Concepts
Feminism
Third Wave of Feminism

• Third Wave Feminism is based on a new politics of identity.

→ It takes the issue of individual identities and subjectivities very seriously.
- It is based on the idea of ‘Individualized Women’
∙ Women should define their own feminism away from the rigid doctrines of
second wave.
∙ Eg. Women could enjoy aspects of individual self expression as cosmetics and fashion.
∙ It says that individual life choices should be disaggregated from the analysis of
structural form of male violence and oppression.
∙ Choices made by women should be seen as empowering and sexually emancipating.

- It shifts the politics of gender from a macro collectivized approach to an individualized

micro approach.

• Criticism of Third Wave

→ While the third wave aimed to broaden feminism, critics have argued that individual
emancipation undermine the collectivity of feminist struggle and the importance of the
structural forces that oppress women.

→ Third Wave lead to the shift of the fight for collectivized social justice to the expression of
individualized and atomized identities.

• Feminist Concept of Power

→ Feminist emphasize the importance of power but they criticize the liberal view of power
which says that power is something that is visible and possessed by a definite holder of power
like State. (One Dimensional View of Power)

→ For feminists, power is not only exercised in a one-dimensional sense but also in a
three dimensional sense.
- Power is often invisible and exerted in ways which we might not see or understand
- Power is not just about making us do what we do not want to do, it is also about
making us actually want to do certain things.
∙ Social norms and expectations powerfully shape our lives by shaping our
choices.
© Saar Concepts
Feminism
Core Concepts in Feminism

• Feminist Concept of Power

→ Social norms are expressions of power.

- Social norms exert pressure on us in a number of ways.
- These norms shape our choices and make women complicit in their own subordination
∙ These norms encourage women to want such things and develop such views
about themselves which further increase their own inequality.

→ Example :
- Societies which reward women for giving up their independence in favor of marriage,
or subordinating their career to those of their husbands, create in women a
genuine desire to get married and put their husband’s career before their own.

• The Personal is political

→ The phrase was coined by American Activist Carol Hanisch
→ Feminist challenge the traditional liberal distinction between public and private sphere.
- Historically women have primarily occupied the ‘Private’ or domestic sphere of
household which is considered to be personal and apolitical.
- While men work out and occupy the Public sphere of State, Government, Institutions
political parties etc.

• The Personal is political

• This traditional framework considers ‘Private’ or ‘Personal’ sphere to be beyond the scope of the State.
→ It means that Women’s lives are beyond the scope of state because it is women who occupy
the private sphere.
- But feminists point out that a great deal power, including oppressive and abusive
power operates in the private sphere.
- Power is present in every area of our lives, including those parts of our lives which are
often considered to be private in the sense that they are beyond the scope of politics
and state.
∙ Presence of power in Private sphere need to be regulated by the state
∙ We need to broaden our understanding of ‘Political’ into areas like family
∙ This will help bring justice to the lives of women and save them from
©oppression
Saar Concepts
and subjugation that take place inside family.
Feminism
Core Concepts in Feminism

• Intersectionality
- It is the recognition that women’s experience vary according to their social context, in terms of
class, religion, race or sexual identities.
- The term was coined by Kimberle Crenshaw.

- The term describes the multiple and overlapping identities and associated arenas of oppression
and subordination that women experience.
∙ Example : Women experience discrimination in employment and within legal system on
account of both their gender and race.

- The term intersectionality highlights the longstanding critique of feminism that it is an

overwhelming white, middle class ideology and movement.

• Liberal Feminism

→ This form of feminism is rooted in Liberal Tradition.

- It says that the reason behind female inequality and subordination is unequal rights and
barriers to participation in public life.

→ Liberal feminists, such as Susan Moller Okin and Martha Nussbaum, have argued that feminist
aims can and should be achieved through an application of mainstream liberal ideas of Justice,
rights, and economic redistribution.
- They say that the principle aim for feminists is to achieve greater justice for women
∙ We need to ensure that men and women do not face unjust inequalities on
account of their sex.

• Liberal Feminism

→ Liberal Feminists focus on utilizing legal, judicial and democratic process to challenge gender
stereotypes and cultural, institutional and legal barriers to women’s full participation in all
areas of life on equal terms with men.
- Liberal Feminists see that State can play a positive role in improving the condition of
women in society.

∙ Liberal Feminism is thus different from Radical or Revolutionary feminism

because it seeks to work within present system to achieve reforms, rather
overthrowing the whole societal structure.

• Radical Feminism

→ Radical Feminism emerged in the late 1960s, challenging and rejecting the male dominated
social orders.
→ Radical Feminism give positive value to womanhood rather than supporting a liberal notion
of assimilating women into male arenas.
→ Radical Feminism believes in the existence of patriarchy and a determination to end it.
- It says that violence is both the foundation and consequence of patriarchy.
→ Radical Feminism aims to fundamentally change society by ending patriarchy and ending
all forms of violence against women.
→ Radical Feminism focus on women only political organizations and separatism.

- Important Proponents : Andrea Dworkin, Catharine MacKinnon and Sheila Jeffreys.

• Socialist and Marxist Feminism

→ Marxist Feminism
- Marxist Feminism emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
- Marxist feminists like Marirosa Dalla Costa and Selma James emphasized on the rule of
women in the reproduction of labor.
∙ They argue that women have been the producer and reproducer of the most essential
capitalist commodity : Labor Power.
∙ Capitalist production and accumulation rested on the unpaid work undertaken
by women in home – but their work is never recognized
∙ The Male worker dominate and subordinate the women in the home (Slaves of slave)
- Women workers form a ‘Reserve Army of Labor’
∙ Women workers can be hired and fired easily depending upon the boom and slump
of capitalist production – This makes women’s condition even more vulnerable.

- Only a complete overthrow of capitalist system can result in true emancipation of women.

• Socialist and Marxist Feminism

→ Socialist Feminism
- Socialist feminism argues that division of labor under capitalism works against the
interest of women.
∙ Men work outside home, so they come to dominate the social, economic and
political sphere while women are primarily oriented to the domestic sphere.
∙ Paid work of men is considered more valuable then the unpaid work done by women
in home
- Socialist Feminism basically criticizes the Neo Liberal Capitalism and State
∙ It argues that diminishing of Welfare and social policies adversely affect the women.

- In contrast to Marxist feminism, socialist feminism argues that reforms of existing

© SaarinConcepts
structure is possible order to deliver more socially responsible and egalitarian society.
Feminism
Types of Feminism

• Eco-feminism

→ The term eco-feminism was first used by Francois d’Eaubonne in1974

→ Eco-feminism argues that women are natural advocates of environmentalism.
- According to Vandana Shiva
∙ There is an inter connection between women and nature.
∙ Both share the quality such as nurturing, non violence and cooperation.
∙ This is also reflected in the idea of ‘Mother Earth’

- There is also a crucial inter relationship between the domination and degradation of
nature and the oppression and exploitation of women.
∙ The oppression and exploitation of the environment reflect the experience
of women within contemporary patriarchal capitalist society .
© Saar Concepts
Feminism
Types of Feminism

• Black Feminism

→ Black Feminism points out to the intersection of race, gender, and class oppression and challenge
the dominance of white, western middle class women in the feminist movement.

→ bell hooks : ‘Ain’t I a woman? Black Women and Feminism’ (1982)

- A prominent black author and activist, she highlighted the lack of diverse voice within
feminist theory and advocated women to be acknowledged for their differences.
- Black women have particular and legitimate issues which affect their lives.

→ Black Feminism focused on how colonialism, post-colonialism and imperialism condition

contemporary society and reproduce racialized, classes and gendered hierarchies.

• Black Feminism

→ Black Feminism points out to the intersection of race, gender, and class oppression and challenge
the dominance of white, western middle class women in the feminist movement.

→ bell hooks : ‘Ain’t I a woman? Black Women and Feminism’ (1982)

→ Black Feminism focused on how colonialism, post-colonialism and imperialism condition

contemporary society and reproduce racialized, classes and gendered hierarchies.

In Political Philosophy

Justice means What is the right thing to do ?

What is the right thing to do for Government ?

Whether consequence is good or bad Teleological Approach

Whether action follows from a set of principles Deontological Approach

Justice

Jeremy Bentham, J S Mill, Henry Sidwick,

Bertrand Russel and Peter Singer

Teleological Theory of Justice : Focuses on the consequences of actions of

Utilitarianism
Govt. If the consequence is ‘Good’ then action is right.

The right thing to do or the just thing to do

is whatever brings about greatest Utility

Justice is equal to Utility Maximization

Utility as Pleasure

Utility as Preference Satisfaction

Rawls theory of Justice Deontological Theory

What is right is defined independently of the

consequences of actions

What is right is defined in accordance to a

Universal set of moral principles

Rawls theory of Justice Deontological Theory

We first establish Principles

of Justice

We judge the actions of government whether it

Based on these Principles
is right or wrong

Rawls theory of Justice Deontological Theory

It is also a theory of
Distributive Justice

It is also used to decide the fair distribution of

resources in the society

Utilitarian theory of Justice

Right thing to do is what maximizes the

happiness and well being of majority

• It is against the principle of individual liberty

John Rawls criticized Utilitarian Theory of
• Here govt. assumes the responsibility to
Justice for these reasons
decide on behalf of all the people

Social Institutions can not violate the principle

of individual liberty even when it brings good
to the majority

Liberty Gerald C MacCallum’s Singular Concept of Liberty

Liberty is defined as a triadic relation

between three elements
• What can be considered as
constraints ?
‘X’ is free from ‘Y’ to do or be ‘Z’
• Which constraints are
reasonable and legitimate ?
‘Y’
• Can we allow all types of
The Constraints
choices to be made ?
• Should some objectives and
choices be more important ?

‘X’ ‘Z’
The Agent The Objective

• Whose freedom, individual

Negative Liberty Positive Liberty

Freedom is doing whatever one wants Freedom is about doing right things and making
No focus on content of one’s choice right choices - Focus on content of one’s choice

Act without interreference from ‘External Act without interference from ‘Internal
Constraints’ Constraints’ (Higher Self vs Lower Self)

Formal Freedom : Everyone formally permitted Effective Freedom : Providing Power, capacity
to do what they want or ability to do what is right.

Freedom as having a protected ‘Private Sphere’ Freedom as freedom of the community you
© Saar Concepts
with no Government interference belong. Participation in community life
Liberty

Hayek’s view on Negative Liberty

• His book : ‘The Constitution of Liberty’ (1960)

- Liberty is lack of Interference.
- Interference means Coercion
∙ Coercion means being subjected to the will of another
∙ Coercion and Interference must be ‘Willed’ or ‘Deliberate’

- Negative liberty is lack of deliberate interference in our choices

∙ Eg. Being accidentally locked in a room is not violation of one’s
negative liberty.

Philip Pettit’s Third Conception of Liberty

• Philip Petit in his book ‘Republicanism’ (1997) gives the concept of :

→ Freedom as ‘Non-Domination’
• Petit argues that
- Lack of interference is not enough guarantee of freedom.
- Imagine you are a slave but your Master is very benevolent.
∙ Under the conception of freedom as non interreference the
slave is free.
∙ But the slave in reality is not free, he is under his Master’s
domination who has the capacity to interfere in his life.
∙ Therefore the slave is unfree.
• Freedom requires lack of Domination.
© Saar Concepts
Liberty

G A Cohen’s Critique of Negative Liberty

• Hayek appeals to the idea of negative liberty in order to avoid socialist system of
redistribution of wealth.
- According to Hayek, taking money from rich and giving it to the poor is the
violation of negative liberty of rich.

• G A Cohen argues in his book ‘If you are Egalitarian, how come you are so rich’ (2000)
argues :
→ Lack of money threatens not only positive liberty but also negative
liberty of the poor.
→ Even if liberty is the absence of interference, then poverty entails
a lack of freedom.
© Saar Concepts
Liberty

Isaiah Berlin on Positive Liberty and Value Pluralism

• State Paternalism
→ Berlin says that Positive Liberty could be used to justify the notion that
individual may be less able to know what is in their best interest than some
other person or institution.
→ State can pass laws which can force people to do things for their own good.
- This is called ‘State Paternalism’
∙ When taken to its extreme, State Paternalism becomes
Totalitarianism.

Isaiah Berlin on Positive Liberty and Value Pluralism

• Value Pluralism
- There is no single Master Idea or Moral Value that all should follow
(Moral Monism)
- There are many conceptions of good life and good society and these different
values are often incommensurable and incompatible.
- There are many different human values and all are important in their own
sense.
→ Designating one among them as supremely valuable is practically not
possible and is also unjust.

Republican Liberty or Civic Republicanism

• Benjamin Constant divides liberty into

→ Liberty of Moderns : Negative liberty, freedom is establishing a Private Sphere with no external
interference by anyone – Individual or Government.
→ Liberty of Ancients :
- Liberty is not a private condition enjoyed by individuals but rather a public condition
enjoyed by the whole community and people.

• Civic Republicanism or Republican Liberty

→ Freedom is about being a member of a self-governing political community.
→ You are free in so far as you are able to participate in the collective life of your political community
- It means being able to decide who your Rules are going to be and also being able
to control your Rulers by participating in Public life.
© Saar Concepts
Liberty

Republican Liberty or Civic Republicanism

• Civic Republicanism represents a positive view of liberty because it insists that :

→ Freedom is about being in control of one’s own life
→ It means actively participating in the collective life of the polity.

• Quentin Skinner calls this version of liberty as ‘Neo Roman Theory of Liberty’

Rawls’ very important quotation

• ‘Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of system of thoughts’

→ System of thought means any theory or body of knowledge

- A theory can have many elements or virtues like : it can be clear, coherent and
scientific
- But all these virtues of the theory is meaningless if the theory does not have the
fundamental element of truth

→ Social institutions can also have many qualities and features

- Social Institutions can be well organized, they can be efficient and economical.
- But all these qualities of social institutions become meaningless if social
institutions are not based on the principles of justice.

1. Two version of Egalitarianism

→ Telic Egalitarianism
→ Deontic Egalitarianism

1. Three criticism of Equality

→ The Levelling Down Objection
→ Priority View
→ Sufficiency Approach

Telic and Deontic Egalitarianism

• In his book ‘Equality and Priority’ – Derek Parfit distinguishes two

different kinds of egalitarianism
→ Telic Egalitarianism
→ Deontic Egalitarianism

Telic Egalitarianism

• The term ‘telic’ comes from the word ‘telos’ which means end point or goal
→ Telic Egalitarians thus believe that Equality is the end point or goal to which all
egalitarians should aim.
→ Telic Egalitarians hold that Equality is the supreme value and thus all other
values are subordinate to it.
- The more a policy decision equalizes the position of each and every
individual in society, the better it is.
- Equality is a good thing in and of itself.

Deontic Egalitarianism

• Deontic Egalitarians value equality because equality is a way of achieving some other
desirable value like justice.
- They have a more instrumental understanding of equality.

• Deontic Egalitarians focus more on inequality than on Equality.

• According to Deontic Egalitarians

- Some forms of inequality are wrong and others are not
- Inequality is wrong if and only if it is unjust.

• Deontic Egalitarians argue for fair or just inequality instead of strict equality.
© Saar Concepts
• Eg. Rawls, Dworkin
Equality

The Levelling-Down Objection

• Political Philosophers have suggested that undesirable, unimportant and positively harmful
- The most obvious criticism is that it removes any incentive for ambition or
hard work.

• According to Levelling Down Objection

- Equality is undesirable because it requires making people worse-off then they could
otherwise be.
• Imagine that there are 5 People and 7 Five hundred rupees notes.
→ If we believe in equality then everyone should be given 1 Five hundred rupees
notes and the remaining two notes should be thrown away.
→ Equality would bring everyone down to the lowest level, rather than allowing
© SaartoConcepts
two people have 2 five hundred rupees note.
Equality

The Priority View

• Derek Parfit argues that though Egalitarians talk about equality but they are basically
concerned about condition of worst off in society.
• In his book, ‘Equality or Priority’ (1993) , Parfit advocates the ‘Priority View’
→ According to the ‘Priority View’
- The central idea is that the worst-offs should have priority when allocating
resources.
- The view that worst-offs should be given priority is not necessarily a view
about equality.
- It would be possible to improve the condition of the worst-offs without
being concerned about other kinds of inequalities in society.
© Saar Concepts
Equality

Harry Frankfurt’s Sufficiency Approach

• Harry Frankfurt talks about ‘Sufficiency Approach’ in his book ‘Equality as a Moral Ideal’ (1987)
• Egalitarians should focus on everyone having enough or sufficient resources.
• According to Frankfurt, Sufficiency should be preferred to equality
- Usually when we think that inequality is morally wrong, we are actually reacting
to the condition of the worst offs in society.
- We think it is wrong for some people to not have enough of a particular resource
- When we complain about inequality, we are actually complaining about
insufficiency.
• Frankfurt argues that it is morally undesirable to care about equality rather than insufficiency.
→ We should focus on providing everyone enough to meet their goals.
© Saar Concepts
Power
Power
Lecture Outline

1. Difference between
- Power to
- Power over

2. Transitive and Intransitive Power

3. Foucault concept of ‘Power is everywhere’.

4. Hannah Arendt’s concept of power

Hanna Pitkin divides power into two types

Power to Power over

Ability to do and achieve something Power over other people,

independently of others enforcement of one’s own intention
Ability to act autonomously over those of others

It is not directed at other people It is directed at other people

• These kinds of ‘Power Over’ are called ‘Transitive Power’

- Max Weber is the proponent of the concept of ‘Transitive Power.
• Transitive Power means
→ We need an object on whom power is exercised.
→ One Actor having power will be in a position to carry out his or her will on
someone else without resistance.
→ Exercising power is a zero-sum game
- If I have power then your power to act reduces.
Power © Saar Concepts
Power Over

• Who exercises Power Over

→ Agency : An individual or group of individual exercise power

→ Structure : Power is exercised by the system or overall structure

- This aspect of exercise of power is explained by Michelle Foucault

• According to Foucault
- Power is exerted all the time in many ways which we can not measure.
- Power is not exercised by a particular individual but rather by all of us all the time
- For Example
∙ Social Norms and rules – People obey social rules and norms without the
need of constant surveillance and sanctions
∙ Whenever you adhere to social norms, your conformity contributes to
their status.
∙ Power occurs whenever people interact.
Power © Saar Concepts
Power to

• Power to is not directed at others, but at the individuals and groups as actors
themselves.
• Power refers to the ability or capacity to act autonomously

• This kind of power is called ‘Intransitive Power’

• Hannah Arendt
- She represents ‘Intransitive’ view of power.
- She defines power exclusively as people speaking and acting in concert
- She rejects ‘power over’ by equating it to violence.
∙ Power for Hannah Arendt is opposite to violence
- For her, power is not only capacity but also empowerment, people gain the
ability to act together in an autonomous way.
- Power is not a zero-sum game. Power can be productive for everyone
∙ Power of ‘A’ can be strengthened by the power of ‘B’ and vice versa
∙ It is in this way that the possibility of common action is created and
increased.
∙ Therefore she says that power exists when people come and act
together in ‘Concert’.
Liberalism
Origins of Liberalism

• These medieval ideas came under criticism with the arrival of Enlightenment in Europe
→ Enlightenment was a period which saw advancement in knowledge gained through scientific
method
- Enlightenment undermined the religious view of world
- It proclaimed that Individual reason had the potential to discover and understand the
way the world worked.

• Ronald Dworkin’s idea of ‘Rights as Trumps’

→ According to Ronald Dworkin

- Rights act as trumps over any justification for communal decisions.
∙ A ‘Trump’ is something that beats or overrides any other considerations.
∙ By calling Rights as trumps, Dworkin is saying that a right overrides other
considerations or interests

→ For example
- A government wants to prevent its citizens from expressing opposing political views
∙ We might respond that to do so would violate the rights of free expression
∙ Here the right to free expression trumps the government’s desire.
∙ Right to free expression must override government decision.

→ Rights of citizens thus trumps or overrides other interest or wishes of the states
- Rights of individuals must always take precedence.
- Rights protect from Tyranny of Majority

• There are two ways in which theories of rights have been criticized for being overly individualistic

1. Right based theories may be wrong in emphasizing the good of individual over the good of
community
- There may be cases in which we might think that it is right to put the good of the
community above the good of a particular individual or group of individual.

2. Right based theories may be wrong in assuming that individuals themselves do not value
community.
- Right based theories emphasize that there will be conflict between individuals
rather than mutual cooperation.
∙ So people will jealously guard their rights and insist that other person perform
their duties.

• Robert Putnam in his book, ‘Bowling Alone’ argues that there has been decline in Social Capital in America
and elsewhere – No social or communal bonds, liberal societies just a collection of abstract individuals.

1. Jack Lively’s 7 point definition of Democracy

2. Theories of Democracy
→ Utilitarian Theory
→ Elitist Theory
→ Economic Theory
→ Participatory Theory
→ Deliberative Theory

Jack Lively’s 7 Possibilities of Democracy

© Saar Concepts
That all should govern, in the sense that all should be involved in legislating and
deciding on general policies, in applying laws and in governmental administration

Liberal Democracies
Direct Democracy
That all should be personally involved in crucial decision making, that is to say in
deciding general laws and matters of general policy.

That Rulers should be accountable to the ruled, they should be obliged to justify their
action to the ruled and be removable by the ruled
Representative
Democracy
That Rulers should be accountable to the representatives of the ruled

Illiberal Democracies
That Rulers should be chosen by the Ruled

That Rulers should be chosen by the representatives of the ruled Semi-Democracies

That Rulers should act in the interest of the ruled

Democracy
Theories of Democracy
© Saar Concepts
• Utilitarian Theory of Democracy
→ Utilitarian theory of democracy is based on the premise that democracy is necessary to ensure
that those in government will remain accountable to those they govern.
- If left to their own device, rulers will maximize their own pleasure.
- Elections : They act as a protective device to ensure that the preferences of the people
are taken into account by decision makers.

• Elitist Theory of Democracy

→ It is also called a protective theory of democracy.
→ Most important proponent : Joseph Schumpeter ( Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy – 1941)

→ Schumpeter observed the important role played by Elites in modern Politics

- Schumpeter did not agree with the classical elitist that ‘Democracy is a Sham’
- He argued that democracy can be reconciled with elitism
Democracy
Theories of Democracy
© Saar Concepts
• Elitist Theory of Democracy
→ According to Schumpeter
- Classical model of democracy is unrealistic because mass participation in not a characteristic
of modern democratic societies.
- Classical model is undesirable, because masses tend to be irrational and can be seduced by
charismatic and dictatorial leader.
- Far from being a threat to democracy, elites become the protector of democracy against
authoritarian tendency.

→ Schumpeter redefines democracy as

∙ ‘that institutional arrangement for arriving at political decision in which individual
acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for people’s vote’
- There is no emphasis on Participation
- What makes the system democratic is the competition between elites.
- Voters choose between different elites
- This is called democratic elitism
Democracy
Theories of Democracy
© Saar Concepts
• Economic Theory of Democracy – Anthony Downs
- For Downs, the behavior of politicians and voters is analogues to the behavior of producer and
consumer in the economy

- Political Parties and Politicians are equivalent to producers, just as producers seek to maximize
profit, so the politician seek to maximize votes, their goal is power.

- Just as consumers seek the best buy from their money, voters seek to buy from their votes the
best possible set of policies.
Democracy
Theories of Democracy
© Saar Concepts
• Participatory Theory of democracy
→ It is also called developmental model of democracy
→ This model is concerned with democracy as an end in itself
- Participation is itself enriching
- People participate not just to ensure that politicians are accountable
- Individuals who participate become more virtuous and intelligent, they understand the
need for cooperation.

→ Proponents : GDH Cole, Rousseau, JS Mill, Carole Pateman, C B Macpherson

Democracy
Theories of Democracy
© Saar Concepts
• Deliberative Democracy
→ A genuine participatory democracy may be regarded as unrealistic now.
→ Deliberative democracy is influenced by the ideas of German Philosopher Jurgen Habermas
- Process of public debate and argument leads to more rational and more legitimate
decision making.
- It is not enough for the existence of an opportunity to exercise political choice.
∙ True democracy allows these choices to be developed after due discussion and
reflection
∙ Deliberative democracy is more than voting and registering one’s preference

• But deliberative democracy is not another version of Participatory democracy.

→ Advocates of deliberative democracy are skeptical of possibility of direct democracy in large scale
societies.
→ It also doubts whether direct democracy can really produce the kind of debate and discussions
that are required
→ For deliberative democrats, quality of participation is more important than the quantity.
Realism
and Neorealism
Realism and Neorealism
Lecture Outline

1. Introduction
2. Realism : Evolution of the theory
3. Realism : Meaning and Core Assumptions
4. Classical Realism
5. Neorealism
6. Offensive and Defensive Realism
7. Neoclassical Realism
8. Core Concepts under Realism
→ Balance of Power Theory
→ Balance of Threat Theory
→ Balance of Interests Theory
→ Security Dilemma Theory
→ Hegemonic Stability Theory
→ Power Transition Theory

• Realism has long been one of the main theoretical approach to the study of International Relations.
→ Realism presents a distinctive perspective and arguments about what governs politics among
nations.

• Main arguments of Realism goes like this :

- International System is characterized by Anarchy.
- States are its principal actors
- States are sovereign and rational actors
- States act on the basis of their national interests which are : Security and Survival
- To achieve their national interests, States constantly pursue Power which leads to conflict among
them.
• To understand Realism our focus should be on three things :-
1. Core Assumptions and ideas of Realism
2. Subschools of Realism like - Neorealism, Offensive Realism etc
3. Specific Realist theories like
Balance of power etc
© Saar Concepts
Realism and Neorealism
Evolution of the theory

• Although Realism developed as a distinct theory in International Relations only around World War II,
Key Realist concepts can be found in much earlier work

→ History of Peloponnesian War by Thucydides (5th Century BC)

→ The Art of War by Sun Tzu (Chinese military strategist – 5th Century BC)
→ The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli
→ Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes

• In the academic study of International Relations, we can identify Four Generations of Realist Scholars and
Thinkers :

1. Interwar Generation
- E H Carr : ‘Twenty Years’ Crisis’ (
- Reinhold Niebuhr

• In the academic study of International Relations, we can identify Four Generations of Realist Scholars and
Thinkers :

1. Interwar Generation
- E H Carr : ‘Twenty Years’ Crisis’ (1939)
- Reinhold Niebuhr
2. Post War or Early Cold War Generation
- Hans J Morgenthau : ‘Politics Among Nations – The Struggle for power and peace (1948)
- George Kennan and Raymond Aron
3. Détente Generation
- Keneth Waltz : Theory of International Politics
- Stephen Krasner and Robert Gilpin
4. Post Cold War Generation
- John Mearsheimer : ‘The Tragedy of Great Power Politics’ (2001)
- Stephen Walt, Randall
Schweller, Charles Glaser
© Saar Concepts
Realism and Neorealism
Meaning and Assumptions

• Definitions of Realism may vary but there are some core assumptions which are common among all
traditions of Realism :-
1. States are most important actors and international politics takes place between them.
2. All the countries are primarily concerned about their own National Interest.
3. Countries interact with each other under the condition of Anarchy. There is no
World Government so countries have to adopt ‘Self Help’ approach.
4. Under the condition of Anarchy, International Relations is basically about competition for
Power and Security.

• We refer to all the realist works of the Interwar Period and Early Cold War period as ‘Classical Realism’
- Some scholars include all realist works from Thucydides to Morgenthau under the title of
‘Classical Realism’
- Everything under Realism before publication of Kenneth Waltz’s Theory of International Politics
in 1979 can be categorized as ‘Classical Realism’

• Most important text of ‘Classical Realism’

→ Morgenthau's Politics Among Nations
- 6 Principles of Political Realism

• Morgenthau’s Six Principles of Political Realism :-

1. Politics are governed by objective laws rooted in human nature, which does not change, and it is
possible to derive a rational theory reflecting those objective laws.
2. Interests, defined in terms of Power, is key to understanding the International Politics.
3. The Key concept of Interest, defined in terms of Power, is universally valid but is not endowed with a
fixed meaning.
4. Prudence, or the weighing of the consequences of alternative political actions, not Morals, is the
ultimate virtue of Politics.
5. The Moral aspirations of a particular nation is not synonymous with the moral laws that govern the
universe.
6. The Political Sphere is viewed as autonomous. For Political Realists, the only relevant standard of
thought are political ones, leaving out moral, economic, legal and other considerations.
© Saar Concepts
Realism and Neorealism
Classical Realism

• Key features of Classical Realism :

→ The International System is anarchic and States are its principal and Unitary actors.
→ States are rational actors and driven by national interest.
- Classical Realism focusses on Unit Level Analysis for explaining International Relations.
→ States pursue their Interests by amassing power.
→ Power Capabilities determine relations among states.
→ Anarchic international environment prompts all states to fend for themselves.

• Decline in the acceptance of Classical Realism

→ 1960s and 1970s marked a decline in the acceptance of Classical Realism because of many reasons
- Détente between Cold War Power blocs.
- Growth in International Trade and Transnational Corporations
- Success of European Integration.

- Behavioralist Revolution of 1960s criticized Classical Realism for not being Scientific enough

• In 1979, Kenneth Waltz published his book ‘Theories of International Politics’

→ He tried to address the criticism of Classical Realism.
→ He sought to revive realist thinking by transforming some of the core Realist ideas into scientific
theory which eventually came to be called ‘Neorelaism’
© Saar Concepts
Realism and Neorealism
Neorealism

• Kenneth Waltz tries to develop a System Theory of International Politics.

→ Such a theory will describe how the International System works by focusing on forces at the
International Level and not national (Characteristics of States or Leadership).
- The unit of Analysis is International System itself.
- The International System is seen as a structure that causes and defines relations among
States.
- Waltz tries to show how the features of the overall system of states (Structure) affects
the ways states interacts.
→ This is why Neorealism is also called Structural Realism.

• According to Waltz, Structure of the International System is defined by two factors :-

→ An Ordering Principle
→ Distribution of Capabilities across units

• Ordering Principle : Anarchy

- Anarchy is defined as absence of Neutral Arbiter and higher authority between states.

• Distribution of Capabilities : Three possible system may exists based on this factor
1. Unipolar System - Containing one Great Power
2. Bipolar System - Containing two Great Powers
3. Multipolar System - Containing more that two Great Powers.

• According to Neorealists,
© isSaar
→ A Bipolar System moreConcepts
stable and thus less prone to war and system change.
Realism and Neorealism
Offensive and Defensive Realism

• Defensive and Offensive Realism emerged in the 1990s as outgrowths of Waltz’s Neorealism.

→ Defensive Realism :
- Countries can secure themselves by attaining basic minimum defensive capabilities.
- Countries should focus on attaining the capacity to strike back against any attack on them.
- Kenneth Waltz’s Realism is considered to be a kind of Defensive Realism.

→ Offensive Realism :
- States can rarely be confident of their security and must always view other states’ increase in
power with suspicion.
- States must always try to strengthen their capacity in order to survive
• John Mearsheimer
→ He is a leading proponent of Offensive Realism
- His book : ‘The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (2001)
→ He argues that States are never
satisfied with power and ultimately
seek hegemony to ensure security. © Saar Concepts
Realism and Neorealism
Neoclassical Realism

• Neoclassical Realism tries to balance between the arguments of both Classical Realism and Neorealism.

• Neoclassical Realists examine how the distribution of power in international system – together with
States’ domestic factors shape their foreign policy.

• Neoclassical Realism is a Problem focussed subschool within Realism.

→ For Neoclassical Realists the question which matters is
- Which Realist school or theory is most useful for explaining a given situation at a given
time or place ?
→ The choice of the theory is contextual. There is flexibility

• Proponents : Fareed Zakaria, Thomas J Christens, William Wohlfarth

• Basic problem under Anarchy is

→ Any state can resort to force to get what it wants.

• It follows from this basic premise that States are likely to guard against the possibility that one State might
amass the capacity and power to compel all the others to do as it wants.

• According to Balance of Power Theory :

→ States will check dangerous concentration of power either by :
- Internal Balancing : Building up their own capabilities
- External Balancing : Aggregating their capabilities with other states in alliance

• These type of Balancing may occur even before any one state or alliance has gained an obvious power
edge.
© Saar Concepts
Realism and Neorealism
Balance of Threat Theory

• This theory predicts that states will balance against threats.

• Threats can arise from three factors

→ Aggregate Capabilities (Military plus economic potential)
→ Geography (Near or far)
→ Perceptions of aggressive intentions

• If one state becomes especially powerful and if its location and behavior feed threat perception on the
part of other states, then balancing strategies will come to dominate their foreign policy.

• The theory of Balance of Threat was proposed by Stephen Walt in his book
- The Origin of Alliances (1990)

• Randall Schweller proposes the Balance of Interest theory.

• Schweller demonstrates that it is the end goal or prospect of some gains that also matters for a country.
- States may align not only to balance power but also to attain some gains.

• The term ‘Security Dilemma’ was coined by John Herz.

• According to the theory of Security Dilemma :-

→ In arming for self defense a state might decrease its security by the unintended effect of making
others insecure, sparking them to arm in response.
→ This could lead security seeking states into costly Arms Race, mistrust and rivalry.

• This theory builds on the observation that powerful states tend to seek dominance over all or parts of an
international system, thus giving rise to a kind of hierarchy within the overall structure of Anrachy.

• It seeks to explain how cooperation can emerge among countries, and how international order comprising
of rules, norms and institutions can be established and sustained.

• According to the theory :

→ An International order can be stable only if there exists a Hegemon to maintain
order and authority.
→ Current International order has USA as a hegemon

Dominant Power

Great Power

Middle Powers

Small Powers

• Power Transition theory is a subset of hegemonic stability theory that seeks to explain how order breaks
down into war.

• According to this theory :-

→ Dominant States will try to retain its leadership in the world.
→ Gradually lesser States will rise and become stronger relative to the Dominant State.
→ When capabilities between two sides become almost equal, then clash will happen.

• Applied to the current context, this theory predicts

- The stronger China gets the more likely it is to become dissatisfied with US led Global Order.
- A War or a Cold War-style rivalry between US and China will become most likely unless
China’s growth slows down or US finds some way to accommodate China.

book Concepts
: ‘World Politics’ (1958)
Dissatisfied

Satisfied
Idealism and
Liberalism
Idealism and Liberalism
Lecture Outline

1. Introduction
2. Intellectual Roots of Idealism and Liberalism
3. Evolution of Liberalism in IR
→ Liberalism in Interwar Period : Idealism
→ Liberalism in Postwar Era : Neoliberalism
→ Liberalism after Cold War
4. Main types of Liberalism
- Sociological Liberalism
- Interdependence Liberalism
→ Functionalism and Neofunctionalism Theory
→ Complex Interdependence
- Institutional Liberalism
- Republican Liberalism
4. Neoliberalism and Neorealism © Saar
in IR :Concepts
A Comparison
Idealism and Liberalism
Introduction

• The liberal approach has developed in the academic field of IR throughout the Post-World War I era.
→ The field of study of IR was itself established in the period immediately following
World War I
- In the aftermath of the War, Philanthropists, Scholars and diplomats in Europe
and USA sought an understanding of the causes of war and the means by which
to promote peace and security.

• In 1919, a wealthy Welsh Industrialist by the name of David Davies provided fund to the
University of Wales for the purpose of studying International Relations.
→ Woodrow Wilson Chair of International Politics was established
- Sir Alfred Zimmern, a British Historian, became the first scholar of International
Politics when he accepted the Wilson Chair.

liberal Concepts
institutional approach for discussing the issues of War, Peace and
Security.
Idealism and Liberalism
Intellectual Roots

• Liberalism as a Political Theory of State

→ A limited or constitutional government whose legitimacy is derived from the consent of the
Governed.
• The English Philosopher John Locke advanced the idea of limited government using the argument of
‘State of Nature’
- All individuals in the state of nature had natural right to life, liberty and property
This was called ‘Natural Law’
→ It is through human capacity of reason that Individual came to know this law.
- But there was no Government to enforce the ‘Natural Law’
→ People enforced the law themselves and this created problem
- Locke argued that rational individuals would establish civil government in order to
protect and preserve their freedom and rights.

Saar Concepts
took up Locke’s argument and tried to apply it to International
Relations.
Idealism and Liberalism
Intellectual Roots

• Many theorists in the liberal tradition took up Locke’s argument and tried to apply it to International
Relations.

• Emmerich de Vattel (1867)

→ He argued that States have no government to rule over them or enforce their rights.
→ States are governed by a Universal Natural Law that is binding on all states and obligates them
to respect the rights of one another.
- Vattel calls this ‘Necessary Law of Nations’
- We can refer to them as ‘International Law’ today.

• Immanuel Kant
→ He is regarded as the founding father of Idealism in IR

• Immanuel Kant
→ He is regarded as the founding father of Idealism in IR
→ Kant is best known for arguing that States with republican constitutions are inherently
more peaceful.
- Democratic governments will never got to war against each other.
- Democratic governments will establish international laws and institutions to
regulate their behavior.

→ These arguments of Kant became central tenets of ‘Democratic Peace Theory’

• Other liberal thinkers like Jeremy Bentham, J S Mill and Adam Smith argue that
→ Free and open trade among nations has a general harmonizing effect since it is
mutually beneficial and contribute to the happiness of another’s society.

→ These arguments became the basis of what later became ‘Commercial Liberalism’
- Michael Doyle’s idea of Commercial Pacifism : The idea that market societies
are fundamentally against war.

• Based on ideas of these thinkers, we can summarize basic tenets of liberalism :

- A strong preference for law governed society of states
- Cooperation through international organizations to collectively enforce these laws
- Pursuit of free trade to help enhance global prosperity.

• The calamity of world war I and the horrific human toll it brought about led to new efforts to try and
understand and ultimately eliminate war.

• Causes of War according to Liberals

→ Egoistic and reckless miscalculations of autocratic rulers
→ Outdated system of alliance based on balance of power that had dominated Europe for
centuries.

• Solution
→ Replace the malfunctioning European Balance of Power with a system of International law and
collective security
→ Reform the structure of autocratic government in order to make them more peaceful

• Norman Angell – ‘The Great Illusion’ (1913)

→ He argued that
- States’ single minded pursuit of their own security in a condition of anarchy led to War.
- Best solution to aggression was ‘third party judgement’ within a collective security
arrangement.
• Woodrow Wilson
→ Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’(1918) contained his vision for the new liberal foundation of International
Politics.
- He emphasized the promotion of democracy and self determination based on the
conviction that democracies do not go to war against each other.
- He advocated for the creation of an International Organization based on a common
set of rules.
→ Wilson believed that when rational human beings apply reason to International problems, they
© Saar
can establish institutions that Concepts
can improve human condition
Idealism and Liberalism
Liberalism in Interwar Period : Idealism

• The League of Nations was created to promote peaceful cooperation among states

• But the League of Nations failed to prevent expansionist policies of Germany, Japan and Italy and also
World War II
→ The liberal ideas of scholars like Angell and Wilson came under intense criticism

• The best known criticism of the Interwar Idealism is that of E H Carr’s ‘Twenty Years’ Crisis’ (1939).
→ Carr argued
- Liberal thinkers misunderstood the nature of International Relations.
- Liberal thinkers were too pre occupied with what IR aught to resemble rather than
what it actually resemble.

• The bipolar structure of Cold War period put considerable stress on liberalism’s ability to explain
international politics
→ Realism offered a better explanation of the situation
- An anarchical system dominated by two powerful hegemons engaged in security
dilemma.

• Despite the emergence of several new international organizations (UN, IMF, World Bank, GATT,) during the
postwar era which were based on liberal principles.
→ The international security environment was dominated by cold war power politics
- The idealism that had dominated interwar period had given way to Realism.

• Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye attempted to counter the Neorealist Challenge
→ They developed a new brand of Liberalism called Neoliberalism
- They tried to explain the various examples of cooperation among democratic
countries by reference to the idea of ‘Complex Interdependence’

• Complex Interdependence
→ There exists various forms of connection between states in addition to the political relations of
their government. Eg – transnational links between businesses
- This leads to an absence of hierarchy among issues. Military issues is not necessarily
states’ priority.
→ Interdependence arising because of the many non state actors leads to less conflict among
states.

• Neoliberalism in IR focusses on the role that International organizations play in state behavior
→ Robert Keohane’s book ‘After Hegemony’ (1984)

• In an Interdependent World – International Institutions and International Organizations play a very

important role in promoting cooperation
→ These Institutions solve the problem of distrust and uncertainty and provide the states a
platform from where they can resolve their disputes peacefully.

• Neoliberals accept the neorealist assumption that International System is anarchic

→ But instead of leading to conflict, Anarchy forces the rational actors to establish institutions
for cooperation.

• The disintegration of Soviet Union and the end of Cold War brought dramatic changes to domestic and
International Political Structures.

• Francis Fukuyama’s 1989 essay – ‘The end of history?’ proclaimed the ideological victory of liberalism over
all other alternative theories of politics
→ Fukuyama also revived the long held view that the spread of liberal democratic principles is
the best prospect for a peaceful world order.

• Another important development in the post cold war era was the proliferation of human rights norms,
treaties and agencies and instances of humanitarian interventions
→ Human Rights are an essentially western liberal ideals
- The victory of pro western forces in the ideological struggle made room for both
state and non state actors to work more towards realizing human rights
© Saar
throughout theConcepts
world
Idealism and Liberalism
Liberalism after Cold War

• A final development in liberal thought that gained prominence in the post-cold war era had been the rapid
globalization of world economy.
→ The idea of free trade and the belief in its efficiency and pacifying effects have been the
governing ideologies of the various free trade institutions such as IMF, WTO, World Bank,
NAFTA, EU etc
→ The number of free trade organizations have increased in the past few decades.

• For Realists, IR is the study of Relations between Governments of Sovereign States.

→ Sociological Liberalism rejects this view by calling it too narrow and one sided.
- IR is not only about State-to-State relations, it is also about ‘Transnational Relations’
- Transnational Relations : Relations between people, groups and organizations belonging
to different countries.

• Sociological Liberalism emphasizes not just on State and National Governments

→ The focus is equally on society and many different types of actors
- This is also called ‘Pluralism’

• Sociological Liberalism focusses on transnational relations and regards it to be an important aspect of

International Relations
→ Relations among governments is supplemented by relations among private individuals, groups
©relations
and societies. These Saar Concepts
do have important consequences for the course of events.
Idealism and Liberalism
Sociological Liberalism

• Sociological Liberalism focusses on transnational relations and regards it to be an important aspect of

International Relations
→ Relations among governments is supplemented by relations among private individuals, groups
and societies. These relations do have important consequences for the course of events.
→ Some liberal thinkers like Richard Cobden argue that
- Relations between people are more cooperative and more supportive of peace than
relations between government.
→ James Rosenau has played an important role in developing the sociological approach to
transnational relations.
• Karl Deutsch’s concept of ‘Security Community’
- High level of transnational ties between societies leads to creation of security community.
- Security Community refers to a group of people which has become ‘Integrated’ and has
a sense of community.
- People come © Saar Concepts
to agree that they can resolve their disputes without use of violence
Idealism and Liberalism
Sociological Liberalism

• John Burton’s ‘Cobweb Model’

→ In his book ‘World Society’ (1972) John Burton argues :
- A nation state consists of many different groups of people that have different type of
external ties and interests : Religious groups, business group, labour groups,
- Cobweb model implies that the world is driven more by mutually beneficial cooperation
than by conflict.

Cobweb Model of Burton

Billiard Balls Model of Realists

• Interdependence means mutual dependence

- People and government are affected by what happens elsewhere.
- Higher level of transnational relations between countries mean higher level of interdependence

• Functionalist Theory of David Mitrany

→ Mitrany believed that greater interdependence in the form of transnational ties between
countries can lead to peace.
- Cooperation should be arranged by technical experts and not by politicians
- Experts would devise solutions to common problems in various functional areas like
transport, communication, finance etc.
- Technical and economic collaboration would expand when participants start discovering
mutual benefits. This is called ‘Spillover Effects’
→ Spillover Effect : Increased Cooperation in one area leads to increased
increased cooperation in other areas.

• Neofunctionalist theory of Ernst Hass

→ Hass builds on Mitrany but he rejects the notion that technical matters can be separated from
politics.
- Real integration require self-interested political elites to intensify their cooperation.
- Spillover will ensure that political elites continue their cooperation.

• Robert Keohane and Jospeh Nye’s concept of ‘Complex Interdependence’

→ The concept was developed in their book ‘Power and Interdependence’ (1977)
→ Relations between countries are not primarily relations between relations between state leader
- There are relations on many different levels through many different actors
- There is a host of transnational relations between individuals and groups outside of the
state.
→ Military force is a less useful instrument of policy under condition of complex interdependence

• Anne Marie Slaughter’s concept of ‘Intergovernmental Network’

→ Slaughter observes a complex web of network between various agencies of different states
like – law enforcement, environment, finance etc
- These government agencies increasingly share information and coordinate activities
to address common issues.

• This strand of liberalism focusses upon the beneficial effects of international institutions.
• What is an International Institution ?
→ It is an International organization, like EU or UN, or it is a set of rules which govern state actions
in a particular area such as shipping or aviation.
- These set of rules are also called ‘Regimes’. Regimes can exist without formal
organization
→ Institutions can be Universal, with global membership, like UN, or they can be regional such as
EU.

• Republican Liberalism is based on the claim that liberal democracies are more peaceful and law abiding
than other political system.
→ The argument is not that democracies never go to war
- The argument is that democracies do not fight each other.

• This observation was first articulated by Immanuel Kant in late 18th century.
→ The idea was resurrected by Dean Babst in 1964.

• Why are Democracies at peace with one another ?

→ According to Michael Doyle, there are three reasons for this :-
−

• Why are Democracies at peace with one another ?

→ According to Michael Doyle, there are three reasons for this :-
- Democracy encourages peaceful international relations because democratic governments
are controlled by their citizens, who will not advocate or support war with other
democracies.

- Democracies hold common moral values. Common moral foundation of all democracies.
Peaceful way of resolving disputes are considered morally superior.

- Peace between democracies is strengthened by economic cooperation and

interdependence.

• Liberalism’s main contender is Neorealism. Followings are the main points of contention between two
approaches :-
→ Human Nature : Liberals generally take a positive view of human nature while Realists take a
negative view, they see human being as capable of evil.
- But Neorealists and Neoliberals do not focus on human nature, both accept the fact
human nature is very complex and thus analysis should be based on external
observable facts and evidences.

→ View of History :
- Realist adopts a non-progressive view of human history. Anarchical system is
unchanging and state remain state despite of historical change.
- Liberals adopts a progressive view of history. Countries can progress towards a more
peaceful and cooperative world.
© Saar Concepts
Idealism and Liberalism
Neoliberalism and Neorealism : Comparison

• Liberalism’s main contender is Neorealism. Followings are the main points of contention between two
approaches :-
→ Nature and Consequence of Anarchy
- Neorealists see anarchy as placing more severe constraints on State than liberals
- They view international cooperation as more difficult to attain and maintain.
- For neorealists, International cooperation is dependent on state power and not
on institutions.

→ Neorealists assume that states are more concerned about relative gains whereas neoliberals have
emphasized upon Absolute gains.
- Joseph Grieco (1988) has developed the concept of Absolute and Relative Gain.
- When States are faced with the possibility of cooperating for mutual gains, neorealist
will be concerned how much they will get vis-à-vis other states, whereas neoliberals
© Saar
believe states areConcepts
primarily concerned with their own gains and are indifferent
towards other states.
Marxism in IR
Marxism in IR
Introduction

• While liberal and realist theorists of IR probe each other’s ideas for faults and weaknesses
→ Both operate within the same paradigm
- Both assume that the international order is composed of sovereign states engaging each
other under the condition of Anarchy.
- Neither have challenged Capitalism and its implications for global economy

• The main challenge to traditional approach did not emerge until around 1970s
→ Gradually, scholars of IR started asking new questions about global politics and the assumptions
on which traditional theories are based.
→ This led to emergence of many critical approaches in IR
∙ Marxism
∙ Critical Theory
∙ Constructivism
© Saar Concepts
∙ Feminism
∙ Post modernism
Marxism in IR
Introduction

• Marxism in IR
→ Classical Marxists thinkers ideas about world politics
→ Dependency theory and World system theory
→ Critical Theory
→ Gramsci’s concept of hegemony and its application in global politics

© Saar Concepts
Marxism in IR
© Saar Concepts
• Karl Marx and Frederich Engels did not write extensively on global politics
→ But in their 1848 work – ‘The Communist Manifesto’
- They outlined the implication for global order of the rise and spread of capitalism
- Need for market for its ever increasing production will lead the capitalists to spread
throughout the globe through imperialism

• Russian Communist leader Lenin developed a more elaborate critique of Capitalism

→ He regarded imperialism to be the highest and final stage of capitalism.

• Marxist theory was developed in the post world war period by A G Frank (Dependency Theory) and
Immanuel Wallerstein (World System Theory)
→ They developed underdevelopment in poor countries in terms of the exploitative legacy of
western imperialism and colonialism
Gramsci’s Concept of Hegemony

Civil Society :
Power of State Schools, Colleges, Church,
Media, Family

Indirect exercise
Direct exercise of power Socialization of People
of Power

Citizen

Controlling thoughts and ideas of

people

Civil Society :
Power of State Schools, Colleges, Church,
Media, Family

Indirect exercise
Direct exercise of power Socialization of People
of Power

Citizen

Controlling thoughts and ideas of

people

© Saar Concepts
Marxism in IR
© Saar Concepts
• Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony
→ For Gramsci, modern rule was not secured by direct coercion alone
→ Gramsci showed that the full array of civil society institution such as family, the church, the school
the media, the workplace provide the state with vital assistance in helping to socialize citizens
- These institutions of civil society help in cultivating a willingness to embrace the
ruling class’s economic, cultural, moral and political agenda even if it goes against
the interests of the people.
- The state thus plays an educative and formative role to create and sustain a certain
type of civilization and citizen

• Through his notion of hegemony, Gramsci redirected Marxist theory to the role of culture and ideology in
reproducing the state and capitalism.
→ Our focus should include the cultural and ideological resources utilized to produce ‘a certain type
of civilization and citizen’ through civil society’s educational and formative process.

• Although Gramsci wrote mainly about domestic politics, he recognized that the dynamics of hegemony
extended to the global sphere.
Marxism in IR
© Saar Concepts
• Canadian Theorist Robert Cox deployed Gramsci’s notion of hegemony in IR

• According to Cox
→ Neorealist and Neoliberal accounts of hegemony focused on the dominant state’s material
capabilities but it failed to recognize the political importance of ideas

→ Cox insists that hegemony is not achieved purely with instrument of material power
- Hegemony is a form of dominance where states in the international system create a
world order, consistent with its ideology and values that serve to maintain its
pre-eminence in the international system.

→ Contemporary hegemonic formations

- A global ‘Common sense’ has been constructed around the deregulation of trade and
finance.
- While claiming to serve global interests, these values in fact serve to consolidate and
enhance the power and prosperity of the major states and global corporations.
Cold War and After
Cold War and After
Lecture Outline

1. Introduction
2. Cold War History : Four Phases
→ Beginning of the Cold War (1945-53)
→ Spread of Cold War (1953-69)
→ Détente and ‘Second’ Cold War (1969-85)
→ The End of Cold War (1985-91)
3. Analyzing the Cold War : Four Dimensions
- Ideological Dimension
- Geopolitical Dimension
- Strategic Dimension
- International Dimension
4. Analyzing the End of Cold War
→ Reasons for the Collapse of USSR
5. Legacy of the Cold War © Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Introduction

• The Cold War was the most important feature of International System in the second half of the twentieth
century.

• The Cold War was a global contest for influence and power between the US and Soviet Union and their
respective allies :
→ The conflict had primarily two dimensions :-
- Traditional Concern for Security : Each felt the other threatening to its survival and
its interests
- Ideological Antagonism : Both side embodied universal ideologies that asserted the
superiority of their social-economic system over others.

• The Cold War never became a hot war.

→ The vast military capabilities of the Superpowers never directly fought each other
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Introduction

• The Cold War never became a hot war.

→ The vast military capabilities of the Superpowers never directly fought each other
→ The Cold War was fought in the International arena through :-
- Diplomacy
- Ideological Rhetoric
- Arms Race
- Regional Proxy Wars and Interventions
- Competition for allies and military bases around the world

• Traditional Wars can be dated with precision, such as a declaration of war or invasion
→ But there is no clear starting date for the cold war.
- The war began with an accelerating escalation of tension between the two superpowers.

• Beginning of the Cold War

→ Because cold war was a rivalry between two ideologies, some historians claim that its origin can
be traced to Russian Revolution – 1917
- Post Revolution Russia : Reds – Supporters of Gov. and Lenin’s policies
Whites – Against Govt.’s / Supported by US and West.
→ But it is widely agreed that cold war began after World War II with the collapse of
Grand Alliance
- Grand Alliance was the arrangement struck between the USA, Britain and Soviet
Union in 1941 to defeat the Axis Power (Germany, Japan and Italy)
• Termination of Cold War
→ The Cold war has no clear surrender and Armistice day. But two dates of its termination are
widely accepted
- Fall of Berlin Wall on the night of 9 November 1989
© Saar
- Dissolution Concepts
of Soviet Union in December 1991.
Cold War and After
Beginning of Cold War – 1945 to 1953 © Saar
•
Concepts
April 1945 – US President Roosevelt died which led to further breakdown of relations
→ Roosevelt’s successor Harry Truman took a more firm anti-Soviet stance

• As a result, US policy towards Soviet Union took a more confrontational line

→ Containment became the fundamental goal of US security policy against Soviet Union during
Cold War.

• George Kennan was one of the chief architect of the strategy of Containment .
- Kennan was a US Diplomat based in Moscow
- In February 1946, he sent a secret diplomatic cable to Washington. It was titled
‘The Long telegram’
• After analyzing the history and nature of Soviet regime, Kennan concluded that :
→ Unless prevented, Soviet Union would probably expand into the power vacuum in Central and
Western Europe.
→ He recommended that Soviet expansionism be Contained by American Policies.

• Kennan’s article was published in the US journal ‘Foreign Affairs’ in July 1947, with the author described as
Mr ‘X’.
Cold War and After
Beginning of Cold War – 1945 to 1953

• Kennan’s idea was gradually accepted in Washington.

• In 1947, the US pursued what came to be known as Truman Doctrine :

→ It was a US Policy commitment to provide military aid to Western European countries in an
effort to resist communism
→ Originally offered to Turkey and Greece, the military aid and support was extended to other
European countries thought to be under communist subversion.

• Marshall Plan
→ It was the economic aspect of the Truman Doctrine, designed by George Marshall.
→ Introduced in 1947, it was a US aid program designed to reconstruct and stimulate the
economies of western Europe after World War II
→ US believed that economically strong Europe would be politically stable and much less
© Saar of
susceptible to challenges Concepts
communism.
Cold War and After
Beginning of Cold War – 1945 to 1953

• First significant crisis of Cold War : Berlin Blockade 1948

→ After World War II, in the Potsdam Conference 1945, Germany was divided into four sectors, each
run by one of the Allied Power :
- West Germany : US, Britain and France
- East Germany : Soviet Union
→ Berlin was also similarly divided into East Berlin and West Berlin.
- But Berlin was located in the center of East Germany which was under Soviet control
→ The Soviets tried to claim full Berlin, and in mid 1948 cut road and rail communication to the
city.
→ A massive Airlift lasted for a year and which ensured that West Berlin remained out of Soviet
control.

• Berlin Crisis led to escalation in Political tension

France USSR

East Berlin
West Germany US

West Berlin
Cold War and After
Beginning of Cold War – 1945 to 1953

• In August 1949, Soviet Union successfully tested an Atomic bomb.

→ Now the rivalry between US and Soviet Union was backed by Nuclear Weapons.

• NATO established in 1949

→ It was a military Alliance formed in 1949 by Western European and North American countries.
→ NATO was intended to provide a formal structure for American military presence in Europe
for the purpose of deterring Soviet Aggression.

• Soviet Union created Warsaw Pact as a counterweight in 1955

→ It was a military alliance formed in 1955 by Eastern European countries aligned with USSR.

• Europe was now divided into

• In August 1949, Soviet Union successfully tested an Atomic bomb.

→ Now the rivalry between US and Soviet Union was backed by Nuclear Weapons.

• NATO established in 1949

• Soviet Union created Warsaw Pact as a counterweight in 1955

→ It was a military alliance formed in 1955 by Eastern European countries aligned with USSR.
• Europe was now divided into
- Soviet Union dominated East
- USA dominated West
© Saar
→ Winston Concepts
Churchill described this division long before in 1946 by the phrase
‘Iron Curtain’
Cold War and After
Beginning of Cold War – 1945 to 1953

• The Cold War had its origin in Europe.

→ But gradually it transformed into a Global Affair.
→ Two events in Asia started this process

• Chinese Civil War

→ The defeat of Japan had reignited the Chinese Civil War
- The Civil War had been running since the fall of Manchu(Qing) Dynasty in 1911.
- Republic of China was established in 1912 which continued till 1949
→ Mao Zedong led the revolt against Republic of China (ROC)
- Soviet Union supported Mao’s communist forces and played a crucial role in its victory.
- On October 1, 1949, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed and
Mao Zedong became its supreme leader.

© Saar
→ Now, two of the world’s Concepts
most geographically expansive states were Communists.
China before the revolution of 1949 China after Communist Revolution of 1949

People’s Republic of
Republic of China (ROC)
China (PRC)
1912-1949
under Mao

Taiwan (Island) Taiwan (Island)

Republic of China (ROC)
Claiming to be real representative of
mainland China
Cold War and After
Beginning of Cold War – 1945 to 1953

• Korean War
- The Korean peninsula had been a Japanese colony since 1910. After Japan’s defeat it was hastily
divided into North and South Korea from 38th Parallel (latitude)
- In June 1950, the Soviet backed North launched an attack on the US supported South.
→ In response, the US and 15 allied country sent military forces to South Korea
→ This military operation was given UN authorization by Security Council.

• As the war progressed, Allied forces pushed the North Koreans back towards Chinese borders with the
intent of unifying the country.
- China intervened by sending 300,000 troops into North Korea.

• A stalemate followed near the original border along 38th Parallel and the War ended in a truce in 1953.

• The Korean War convinced the US and its allies that Communism was aggressive and expansive.
→ Soviets, Chinese and Koreans were trying to create a global communist bloc.
- A Global Unified System of Communist Countries

• Domino Theory :
→ There was a fear that if one country in a region fell under communist rule, the other country in
that region would also be at risk.
- Therefore, communism had to be prevented from taking root even in even the
smallest and remotest of countries.
Domino Effect

• As a result, a global response to contain Communist influence was considered necessary.

→ This led USA to sign a series of alliance treaties in Asia Pacific
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Spread of Cold War : 1953 to 69

• As a result, a global response to contain Communist influence was considered necessary.

→ This led USA to sign a series of alliance treaties in Asia Pacific
- ANZUS : A security agreement between Australia, New Zealand and US which came into
force in 1952
- SEATO : Southeast Asian Treaty Organization
It existed from 1955 to 1977. Members were : Australia, France, New Zealand ,
Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, UK and US
- CENTO : Central Treaty Organization or Baghdad Pact
It existed from 1955 to 1979. Members : Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and UK.

• After Korean War, the dynamics of East – West confrontation began to spread and interact with regional
development across the world.
→ Local Political elites attempted to gain domestic advantage by taking support of either
USA or Soviet Union.© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Spread of Cold War : 1953 to 69

• Tensions reached high points in four occasions :

→ Suez Crisis 1956
→ Berlin Crisis of 1961
→ Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962
→ Vietnam War
• Suez Crisis 1956
- In 1956 Israel, France and UK invaded Egypt because of Egypt’s nationalization of Suez Canal
- Soviet Union threatened to intervene on behalf of Egypt.
- US opposed the action and asked its allies to withdraw from Egypt
- The Suez Crisis signaled the end of European domination in World affairs and the beginning
of Superpower management of Crisis
• Berlin Crisis of 1961
- It was a dangerous military stand-off that led to the construction of the infamous
© Saar
Berlin Wall dividing Concepts
East and West Berlin.
Cold War and After
Spread of Cold War : 1953 to 69

• Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 (also called October Crisis)

→ Fidel Castro led ‘Cuban Revolution (1953 -59) successfully established a Socialist State in Cuba
→ US attempted to overthrow Fidel Castro’s revolution by supporting the ‘Bay of Pigs’ invasion by
Cuban Exiles in April 1961.
- The invasion failed but it drove Castro further into the Soviet Camp.

→ The Crisis started when Soviet Union began installing Medium Range Ballistic Missiles on the
island of Cuba
- The aim was to offset Cuba’s strategic inferiority and deter another invasion of the island

→ But US detected that USSR was installing Medium Range Nuclear Missiles in Cuba, only few miles
away from Coast of Florida

• Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 (also called October Crisis)

→ A thirteen day stand-off ensued in which the world came very close to Nuclear War
- US President John F Kennedy imposed a Naval Blockade on Cuba to prevent the
landing of Missiles and to force the removal of Soviet Bases from Cuba.

→ Kennedy and Soviet leader Khrushchev eventually reached a Compromise

- USSR agreed not to station Missiles in Cuba in return for an American promise not
to invade the island.
- US also agreed to remove its Missiles stationed at Turkey.

• Vietnam War
→ In 1965, US made the decision to extend its support for South Vietnam in its struggle against
Communist North Vietnam which was supported by Soviet Union and China.
→ The US committed itself to preventing a communist takeover in Vietnam
- US deployed more than 540,000 troops by 1968.
- But US military was not designed to fight Insurgents who used Guerilla tactics to fight.
- Approximately 58000 American soldiers were killed in Vietnam.
- US was not successful in defeating the insurgency in Vietnam.

→ In 1973, US withdrew all American forces from South Vietnam, which ultimately fell to North
Vietnam in 1975.

• Soviet-China alliance had always been a cause of concern for West.

Concepts
→ But Soviet-China alliance had started becoming weak
- Personal clashes between Mao and Khrushchev
- Ideological differences and competition for the leadership of international
communist movement.
- Soviet refusal to pass atomic technology.
→ In 1969 there was a short Sino-Soviet border War

• For West it became clear that the Communist bloc had fragmented.
→ The US, led by President Nixon and Secretary of state Henry Kissinger, sought to capitalize
on the new antagonism between Soviet Union and China
- In 1972, US President Nixon visited China
- People’s Republic of China (PRC) was given recognition by US in 1979
- In 1972, US President Nixon also visited Soviet Union to have a Summit Meeting with
Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev
- Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) was signed between USA and USSR in 1972
Cold War and After
Détente and Second Cold War : 1969 - 85

• But the underlying hostility and mutual distrust was never removed from both the sides
→ By the mid 1970s, the mood had began to shift.

• A perception in US began to emerge that :

→ Soviet Union was taking advantage of the improved situation
- Soviet Union kept extending support to revolutionary movement around world

• Invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet Union in 1979 brought an end to Détente.

• US President Jimmy Carter responded by enunciating ‘Carter Doctrine’

→ It committed the US to protect its interests in the Persian Gulf by any means necessary
- US provided financial aid and weapon support to resistance fighters in Afghanistan
to fight the Soviet invasion.
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Détente and Second Cold War : 1969 - 85

• Election of President Ronald Reagan in 1980 started a period sometime referred to as ‘Cold War II’
→ President Regan came to power with a very hostile view of Soviet Union.
- He referred to USSR as ‘Evil Empire’
→ Reagan government accelerated the military buildup initiated by President Carter.
→ Reagan proposed the development of ‘Strategic Defense Initiative’ (Star Wars)
→ He enhanced US support to insurgency movement in Soviet Client States like
Nicargua and Angola.

• By 1984, Europe was experiencing levels of tensions unseen since the early days of Cold War.
- There was a renewed sense that nuclear war was a very real possibility.

• The end of Cold War was as radical as it was rapid

→ The Cold War ended not with a hegemonic war but with the disintegration of one of the
two Poles of Power.

• Soviet Union experienced increased economic stagnation during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev
- The economy was performing poorly
- By the 1980s, Japan had overtaken USSR as the World’s second largest economy.
- The Soviet Central Economic Planning was not working efficiently.
- Workforce suffered from poor morale
‘They pretend to pay, we pretend to work’
- The cost of attempting to maintain technological parity with US was proving very high.

• In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev was appointed as the General Secretary of the Communist Party.
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
The End of Cold War : 1985-91

• Gorbachev was determined to revitalize the Soviet Union through an extensive reform program.
→ He wanted to create an International environment more conducive to economic
revitalization of Soviet Union
→ Gorbachev knew that the reforms will not work if the international environment
is not favorable
→ He wanted to divert the resources from military spending to civilian economy.
→ Gorbachev reached out to West with Arms Control Proposals
→ He also withdrew Soviet forces from Afghanistan in 1989

• Gorbachev’s reforms included :-

→ Glasnost (openness)
- To broaden the boundary of acceptable political discussion

→ Perestroika (restructuring)
- To reorganize the old economic system by introducing limited market incentive.

• But Gorbachev’s domestic policies did not yield the desired results
→ Introduction of new economic policy did not work and there was economic decline,
unemployment and a drop in production.
→ Glasnost served to expose inefficiency and corruption in the system.

• Series of revolutions took place in East Europe

- Ruling Communist Parties were removed from power.
- Soviet Union stopped its practice of determining the Politics and Policies of
Eastern European Countries : ‘Brezhnev Doctrine’ was abandoned.

• Berlin Wall was officially opened up on November 7, 1989.

- Germany was reunited on October 3, 1990

• Within USSR
→ Increased dissatisfaction with the Central leadership in Moscow led to demands for increased
devolution of Power to the constituents.
→ Central Government in Soviet Union began to simply wither away as Government in the
Republic gathered increasing power
- Ukraine voted for independence on December 1, 1991.
- Declaration of independence from other states followed.

• On December 8, Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed as a coordinating framework for
most of the former Republics.

• In the last week of December 1991, Soviet Flag was taken down from Kremlin, in Moscow.

• Ideological Dimension
→ The Cold War was a rivalry between two antagonistic political, economic and social system
- It was a competition to determine which system performed the best and which
could build a better society.
- Soviet Union : Communism (Marxism – Leninism)
- US and West : Capitalism and Liberal Democracy
→ For West
- Communism threatened the overthrow of Western Liberal Democracy and Free Market
economic system
→ For Soviets
- Capitalist West controlled the world economy and was bent on surrounding and then
destroying the Marxists and Leninist revolution in Russia.

• Geopolitical Dimension
→ Ideological rivalry does not provide a complete explanation for the events of the cold war.
→ The bipolar structure of the international system at the end of WW II led each superpower
to regard the other as a rival

→ USA thought that USSR had a geopolitical advantage, it would try to expand anywhere along
a wide perimeter.
- To contain the USSR, the US and its allies had no option but to defend the vast perimeter
of Eurasia.
- In its attempt to contain the Soviet Union and prevent the spread of communism, the US
would assist not only democratic countries but also non democratic countries and
dictatorial countries with poor human rights records – Chile, Guatemala, Iran etc

©attempt
→ USSR considered this Saar Concepts
by West to encircle it as a grave threat to its survival
Cold War and After
Analyzing Cold War

• Strategic Dimension
→ One of the central feature of the cold war was competition over strategic arms
→ Arms Race involved both Conventional and Nuclear Weapons
- It began with the Soviet efforts to break the US Atomic monopoly, which succeeded in 1949
- It was a race that involved an expansion in the quantity of weapons as well as the
development of more sophisticated delivery system
→ Intercontinental Bombers, Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles,
Multiple Independently targeted re-entry vehicle.
- By 1985, the US had over 11000 nuclear weapons and the Soviet Union had around 9500

→ Nuclear weapon acted as instrument of Deterrence and not war fighting

- Deterrence : An opponent will not start a war because of the threat that it will receive
an unacceptable damage in return
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Analyzing Cold War

• Strategic Dimension
→ Nuclear Deterrence
- The logic of deterrence would suggest that if two superpower could inflict unacceptable
damage on each other in a nuclear war then neither would start such a war by
launching a first attack.
→ MAD : Mutually Assured Destruction
- The ability of both sides to essentially destroy the other

• International Dimension
- Not only was the Cold War an immediate concern in North America and Soviet Union.
→ It had a visible impact in Latin America, Europe, Africa, the Middle East,
South Asia and Southeast Asia
→ No region of the world was uninfluenced by the superpower rivalry.
© Saar Concepts

•
Cold War and After
Analyzing End of Cold War

• Why did the Soviet Union Collapse ?

→ A Victory for USA’s Containment Policy

- Some scholars claim that the grand strategy of Containment by the United States worked.
- The cost of the nuclear arms race, the cost of maintain a massive military establishment,
and the cost of supporting allies in Eastern Europe and overseas bankrupted the
Soviet Union
- Soviet Union was unable to devote resources for the revitalization of its economy.

→ Soviet Imperial Overstretch

- According to this theory, USSR took too many commitments in the world which forced it
to devote scarce resources to client states such as Cuba, Syria and Vietnam
- The War in Afghanistan burdened the economy even more.
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Analyzing End of Cold War

• Why did the Soviet Union Collapse ?

→ The Economic and Social decline of USSR

- The most widely accepted explanation of the collapse of Soviet Union is that the
communist economic system did not work well
- Soviet Union’s Command Economy became ineffective in later period.
- New technological developments could not be absorbed in Soviet Economic System

→ The Failure of Gorbachev’s Reforms

- Gorbachev’s Glasnost and Perestroika reforms failed
- Gorbachev sought a middle way between Command Economy and Market forces.
- This misdirected reform efforts made an already bad situation worse and gradually
center lost its control over power.
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Legacy of the Cold War

• Cold War played a Dominant Role in World Politics.

• Three of the most pressing issues in World Politics have their roots in Cold War
1. Korea and Taiwan in East Asia
2. Islamist Terrorism
3. Russia’s increasing assertiveness

• Korea and Taiwan

→ Korean Peninsula remains divided into North and South
→ North Korea is one of the few states that retains a Command economy and Stalinist Political
System. It is also in the process of acquiring Nuclear Weapons.

→ Taiwan’s uncertain political status is also the unfinished business of the Cold War
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Legacy of the Cold War

• Korea and Taiwan

→ Taiwan’s uncertain political status is also the unfinished business of the Cold War
- Taiwan was created by nationalists who had lost the Chinese Civil War
- It was initially recognized by US as the legitimate China . But this recognition
was removed as US improved its relations with People’s Republic of China
during the Détente .

→ Tensions in these regions continues till today, making these regions likely locations of major
power conflict.
© Saar Concepts
Cold War and After
Legacy of the Cold War

• Islamist Terrorism
→ It was the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan and the US funding of insurgents that gave birth to
al-Qaeda and its off shoots, such as Islamist States.
→ Soviet forces were defeated by Afghan Militia whose funding and organization was heavily
assisted by US.
- Later on, these Islamist Militia from Afghanistan would carry 9/11 attack on US.

→ The ‘War on terror’ that dominated US foreign policy between 2001 and 2009, directly
contributed to the ongoing problems in Iraq and Syria.

• Russia’s Increasing Assertiveness

→ Much of Russia’s current foreign and defense policy can be can be seen as attempted
reassertion of its former superpower status.
- President Putin has reported to have described the Soviet Union’s Collapse as the
greatest geopolitical catastrophe of 20th century.

→ Putin’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 represented the first time a European Border has been
transgressed by force since World War II.

→ Russia’s support of the Assad regime in Syria is intended both to protect its basing rights in
the country and to undermine US strategy in the key region.

What is Gender?

• Gender was first recognized as an issue in International Relations in the early 1970s with the publication
of
→ Berenice Carroll’s article – ‘Peace Research : The Cult of Power’ (1972)

• Meaning of Gender
→ Gender can be a confusing term © Saar
- In everyday usage, Gender can be used to denote the fundamental biological difference
between two person
∙ Male or Female
Concepts
→ Gender can also be used to describe the socially constructed characteristics, roles and
behaviors that are attached to each sex.
- Characteristics attached to men : Masculinity
∙ Power, autonomy, rationality, militaristic etc
- Characteristics attached to women : Feminity
∙ Emotional, pacific, caring, dependent etc
Gender in IR

What is Gender?

• Meaning of Gender
→ But Gender is more than just about personal characteristics
- Gender construction significantly impact the position of the different sexes in society
- Gender relationship also denotes a power relationship

© Saar
∙ Gender characteristics are unequal in value
∙ More value is attached to masculine charateristics
∙ Feminine values are considered inferior and symbol of weakness

distribution of social benefits and cost. Concepts

→ So if gender characteristics denote inequality then gender becomes a mechanism of unequal

- Feminist believe that we need to make unequal gender structure visible in order to
move beyond them.
Gender in IR

Gendered nature of War

• Women and men are both active agents and victims of conflict and political violence
→ Women have long been portrayed primarily as victim of conflict
→ Men are portrayed as actor or agent of war

• This assumption as implication for both men and women

© Saar
- It is men who hold public power prior to emergence of conflict and not women
- It is men who participate as combatant in conflicts.
∙ As a result, women are usually ignored when formal peace process begins

reintegration program. Concepts

and women are thus normally excluded from disarmament, demobilization and

∙ It is men who are normally invited to the formal ‘peace process’ once the conflict
is over.
Gender in IR

→ Impact of War on Women

- In contemporary wars, large number of casualties are civilians and among them also the
majority of casualties are women and children
- Women are most likely to become refugees and experience sexual violence during and
after war.
© Saar
- Although sexual violence in wartime has probably existed as long as long as war itself,
it is only recently that it has been recognized as a crime under international

Concepts
humanitarian law.
Gender in IR

• Following approaches can be adopted to explain the position of women in gendered global structures.

→ Liberal Feminism
- They highlight the absence of women in institutions and practices of global politics and
observes how their absence affect the international policy making.

© Saar
- They ask us to imagine what a world with more women in position of power will look like
- They argue that women share the same capacity for reason as men.
∙ So on equality ground, women should not be excluded from any of the important

Concepts
element of public sphere within domestic and international institution

→ Radical Feminism
- Radical feminism focus less on the women’s participation in public sphere and more on
the working of patriarchy.
- For Radical Feminists, men and women are quite different from each other
∙ Women ought to be represented in position of public power but not because of
equality but because women bring different point of view to politics
∙ If Women were in control of government then there would be no war and conflict
Gender in IR

• Important Feminist scholars in IR

→ J Ann Tickner
- She criticizes Realist approach in IR
∙ She says that work of Morgenthau provided only partial description of international

Concepts
→ Jean Bethke Elstain’s work ‘Women and War’
- She analyzes the role of women in war. She argues that
∙ It is men who are considered fit to assume the public military role of war.
∙ Characterization of women as caring, innocent, peaceful, loving – prevent any true
examination of their wartime role.
- She says that women play a variety of role during war
∙ Women may fight less than men but they do fight and have done so in history
∙ They support war efforts in various other ways – working in munition factories
during war, provide support as nurse, cook etc
Gender in IR

• Effects of incorporating Gender in IR

→ Thanks to the works of Feminist IR scholars, Gender has become an important issue in
global politics.
- Formal actors of global politics have taken up the issue of gender in their agenda

© Saar
→ United Nations has organized four World Conference in Women starting from 1975
∙ First conference was organized in 1975 in Mexico
∙ Fourth UN Conference on Women was organized in Beijing in 1995
- Gender Mainstreaming was adopted as an agenda in this conference

Concepts
→ UN Security Council passed Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security in 2000
- This UNSC Resolution was binding on all member countries.
- The resolution noted that women and children accounted for vast majority of those
adversely affected during armed conflicts
- It called upon all parties to find out ways to protect women and girls from sexual violence
during armed conflicts
- It called for greater inclusion of women in peace operations.
Gender in IR

• Important Feminist scholars in IR

→ Impact of War on Women

- In contemporary wars, large number of casualties are civilians and among them also the
majority of casualties are women and children

- Women are most likely to become refugees and experience sexual violence during and

- Although sexual violence in wartime has probably existed as long as long as war itself,

Concepts
it is only recently that it has been recognized as a crime under international
humanitarian law.
Regionalism
in Global Politics
Regionalism

Defining Regionalism

• Regionalism is a complex phenomena and its definition depends on the theoretical perspective
employed within the field

→ Neo-Functionalist Perspective

© Saar
- Regionalism is the process of integration of nation states towards regional institutions
that possesses the authority to provide functional needs.
∙ Countries come together to resolve a particular problem. Eg drought, disease

Concepts
∙ Integration into one sector ‘Spill over’ into other sectors and necessarily lead
to sectoral integration.
∙ This finally leads to creation of a ‘Supranational Regional Institution’ which will
have jurisdiction over all the member state.
Regionalism

Defining Regionalism

• Regionalism is a complex phenomena and its definition depends on the theoretical perspective
employed within the field

→ Neoliberal Institutionalist perspective

© Saar
- States are rational actors. States seek long-term, absolute gains from cooperation and
are discouraged by the action of states that seek to cheat or defect from mutual
obligation.

Concepts
- Regional institutions provide the transparency, unified expectation, and the
mechanism to inhibit cheating through their coordination role at the supranational
level.
Regionalism

Defining Regionalism

• Regionalism is a complex phenomena and its definition depends on the theoretical perspective
employed within the field

→ Neorealist Perspective

- States regionally cooperate in order to balance power against other states or regions in

- Neorealist also argue that states are rational actors and they are primarily concerned

Concepts
about their own security and relative gains from cooperation.
∙ States don’t tend to cooperate if their own gain is less than that of others.
- Neorealist argue that a hegemonic power is needed to ensure cooperation among
states.
∙ A Hegemonic state is a state with the military and economic resource as well
as willingness to impose order both at the global level and regional level.
Regionalism

Bela Balassa’s Theory of Economic Integration

• According to Bela Balassa, there are five levels of economic integration

→ Level 1 : Free Trade Area

- Freeing of trade among the members of economic groupings
- No requirement of common external tariff
© Saar
- It is not required to make the trade completely free

→ Level 2 : Custom Union

- Elimination of internal restrictions Concepts
- Members of a custom union maintain a common external tariff towards
nonmember countries.

→ Level 3 : Common Market

- Free movement of factors of production within the region.
- Labor and capital are allowed to move freely among member states.
Regionalism

Bela Balassa’s Theory of Economic Integration

• According to Bela Balassa, there are five levels of economic integration

→ Level 4 : Economic Union

- It embodies all the above integration level.

→ Level 5 : Economic Integration

Concepts
- Economic policy making is delegated to supranational bodies whose decisions are
binding on member states.
Regionalism

Bjorn Hettne’s ‘New Regionalism Theory’

• In his ‘New Regionalism Theory’, Bjorn Hettne talks about five ‘degrees of regionness’

1. Region as a ‘Regional Space’

- A region is delimited by natural physical barriers and marked by similar ecological
characteristics.

2. Region as a ‘Regional Complex’

3. Region as a ‘Regional Society’

- A more organized cooperation in any of the cultural, economic, political or military field.

4. Region as a ‘Regional Community’

- A formal or informal organizational framework is established to promote
social communication and convergence of values throughout the region.
Regionalism

Bjorn Hettne’s ‘New Regionalism Theory’

• In his ‘New Regionalism Theory’, Bjorn Hettne talks about five ‘degrees of regionness’

5. Region as ‘Regional Institutionalized Polity’

- A formal organization with a fixed decision making authority.

• Nuclear Proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear weapons around the world
- Nuclear Proliferation represents one of the central challenge to contemporary international
peace and security.

• The standard definition of Nuclear Proliferation was set by the 1968 ‘Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons’ or NPT
- The NPT defines proliferation as the manufacture and explosion of a nuclear explosive device by
any state or non state actor that has not done so beforehand (before 1968)
∙ In short, proliferation occurs upon a state’s first nuclear test.

• NPT takes into account only the Horizontal Proliferation and not Vertical Proliferation
→ Horizontal Proliferation : more countries testing nuclear weapon
→ Vertical Proliferation : accumulation of nuclear stockpiles by existing nuclear powers.

© Saar Concepts
Nuclear Proliferation
© Saar Concepts
• Causes of Nuclear Proliferation
→ Realist explanation – Countries are ultimately driven towards bomb by the inescapable
requirements of self-help in the anarchic international system
∙ In the dangerous world, countries must seek to arm themselves with the
most dangerous weapon.

• At present the nuclear weapon states include

- United States
- Russia
- The United Kingdom
- France
- China

∙ Israel, India, Pakistan and North Korea

∙ South Africa secretly held Nuclear device till the 1980s but later it destroyed them all
∙ Three post Soviet state – Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine held Nuclear
weapon during cold war. But they also destroyed their weapons after cold war.
Nuclear Proliferation

• Effects of Nuclear Proliferation

- Proliferation Optimists
∙ Mutual Assured Destruction prevented Cold War from descending into WW III
∙ A Nuclear Armed World could actually be more stable

- Proliferation Pessimists
∙ Stability is likely to unstable if the Nuclear Club expands
∙ Stability will certainly break if non state actors get the bomb

• Efforts against Nuclear Proliferation

→ At the Center of the Efforts, there is the multilateral treaty instrument of

∙ NPT 1968 – Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty
- NPT membership is almost universal with nearly 190 countries participating in it.

∙ Under NPT, non nuclear weapon states are required to safeguard their nuclear facilities
against military use subject to inspection by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

• In addition to multilateral arrangement of NPT, there are Export Control Clubs

→ Nuclear Suppliers Group
→ Zangger Committee
→ Wasenar Arrangement
→ Australia Group
→ MTCR – Missile Technology Control Regime
- These Export Control regimes regulate the transfer of nuclear technology and fuel for
civilian nuclear use
© Saar Concepts
Balance of
Power
Balance of Power

• Balance of power refers to the effort by states to offset or prevent aggression through forming association
and alliance with other states
→ This strategy is adopted when there is security threat projected by hostile third state

→ balance of power operates effectively in a system of 3 to 5 member states

- Each should have roughly equal power so the power of all can join together.
- Small States or weak states ‘bandwagon’ because they can not balance large states

• When does Balancing of power starts ?

→ If there is peace in the world and then power of some state increase relative to others, this
will trigger balancing of power.
→ Country can balance power in two ways
- Internal Balancing
- External Balancing
© Saar Concepts
Balance of Power

• Mortan Kaplan’s 6 types of Balance of Power Arrangement

→ Multipolar : A balance of power arrangements with many center of power.

→ Loose Bipolar : Two main opposing spheres with satellites of varying degree of adherence to
either side

→ Tight Bipolar : Countries have clear allegiance to any one of the sphere.

→ Universal System : A Confederation where all groups controlled by one supranational authority like
UN

→ Hierarchical System : A federation like system with lower units having substantial autonomy

• Mortan Kaplan later revised his 6 types into 4 types

→ Very Loose bipolar System

- There will be two superpowers and competition between them

→ The Détente System

- Less tensed situation between two superpowers
- Presence of an Universal Actor

→ Unstable Bloc System

- Opposite of Détente system
- Super powers highly suspicious of each others

→ The incomplete Nuclear Diffusion System

© Saar
- All the countries will Concepts
possess nuclear weapons
Collective Security
Collective Security © Saar Concepts
• Collective Security is a means of maintaining peace between states
- Collective security lies in between the two extremes of Unregulated balance of Power and
World Government.

• Collective security refers to a set of legally established mechanism designed to prevent or suppress
aggression by any state against any other states.
- This is achieved by presenting to potential/actual aggressor the credible threat and to potential/
actual victim the reliable promise of effective collective measure to maintain and enforce
peace.
- Such measures can include diplomatic boycotts or imposition of sanction and even use of
military force.

• The core idea behind collective security is – Collective Punishment of aggressor through the use of
overwhelming power.

• Countries using such a system renounce the use of force to settle disputes among themselves but at the
same time promise to use collective force against the aggressor.
Collective Security

• The purpose of the collective security system is to maintain peace among the members of the system, not
between the system or outsiders.
- NATO is not a collective security system, it is an alliance or a collective defence system.

• Why Collective Security is an effective mechanism

- It promises security to all states and not just some of the most powerful
- Collective security provide much greater certainty in the international system
- Collective security is focused on an apparently clear problem, that of military aggression, which
is defined as the military violation of the territorial integrity and political independence of
member states.

• The first major attempt to implement a system of collective security took place at the end of WWI with the
signing of League of nations covenant
∙ Article 10 and 16 dealt with the provisions of collective security.
• UN is also a Collective Security arrangement but it does not use the term directly in its charter.

1. Theories of International Trade

→ Liberal Approach : Adam Smith’s Absolute Advantage Theory
David Ricardo’s Comparative Advantage Theory
→ Realist Approach : Mercantilism, Neomercantilism and Economic Nationalism
2. What is WTO ?
3. History of WTO
- The GATT Years
- Uruguay Round
4. Principles of the Trading System under WTO
→ MFN
→ National Treatment
5. WTO Agreements
- GATT 1994 ; GATS ; TRIPS ; Agriculture Agreement
6. Dispute Settlement Mechanism
7. Organizational Structure
8. Decision Making Process
9. Doha Development Agenda
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
Theories of International Trade

• International Trade means buying and selling of goods and services across national boundaries.

• Liberal Approach
→ Liberal theorists generally view trade as a positive sum game that provide mutual benefit to
individuals, companies and states.

• The core assumptions of Liberal theory was formulated by Adam Smith and David Ricardo in the 18th
century.
→ Adam Smith : Absolute Advantage Theory
- If a country is good at producing something, it will benefit by selling that item abroad.
- A country can specialize in the production of goods it can produce most efficiently and
trade those it can not produce efficiently .
- ‘Wealth of Nations’ increases if market barriers are removed and people are left to
trade freely.

• David Ricardo’s Comparative Advantage Theory

→ David Ricardo took Smith’s logic a step further
- In his work, ‘On the principles of political economy and taxation’ (1817)
David Ricardo outlined his theory of ‘Comparative Advantage’
→ Ricardo’s Comparative Advantage theory explains why states will and should trade even if
no absolute advantage exists between them
→ Eg. Suppose Portugal is able to produce both wine and cloth more efficiently than England
- One might conclude that it would not make sense for Portugal to trade in any
of these items with England
- But if Portugal is itself better at producing wine than cloth, then comparative
advantage means that it makes sense for Portugal to focus more on producing
wine and sell wine to Britain and buy cloth from it.

• So Comparative Advantage means that Specialization can be beneficial for both trading partners even if
one produces everything more
efficiently than the other.
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
Theories of International Trade

• Although the benefits of free trade are widely described in the discipline of economics
→ No country in the world has ever completely opened its borders to allow free trade
across all economic sectors
- Throughout the history, government have tried to create trade barriers in a variety
sectors for a variety of reasons.

• Realist approach to International Trade

→ State is the most important actor in international economic affairs, and States act to secure and
advance their economic interests.
→ States see the world economy as zero sum competition ; gain experienced by one state are
proportionate loss to another.

• This realist perspective can be seen in the practice of

© Saar Concepts
→ Mercantilism, Neomercantilism and Economic Nationalism
WTO and International Trade
Theories of International Trade

• According to Mercantilists system which prevailed in Europe in between 1500 - 1750 :-

→ Accumulation of Gold and Silver in a State’s treasury would provide the foundation for
military strength and political influence
- In order to accumulate wealth, States should export more and import less
- Mercantilists were early advocates of ‘Balance of Trade Surpluses’

• Today Mercantilist practices are referred to as Neomercantilism and Economic Nationalism

→ Neomercantilists and Economic Nationalists emphasize the building of state power not through
accumulation of precious metals
- But through economic practices aimed at generating balance of trade surplus.
→ Stimulation of domestic production and promotion of Exports
→ Neomercantilists and Economic Nationalists also emphasize on the importance
Industrial and technological self sufficiency.
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
Theories of International Trade

• Neomercantilists and Economic Nationalists economic policies :-

→ Protectionism and Export Promotion
- Tariff : Tax charged to goods as they enter a country
- Non Tariff barriers : Safety, health, environmental standard that serve to exclude foreign
products and shield domestic firms from foreign competition.
- Subsidies : Government supports that encourage the production and development of
domestic industries. Eg. Cheap Loans, Direct Financing, Exemptions.

→ Countries adopt various methods to counter extensive use of subsidies

- Countervailing Duties : Taxes imposed on imports from States accused of using
illegal subsidies
- Anti-Dumping Duties : Tax imposed imports that sold in foreign market below the cost of
their production.
© Saar
- Quotas : Limiting Concepts
the number of a particular import.
WTO and International Trade
What is WTO ?

• There are a number of ways of looking at WTO

- It is an organization for liberalizing trade and operating trade rules
- It is a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements
- It is a place for them to settle trade disputes

• We will understand WTO as :

→ A Negotiating forum
→ A set of trade rules
→ A Dispute settling mechanism

• WTO : A Negotiating Forum

- The WTO is essentially a place where member governments go to try to sort out the trade
problems they face with each other.
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
What is WTO ?

• WTO : A set of rules

- At its heart, WTO has agreements that are negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s
trading nations.
- These agreements provide the legal ground rules for international commerce
- The purpose of these rules and agreements is to help trade flow as freely as possible

• WTO : A Dispute Settling mechanism

- Trade relations often involve conflicting interests and disputes.
- WTO provides a neutral procedure to harmoniously settle these disputes.

• WTO began its life on 1st January 1995, but its trading system is half a century older
→ Since 1948, GATT had provided the rules for international trading system
→ The GATT evolved through several rounds of negotiations
- The largest© Saar
GATT Concepts
round was the Uruguay Round which lasted from 1986 to 1994 and led
to WTO’s creation.
WTO and International Trade
History of WTO

• The WTO’s creation on 1st January 1995 marked the biggest reform of international trading system since
second world war.

• Bretton woods Conference 1944

→ The Conference was convened to decide how the Post War global economic order will look like
- IMF and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) was
created.
- It was also decided to create a third institution to handle the trade side of the post war
economic cooperation.
→ Over 50 countries participated in negotiations to create an
International Trade Organization (ITO) as a specialized agency of UN.
→ The aim was to create the ITO at UN Conference on Trade and Employment
in Havana, Cuba in 1947.
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
History of WTO

• Meanwhile, 15 countries had begun talk in December 1945 to reduce and bind custom tariffs
→ The first round of negotiations resulted in a package of trade rules and 45000 tariff concessions
→ The group had expanded to 23 by the time the deal was signed on 30 October 1947
→ So the ‘General Agreement On Tariff and Trade’ was born with 23 founding members
(Contracting Parties)
→ GATT finally came into effect in June 1948.

• These 23 countries were also part of the larger group negotiating the ITO Charter.
→ Havana Conference began on 21st November 1947 – less than a month after GATT was signed
→ The ITO Charter (also called Havana Charter) was finally agreed in Havana in March 1948
- But the Charter was not ratified by the legislature of all member countries.
- In 1950, the US announced that it would not ratify the ITO Charter
- With this the ITO Charter became effectively dead.
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
History of WTO

• GATT became the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1948 until
WTO was established in 1995

• Under GATT, tariff reduction was achieved through a series of multilateral negotiations known as
‘Trade Rounds’
→ In early years, the GATT trade rounds concentrated on reducing tariffs.
- The Kennedy Round in mid sixties brought about the issue of Anti-Dumping
- The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers
that do not take the form off tariffs (Non Tariff Barriers)
→ The eighth round – called Uruguay Round of 1986 – 94, was the last round under GATT and
led to the creation of WTO and new set of agreements.

• The Uruguay Round

→ The Uruguay Round brought about the biggest reform of the world trading system
→ This was the 8th trade round under GATT
- It was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay

• Uruguay Round extended the trade negotiations into several new areas
→ Trade in Services, Trade in Intellectual Property, Sensitive sectors like Agriculture and
Textile.
→ All the previous GATT agreements were also up for review.

• The round was supposed to end in December 1990.

→ But major powers like US and EU disagreed on the issue of Agriculture
- In November 1992, the US and EU settled most of their differences on Agriculture
© Saar
in a deal known as Concepts
‘Blair House Accord’
WTO and International Trade
History of WTO

• By December 15, 1993 all the outstanding issues were finally resolved
- On April 1994, the deal was signed by most of the 123 participating governments at a
meeting in Marrakesh, Morocco.

• The WTO replaced GATT as International Organization

→ GATT still form a part of WTO Agreement.
→ But the GATT has also been updated in the Uruguay Round
- The Updated GATT is called GATT 1994

• The WTO Agreements are lengthy and complex, they cover a wide range of activities – Agriculture,
Clothing, Banking, Telecommunication, etc
→ A number of simple, fundamental principles run throughout all these documents
- These principles are the foundation of the multilateral trading system.

• MFN : Most Favored Nation

→ Under the WTO agreements, countries can not normally discriminate between their trading
partners
- Grant someone a special favor and you will have to the same for all other WTO
members
→ In General, MFN means that every time a country lowers a trade barrier or opens up a market
it has to do so for all its trading partners, whether rich or poor, weak or strong.

• National Treatment
→ It means treating foreigners and locals equally, giving others the same treatment as one’s
own nationals.
- Imported and locally produced goods and services should be treated equally
→ National Treatment only applies once a product, service or item of intellectual property has
entered the domestic market.
- Charging custom duty on imports is not a violation of National Treatment.

• Liberalization of Trade
→ Lowering trade barriers is one of the most important goal of WTO.
→ Opening markets can be beneficial, but it also requires adjustment
- The WTO agreements allow countries to introduce changes gradually through
‘Progressive Liberalization’
© Saarcountries
- Developing Concepts are given longer time to fulfill their obligations.
WTO and International Trade
Principles of the Trading System

• Predictability
→ The multilateral trading system is an attempt by government to make business environment
stable and predictable.
→ In the WTO, when countries agree to open their markets for goods or services, they ‘bind’ their
commitments.

• WTO Agreements :
→ We focus on Uruguay Round Agreements which are the basis of the present WTO system
- These agreements cover rules, regulations and individual countries commitment
related to trade in Goods, Services and Intellectual Property
- They spell out the principles of liberalization and permitted exceptions
- They set procedures for settling disputes.

• Structure of WTO Agreements

→ The Agreement Establishing WTO
- Annex 1
1A : GATT 1994
1B : GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)
1C : TRIPS (Trade Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights)
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
WTO Agreements

• Structure of WTO Agreements

→ The Agreement Establishing WTO
- Annex 1
1A : GATT 1994 (General Agreement on Tariff and Trade)
1B : GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)
1C : TRIPS (Trade Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights)

- Annex 2 : Dispute Settlement Mechanism

- Annex 3 : Trade Policy Review

- Annex 4 : Plurilateral Agreements

• Structure of WTO Agreements

- Annex 2 : Dispute Settlement Mechanism

- Annex 3 : Trade Policy Review

- Annex 4 : Plurilateral Agreements

• © Saar
These Agreements are not static, Concepts
they are negotiated from time to time and new agreements can be
added to the package.
WTO and International Trade
WTO Agreements

• Understanding WTO Agreements:-

→ Trade in Goods :
- Agriculture
- Textile
→ Trade in Services
→ Trade in Intellectual Property
→ Plurilateral Agreements
→ Trade Policy Review
→ Dispute Settlement Mechanism

• Uruguay Round produced the first Multilateral Agreement dedicated to the sector of Agriculture
→ Before this, trade in Agricultural Goods was highly distorted with extensive use of
tariff and non tariff barriers, export subsidies by countries.

• Agreement on Agriculture
→ The objective of the Agreement is to reform trade in this sector and to make the policies of
countries more market oriented.
→ The new rules and commitment apply to three areas of trade in Agricultural Sector
- Market Access
- Domestic Support
- Export Subsidies

• Market Access
→ The new rules for market access in agricultural product is ‘Tariff Only’
- Before the Uruguay Round, agricultural imports were restricted by Quotas and other
non-tariff measures.
- All these Quotas and Non Tariff measures have to be converted into Tariffs : Tariffication.

• Domestic Support
→ Government provide support to the producers in order to encourage over production
of agricultural products.
- These kinds of supports affects international trade by either discouraging imports
or promoting export of low priced subsidized products.
- In WTO terminology this is called ‘Trade Distortion’

© Saar
→ For domestic support, Conceptsestablishes three boxes categorized by the extent to which
the agreement
the support actually distorts trade.
WTO and International Trade
Agriculture

• Domestic Support

→ Green Box :
- Domestic support in that either do not distort trade or cause minimal
distortion to trade.
- Government measures falling in this category have minimum impact on trade
and can be used freely.
- Eg. Govt. services such as research, disease control, infrastructure, certain
form of direct income support etc.

→ Blue Box :
- Such domestic support that require farmers to limit production are included under
blue box.
- Some Countries may set production quotas to limit production. Such measures are
exempted from
restrictions.
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
Agriculture

• Domestic Support

→ Amber Box :
- All domestic supports measures considered to distort trade and production
fall under ‘Amber Box’
- Such domestic policies that do have a direct effect on the production and trade
have to be reduced and cut back.
→ Total AMS (Aggregate Measure of Support)
→ De minimis

• Domestic Support

→ De minimis
- It is the minimum amount of domestic support that is allowed even though they
distort trade.
- 5% of total value of production for developed countries
- 10% of total value of production for developing countries.

• Domestic Support

→ Total Aggregate Measure of Support (Total AMS)

- Domestic support reduction are implemented through a commitment to reduce the
Total Aggregate Measure of Support (AMS) for each country.
- Total AMS is the calculation of how much support of ‘Amber box’ category a country
provide to agriculture sector per year.
→ Developed countries agreed to reduce these figures by 20% over six years
starting from 1995
→ Developing countries agreed to reduce these figures by 13.3 % over 10 years
starting from 1995
- The Base year for calculation of Total AMS for both developed and
developing countries was fixed 1986-88.
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
Agriculture

• Export Subsidies :
→ The Agreement on Agriculture prohibits export subsidies on Agricultural production
unless the subsidies are specified in a member’s lists of commitment.

• Textile, like agriculture was one of the hardest fought issue in the WTO.

• From 1974 until the end of Uruguay Round, the trade in textile was governed by the
→ Multifiber Arrangement (MFA)

• Since 1995, the WTO’s Agreement on Textile and Clothing (ATC) took over from Multifiber Arrangement
→ The Agreement on Textile and Clothing no longer exists.
- From 1st January 2005, the sector was fully integrated into normal GATT rules.

• GATS : General Agreement on Trade in Services

→ GATS is the first and only set of Multilateral rules governing international trade in Services.
→ GATS was negotiated in Uruguay Round
- It was developed in response to the huge growth of the service economy and
greater support for trading services brought about by Communication revolution.
- Services represent the fastest growing sector of global economy.

• The General Agreement on Trade in Services defines four ways or Modes of trading services
→ Mode 1 : Cross-border supply – Services supplied from one country to another
→ Mode 2 : Consumption Abroad – Consumers or firms making use if services in another country
→ Mode 3 : Commercial Presence – A foreign company setting up subsidiary or branches to
provide services in another country
→ Mode 4 : Presence of Natural Persons – Individuals travelling from their country to
© Saar Concepts supply services in another country.
WTO and International Trade
WTO Agreements

• Understanding WTO Agreements:-

→ Trade in Goods :
- Agriculture
- Textile
→ Trade in Services
→ Trade in Intellectual Property
→ Plurilateral Agreements
→ Trade Policy Review
→ Dispute Settlement Mechanism

• Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

→ The agreement introduced Intellectual Property rules into the Multilateral trading system
for the first time.

• Intellectual Property refers to creation of minds

→ Government grant creators the rights to prevent others from using their invention, designs or
other creations and to use that right to negotiate payments in return of others using them.
- The extent of protection and enforcement of these rights varied widely around the
world
- The WTO’s TRIPS Agreement is an attempt to narrow the gap in the way these rights
are protected and enforced around the world and to bring them under common
international rules.
→ Different Kinds of Intellectual Property Rights include : Copyright, Trademark, Patents,
© Saar Concepts
Geographical Indications, etc.
WTO and International Trade
Intellectual Property

• Difference between WIPO and TRIPS

→ World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
- It is one of the 17 specialized agencies of UN.
- It was established in 1967 to encourage creative activity and to promote and
to protect Intellectual Property throughout the world.
- But provisions of WIPO are non-binding on the members of UN.

→ TRIPS – It is an International legal agreement between all the members of the WTO
- TRIPS is a compulsory obligation which all WTO members need to follow.

• Plurilateral
→ For the most part , all WTO members subscribe to all WTO agreements.
→ After Uruguay Round, there remained four agreements, originally negotiated in the Tokyo Round,
which had a narrow group of signatories and are known as ‘Plurilateral Agreements’

→ The Four Agreements are :

- Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft
- Agreement on Government Procurement
- International Dairy Agreement
- International Bovine Meat Agreement

• For smooth running of International Trade it is fundamentally important that trade related policies and
regulations of individual members of WTO are transparent
→ In WTO, this transparency is achieved through two ways:
- Governments themselves inform the WTO and fellow members of their specific measures,
policies or laws through regular notifications.
- WTO conducts regular reviews of individual countries’ trade policy.

• These reviews by WTO encourages members to follow more closely the WTO rules and their
commitments.

• Over a period of time, all WTO members are to come under scrutiny. The frequency of the review depends
on the country size :
→ Four Big Traders : EU, US, Japan and China – once every 3 years
→ Next 16 countries :© Saar
Once Concepts
5 years
→ Remaining : Once 7 years.
WTO and International Trade
Dispute Settlement Mechanism

• Dispute Settlement is the Central Pillar of the Multilateral trading system

- Without a means of settling disputes, the rule based system would be less effective because the
rules could not be enforced.

• Dispute arises when one country adopts a trade policy measure or takes some action that one or more
fellow WTO members considers to be breaking the WTO agreements.

• A procedure for settling disputes existed under the old GATT but it was inefficient
→ Dispute Settlement mechanism had no fixed time frame
→ It was very easy to block the final rulings
- Under GATT procedures, ruling could only be adopted by Consensus, meaning that
a single objection could block the ruling.

• The Uruguay Round agreement introduced a more structured process for Dispute Settlement
- Cases to be solved in a time bound manner
- Rulings are automatically adopted unless there is a consensus to reject the ruling

• Settling disputes is the responsibility of Dispute Settlement Body (General Council)

→ Dispute Settlement Body consists of all WTO members
- It has the sole authority to establish ‘Panels’ of expert to consider the case
- It can either accept or reject the Panel’s report.
- It monitors the implementation of the rulings and recommendations

• Stages of Dispute Settlement

→ First Stage : Consultation (up to 60 days)
- Before taking any other actions the countries in dispute have to talk to each other to see
if they can settle their differences themselves.

→ Second Stage
- Up to 45 days for a Panel to be appointed and 6 months for the Panel to conclude.
- The Panel’s final report is given to the parties to the dispute within 6 months.
- The final report of the panel becomes the Dispute Settlement Body’s ruling or
recommendation within 60 days unless a consensus rejects it.
→ Both sides can appeal the report.
→ Third Stage : Appeal
- Either side can appeal a panel’s rulings.
©by
- Appeal is heard Saar Concepts
three members of a permanent seven member Appellate Body set up by
Dispute settlement body.
WTO and International Trade
Dispute Settlement Mechanism

• Stages of Dispute Settlement

→ Third Stage : Appeal
- Either side can appeal a panel’s rulings.
- Appeal is heard by three members of a permanent seven member Appellate Body set up by
Dispute settlement body.
- The Appellate body can uphold, modify or reverse the panel’s legal findings and conclusions
→ The procedure of appeal should gets completed within 60 to 90 days.

→ The Dispute Settlement Body has to accept or reject the appeal report within 30 days
and rejection is possible by consensus.

• Stages of Dispute Settlement

→ After Final Decision
- The losing side has to implement the ruling.
- If the losing side does not implement the ruling then winning side can ask Dispute Settlement
body to authorize it to take retaliatory action.

• The WTO is a ‘Member Driven’ and ‘Consensus Based’ organization.

- All the major decisions are made by the membership as a whole.
- Unlike WB or IMF, there is no ‘Executive Body’ like board of directors appointed by member
countries
→ In WTO power is not delegated to a board of directors or the organization’s head.
- All the rules of WTO are outcomes of negotiations among members and these rules are
enforced by the members themselves.

• Highest Authority : The Ministerial Conference

→ Topmost is the Ministerial Conference which has to meet at least once every two years
→ It includes all the members of WTO
→ It can take decision on all or any matters under WTO agreements.

• Second Level : General Council in three Guise or forms

→ Day to Day work in between the ministerial conferences is handled by these three bodies
1. The General Council
2. The Dispute Settlement Body
3. The Trade Policy Review Body
→ All the three are in fact same
- They are all the General Council, although they meet under different terms of reference
- All three consists of WTO members and they report to the Ministerial Conference.

• Third Level : Councils for each broad areas of trade

1. Council for Trade in Goods (Goods Council)
2. Council for Trade in Services (Service Council)
3. The Council for Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
© Saar Concepts
WTO and International Trade
Organizational Structure

• Fourth Level – Each Council will have Subsidiary bodies

→ The Goods Council has 11 Committees
→ The Service Council
- Subsidiary bodies deal with financial services, domestic regulations, GATS rules
→ Dispute Settlement Body has two Subsidiaries
- The Dispute Settlement Panel of Experts
- The Appellate Body

• Decision making
→ The WTO continues GATT’s tradition of making decisions not by voting but by consensus
- This allows all members to ensure their interests are properly considered.
→ When Consensus is not possible, the WTO Agreement allows for voting
- A vote being won with a majority of the vote cast and on the basis of
‘One Country One Vote’

• The Doha Round is the ninth round since the second world war and the first since WTO inherited
multilateral trading system in 1995.
→ It aims to produce the first major overhaul of the system in the 21st century.
• Decisions within the WTO are made by member countries.
→ Periodically, member countries agree to hold negotiations to revise old rules and establish
new ones.
- These periodic negotiations are commonly called ‘Trade Rounds’ or simply
‘Rounds’
• From November 9th to November 14th , 2001 – Trade Ministers from member countries met in Doha, Qatar
for fourth Ministerial Conference.
→ At that meeting, they agreed to undertake a new round of Multilateral Trade Negotiation
- This latest Round of Trade Negotiations among WTO member countries is known
as Doha Round.
- The Round is also known, semi-officially as Doha Development Agenda as a
© Saar Concepts
fundamental objective is to improve the trading prospect of Developing
countries.
Doha Development Agenda
Introduction

• Reasons for Starting new Multilateral Negotiations

→ Certain countries wanted to achieve greater trade liberalization in Agriculture and
Service sector.

→ Just months before the Doha Ministerial, the US had been attacked by terrorists on
September 11, 2001.
- Countries saw that a new trade negotiation round would help them unite economically
and politically and would also bring prosperity to the world.

→ Growing number of bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements

- Regional Trade agreements works towards reducing the credibility and effectiveness
of WTO trading mechanism.
- In the era of increasing regionalization of global economy, WTO had to do something
to stay relevant
© Saar Concepts
Doha Development Agenda
Introduction

• So Trade Ministers met in Doha, they adopted three documents that provided for future action

1. The Ministerial Declaration

- It noted that Trade can play a major role in promotion of economic development
and alleviation of poverty.
- It laid down a work program that would focus on Agriculture, trade in services, TRIPS,
trade and environment and number of other issues.

2. The Declaration on TRIPS Agreement and Public Health

3. A Document on Implementation Related Issues and Concerns

• Why the Doha Round is also called ‘Doha Development Agenda’

→ Doha Ministerial Declaration read :
- ‘We seek to place developing countries’ needs and interests at the heart of the work
program adopted in the declaration’

• Role of Developing countries changed at the Doha Ministerial

→ Since the beginning of the GATT, the major decision makers were almost exclusively
developed countries
→ At the preceding Ministerial Conference (such as Seattle 1999) , Developing countries became
more forceful in demanding that their interests be addressed
- Some developing countries insisted that they would not support another round
unless their demands are included in the agenda.
→ Because of the greater influence of developing countries in setting the plan of action at Doha,
the new round became
© Saarknown as Doha Development Agenda.
Concepts
Doha Development Agenda
Introduction

• How the Negotiations are organized ?

→ The negotiations take place in the Trade Negotiating Committee (TNC)
and specific Negotiating Groups
→ Every item of the Negotiation is part of a whole indivisible package and can not be agreed
separately.
- This is known as Single Undertaking. Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed.

• Followings are the main areas of Negotiations under DDA

→ Agriculture
→ NAMA : Non Agricultural Market Access
→ Services
→ Intellectual Property
→ Trade and Environment
→ Special and Differential Treatment
→ WTO Rules
→ Trade Facilitation
→ Dispute Settlement
© Saar Concepts
Doha Development Agenda
Main Areas of Negotiations

• Agriculture
→ The Agriculture negotiations began in 2000, under a commitment made in the 1986-94
Uruguay Round to continue reforms in trade.

→ The issues of Agriculture was brought into Doha Round when it was launched in 2001.
- The Objective is to reduce the distortions in Agriculture trade caused by high
tariffs and other barriers.

→ The Negotiations aim to reform agricultural trade principally in the area :

- Market Access
- Domestic Support
- Export Subsidies
→ Aim of the negotiations : More market access, eliminating export subsidies, reducing distorting
domestic support,©sorting
Saarout a range of developing countries’ issues.
Concepts
Doha Development Agenda
Main Areas of Negotiations

• Non Agricultural Market Access : NAMA

→ Non Agricultural products include – industrial goods, manufactured goods, textile, fuels and
mining products, footwear, jewelry, forestry products, fish and fisheries, chemicals.

→ Aim : To reduce or as appropriate eliminate tariffs as well as non tariff barriers in particular
on products of export interests to Developing countries.

• Services
→ Along with agriculture , Services were a part of the agenda of Uruguay Round
- The GATS directs members to enter into successive rounds of negotiations
→ Developed countries generally are seeking improved market access for their service industry
in developing countries.

• Intellectual Property
→ Geographical Indication : Multilateral Register for Wines and Spirits
- This is the only intellectual property issue that is part of the Doha Negotiations
- The aim is to create a multilateral register for geographical indication for wines
and spirits.

• Trade and Environment

→ Negotiations to achieve :-
- A more open market for environmental goods and services
- Elimination or reduction of barriers to trade in this area which will benefit the environment
by improving countries ability to obtain high quality environmental goods and
environmental technology
- Better cooperation between WTO rules and trade obligations set out in
multilateral ©
environment agreement.
Saar Concepts
Doha Development Agenda
Main Areas of Negotiations
• Trade Facilitation
→ The first WTO Ministerial Conference which was held in Singapore in 1996, established
permanent
working group on four issue
- Transparency in Government Procurement
- Trade Facilitation
- Trade and Investment
- Trade and Competition
→ These issue are collectively called ‘Singapore Issues’
→ These issues were pushed at successive ministerial conference by EU, Japan
and Korea and opposed by most developing countries.
→ The issue of Trade Facilitation has been included in Doha Agenda
- The aim is to ease trade flows and custom procedures and to facilitate the movement,
release and clearance of goods.
would speed
- Reducing up trade andhurdle, red tapism and corruption in custom procedure
the bureaucratic
make products cheap and
save millions of dollars
© Saar Concepts
Doha Development Agenda
Main Areas of Negotiations

• Special and Differential Treatment

→ The WTO Agreement contain special provisions which give developing countries special
rights and allow other members to treat them more favorably.
- These are special and differential treatment provision.
• These special provisions include
→ Longer time period for implementing agreement and commitment
→ Provisions requiring all WTO members to safeguard the trade interests of developing
countries.
→ Support to help developing countries build infrastructure to undertake WTO work.

• In Doha Declaration, ministers agreed that all special and differential treatment provisions should be
reviewed in order to strengthen them and make them more precise, effective and operational.

• WTO Rules
→ The Negotiating Group on Rules cover anti-dumping, subsidies, and countervailing measures,
including fisheries subsidies and regional trade agreements
→ Aim of the negotiations
- Clarifying and improving discipline under the ‘Agreement on Anti Dumping’ and
‘Subsidies and Countervailing Measures’
- Clarifying and improving WTO subsidies on fisheries subsidies, taking into
account the importance of this sector to developing countries.
- Clarifying and improving disciplines and procedures under the existing
WTO provisions applying to Regional Trade Agreements.

• Dispute Settlement
→ In November 2001, at the Doha Ministerial Conference, members agreed to negotiate to
improve and clarify the dispute
© Saar settlement system.
Concepts
Doha Development Agenda

• At the Doha meeting, Trade Ministers agreed that negotiations would be

• The Story so far

→ 1997 – 2000 : Talks start in Agriculture, services, and intellectual property
→ 2001 : Doha Development Agenda Launched
→ 2003 : Cancun Ministerial Mid-Term Review – No Agreement
→ 2004 : ‘Framework’ agreed
→ 2005 : Further Agreements in Hong Kong Ministerial Conference
→ 2008 : The ‘July 2008 Package’ ; attempt to break deadlock, some differences narrowed
→ 2013 : Bali Package
→ 2015 : Nairobi Package

• Why did Doha Round fail to produce an Agreement ?

→ WTO’s large membership makes it difficult to achieve consensus.
→ The WTO works on the basis of ‘Single Undertaking’ which means there is no agreement
unless everything is agreed
→ Faster growing developing countries such as China, India and Brazil are exercising more voice
and influence in negotiations.
→ Countries have become more interested in bilateral treaties and Preferential Trade Agreements.
→ Beyond these problems there are the usual politics.

• Implications of the failure of Doha Round

→ Continued drift in the Doha Round negotiations will foster large scale neglect of the multilateral
trading system, causing irreparable harm to the WTO’s credibility as a negotiating forum.
→ One result of the stalled multilateral negotiations is a rise in protectionism.
- Protectionism has been increasing since 2008 Financial Crisis
→ Another result of the failed Doha Round is a rapid growth in the number of PTAs between
countries.
- PTA refers to trade agreements between two or more countries. Every WTO member
participate in some of the other PTAs.
→ Eg. USA is involved in more than 10 PTAs like NAFTA, TPP
China has proposed a 16-nation Regional Comprehensive Economic
Partnership (RCEP)
© Saar Concepts
Doha Development Agenda
Introduction

• How the Negotiations are organized ?

• Followings are the main areas of Negotiations under DDA

Globalization of World Economy

Economic Globalization

Concepts
How the contemporary economic globalization
started ?

What are the dimensions of economic

globalization ?
Globalization

What is Economic Globalization ?

• Economic globalization refers to the intensification and stretching of economic interaction across the
globe
→ There have been a great transformation in the way in which people undertake economic
production and organize exchange of commodities.
© Saar
- Flows of capital and technology have stimulated trade in goods and services
- Markets have extended their reach around the world

Concepts
- Huge transnational corporations, powerful international economic institutions
and large regional trading system have emerged as the major trading block of the
21st century global economic order.
Globalization

Emergence of Global Economic Order

Inter war period and Protectionism was high and For deciding the Post WW II Global
during WW II International trade very low Economic Structure

Concepts
Bretton Woods • Participants agreed to expand International trade
Institution IBRD (World Bank) • They agreed to establish binding rules to
promote international economic activities
GATT - 1947

Till the 1970s these

Managed Capitalism John Ruggi has called it
Institutions
(Keynesian Economic Policies) ‘Embedded Liberalism’
represented
Globalization
© Saar
UK PM Margaret Thatcher and
US Pres. Ronal Raegan throughout the World
Concepts
They led a Neoliberal Revolution World Bank and IMF propagated
the Washington Consensus

Election of Neoliberal leaders in UK and US

From 1980s this embedded liberalism

Series of economic crisis – Oil Shocks of 1973
transformed into complete liberalism
Collapse of Fixed
Collapse of Bretton Woods System in 1971
Exchange rate system

Till the 1970s these

Developing Countries were asked

to implement Structural
Adjustment Program (SAP)

Internationalization of trade and finance

Economic Globalization or Deregulation of Economy
Globalization of World Increasing power of TNCs or MNCs Liberalization of Trade
Economy Privatization
Increasing role of IMF, WB and WTO
Globalization

Internationalization of Trade and Finance

• Economic Globalization is most often associated with the issue of free trade
→ Countries of the north try to establish a single global market through international and regional
trade agreements such as NAFTA and GATT.

© Saar
→ Free Trade proponents assure the public that the elimination or reduction of existing trade
barriers among nations will enhance consumer choice, increase global wealth, secure and
peaceful international relations and spread of technologies around the world.

•
Concepts
Internationalization of trade has gone hand in hand with the liberalization of Financial transaction
→ Since the 1980s, there have been gradual deregulation of capital and securities market in
Europe, America, East Asia, South East Asia, India and several other countries.
- Millions of individual investors utilized global electronic investment networks.

→ These global financial exchange has little to do with supplying capital for such productive
activities such as putting together machines or organizing raw materials and employees to
produce saleable materials.
Globalization

Internationalization of Trade and Finance

• Internationalization of trade has gone hand in hand with the liberalization of Financial transaction
→ These global financial exchange has little to do with supplying capital for such productive
activities such as putting together machines or organizing raw materials and employees to
produce saleable materials.
© Saar
→ Investors bet on commodities and currency rates that do not yet exists
- They aim at profit from future production

Concepts
∙ They are called ‘Speculators’ and they often take advantage of
weak financial and banking regulations.
Globalization

Transnational Corporations – TNCs or MNCs

• These are powerful firms with subsidiaries in several countries

- Their number skyrocketed from 7000 in 1970 to 78000 in 2006
∙ Eg. General motors, Walmart, Exxon Mobil, Mitsubishi, Seimens

• These corporations control much of world’s investment capital, technology and access to international

•
market
Concepts
The ability of these firms to disperse manufacturing processes into many different phases carried out in
many different locations around the world reflects the changing nature of global production
→ Such Transnational production network allow TNCs to produce, distribute, and
market their product on a global scale.
European Union
European Union (EU)
History

• European Union is a Political and Economic Union of 27 member states.

→ It is located in Europe.
→ It came into existence on November 1, 1993 after the ratification of Treaty of Maastricht
→ Last Country Admitted : Croatia on July 1, 2013
→ Last Country to Withdraw : UK on January 31, 2020.

• Countries of the Western Europe wanted to avoid another World War

→ There was distrust for Germany as it was the main cause behind European destruction
during WW2

• The big question facing Western Europe and US was :-

- How to promote economic prosperity of Western Europe including that of Western Germany?
- How to ensure that a revitalized Germany does not pose a threat to the Europe and US ?

• Schuman Plan

→ In 1950, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman moved an idea which was originally proposed by
Jean Monnet
- He called for integrating the French and German Coal and Steel industries under a
supranational authority called – ‘High Authority’
∙ Merging Coal and Steel industries would create interdependence and thus
make war with West Germany unlikely.

• West Germany supported the Schuman Plan and in April 1951

- The Govt. of Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg and The Netherlands joined France and
West Germany to sign agreement for the establishment of
∙ European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
©- The
Saargoal was to reduce barriers to trading coal and steel.
Concepts
European Union (EU)
History

• In 1957, the six founding members signed the ‘Treaty of Rome’

→ Treaty of Rome led to the establishment of
- European Economic Community (EEC)
∙ The goal was to establish a common market among the member countries.
- European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)
∙ The goal was to coordinate the development of nuclear power, through the
pooling of research and investment.

• In 1967, the institutions of ECSC, EEC and Euratom were formally merged
→ This led to the creation of ‘European Community’ (EC)

• Britain, Ireland and Denmark became members in 1973, followed by Greece (1981), Portugal (1986)
and Spain (1986)
© Saar Concepts
European Union (EU)
History

• Single European Act (SEA) 1986

→ Member countries agreed to abolish some 300 different barriers that would pave way creating a
common market.
→ It required members to harmonize policies and standards in areas such as tax, heath, safety,
labor and environmental policy.

• The next major Treaty : Treaty of European Union - 1992 (also called Maastricht Treaty)
- This Treaty formally led to the creation of ‘European Union’
- Maastricht Treaty divided EU’s activities into ‘Three Pillars of EU’
1. European Community : maintaining internal market, harmonizing economic
and monetary policy
2. Common Foreign and Security Policy
3. Justice and Home Affairs : Police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters.

- Maastricht also established

• Treaty of Amsterdam 1997

→ It increased the power of EU in terms of issue areas.
→ Reformed EU institution to prepare for addition of new member countries.
→ Gave more power to European Parliament.

• The Maastricht Treaty also began a process of transforming the EU into a single Economic and Monetary
Union by linking members’ national currencies and committing members to a single ‘European Currency’

- The year 2000 saw the introduction of a new ‘Eurozone’ with the replacement of
EU members national currencies by a single currency called ‘Euro’.
∙ Britain, Sweden and Denmark opted out from the decision.

• Treaty of Amsterdam 1997

→ It increased the power of EU in terms of issue areas.
→ Reformed EU institution to prepare for addition of new member countries.
→ Gave more power to European Parliament.

• December 2001 – Laeken Summit, Belgium and ‘Laeken Declaration’ for establishing a European
Constitution (Continental Constitution’
© Saar Concepts
- The treaty rejected by French
and Dutch Voters.
European Union (EU)
History

• Treaty of Lisbon – 2007

→ It is also called Reform Treaty because it was brought to amend the ‘Treaty of Rome’
→ It added European Central Bank and European Council to the common institution of European
Union.

→ It collapsed Maastricht treaty’s three pillars into one institutional framework for the EU.
→ It strengthened European Parliament by giving it new powers in decision making and
responsibilities.

→ It introduced a new ‘Charter of Fundamental Rights’ for European Citizens.

1. The European Council

→ The European Council is the meetings of the highest ranking representatives of the member
states.
→ Members of European Council include – Head of the State or Government of member states,
President of European Council and President of European Commission.
- European Council meetings started as informal meetings from 1974.
- European Council acquired the status of an EU Institution only after Lisbon Treaty.
- European Council meets at least twice every six month or as called by the President.
→ The president of the European Council is elected by the members for 2.5 year period.

→ The European Council makes decision after consulting with European Commission and
the European Parliament.
© Saar Concepts
European Union (EU)
Main EU Institutions

2. The Council of European Union (also known as EU Council)

→ The institution was created to be the primary decision making body of the EU.
→ Under the Council, national ministers (eg. Agriculture Minister for agricultural issues, Education
Minister for educational issues) meet to pass EU laws, resolve issues and coordinate policies.
- The relevant national ministers ‘Co-Decide’ laws put forward by European Commission.
- It also approves EU Budget with the Parliament.

→ It act as a main forum for member states to develop a joint foreign and defense policy for EU.

→ The EU Council is based in Brussels but holds some meetings in Luxemburg.

3. The European Commission

→ It is located in Brussel and is commonly called the Executive Body of EU.

→ It has 33 departments and 27 Commissioners , one from each member state and each oversee a
policy area.

→ The Commission’s roles are

- To propose legislation
- Enforce European laws
- Manage and implement EU Policies and Budget
→ The European Commission is called ‘Guardian of the Treaties’
→ The Commission has a member elected by its members
→ When the commission proposes legislation, the council and parliament together adopt it.
© Saar Concepts
European Union (EU)
Main EU Institutions

4. The European Parliament

→ The European Parliament represents the citizen of EU.

→ Members of European Parliament are directly elected by the people. (First Election held in 1979)
- Members of European Parliament are elected for 5 years term.
- Members are not represented by countries by but political parties.
- The Lisbon Treaty sets the ceiling at 751 (including the president)

→ The Parliament debates and passes European Law with the Council.
→ The Parliament debates and approves EU Budget with the Council.
→ The Parliament also ensures that EU functions democratically.

→ Parliament’s Administrative office are in Luxembourg, Strasbourg and Brussel.

4. The European Parliament

→ The European Parliament represents the citizen of EU.

→ Parliament’s Administrative office are in Luxembourg, Strasbourg and Brussel.

5. The European Court of Justice

→ It is based in Luxembourg
→ It interprets the provisions of EU Treaties and EU Decisions and settles disputes between member
states and EU.
→ It seeks to ensure that member states are complying with EU Laws and make sure that EU Laws
are applied the same way across member states.

→ There is a judge from each member state on the ECJ.

- There is also a General Court, created in 1989, to take some of the ECJ’s heavy work load

6. European Central Bank (ECB)

→ ECB was established in 1998 by the Treaty of Amsterdam to be the Central Bank for the Euro Area,
- It means Central Bank for EU members who use Euro as common currency.
→ Its headquarter is located in Frankfurt, Germany

→ ECB is tasked with formulating monetary policy in the Euro Area.

→ ECB is one of the most powerful central bank
- It controls the monetary policy (interest rate and exchange rate) of member countries
under Eurozone.

→ Governors of national central banks of Euro area countries are members of the Governing
ECB Council.
→ ECB Council also has
©aSaar
six member executive board.
Concepts
Non Aligned Movement
Non Aligned Movement
History

• After the end of Second World War, World got divided into two groups :
- USA and its allies
- USSR and its allies

• Some newly Independent African and Asian Countries refuse to join any of the power blocs, they give rise to
a movement which came to be known as ‘Non Aligned Movement’

• Nonalignment refers to the :-

→ Policy of neutrality towards international security alliance.
→ A Non-Aligned country was by definition one that had no formal pact with either
the United States or Soviet Union bloc.

• Indian PM Nehru used the term ‘Nonalignment’ in 1954 for the first time in the context of
Sino-Indian Relations. © Saar Concepts
Non Aligned Movement
History

• What Nonalignment does not mean :-

- It does not refer to traditional Neutralism or isolationism as practiced by countries like
Switzerland during Cold War
∙ Isolationism would mean non-participation in global politics.

- Non Alignment involved seeking trade and aid while maintaining political independence through
active involvement with variety of states and international organization.
- Non Aligned countries continued their trade relations with superpowers.
- Non Aligned countries took positions on specific issues by either supporting US or Soviet Union.
∙ Eg. Many Non Aligned countries opposed US policies on Vietnam.

• Asia Africa Conference gets organized in Bandung (Indonesia) in 1955 and which is attended by the leaders
of 29 Asian and African Sates.
- Together they release “Ten Principles of Bandung”

- Following leaders played an important role in this :

→ Gamel Abdel Naseer of Egypt
→ Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana
→ Jawaharlal Nehru of India
→ Ahmed Sukarno of Indonesia
→ Joseph Tito of Yugoslavia

• In 1961, Countries meet in Belgrade and formally establish ‘Non Aligned Movement’
- Belgrade Conference was attended by 25 Nations
© Saar Concepts
Non Aligned Movement
© Saar Concepts
History

• After its formation, NAM represented following objectives and principles

→ Cold War Neutrality

→ Support for independence, non interference and support for National Liberation Movement
→ Strengthening of the United Nations
→ Peaceful Co-existence
→ Opposition to colonialism, neocolonialism and western dominance.

• Today, NAM comprises of 120 states and over half of the world’s population.
- NAM Provides a common platform for most of the world’s developing nations
- NAM remains the oldest organization designed to promote the collective political and
economic interests of former colonies and developing nations.

• The Organizational Structure :

- Highest Level of Decision Making body is the Summit Level Conference of head
states.
- Summit should be organized once in three years.
- The chairmanship of the NAM is rotated among its members.
Non Aligned Movement
© Saar Concepts
History

• Algiers Summit – 1973

→ Asian and African Leaders argued that the International Economic System was
based on a Colonial Model
→ In the Algiers Summit, the demand for ‘New International Economic Order’ (NIEO)
was raised.
→ In 1975, in the sixth special session of United Nations, a declaration for
New International Economic Order was passed.
- UN Resolution 3201 and 3202

• Havana Conference 1979 (Cuba)

→ Havana Declaration clearly mentioned the Objectives and Principles of NAM
• To Preserve – National Independence, Sovereignty, Territorial Integrity,
and Security
• To oppose Imperialism, Colonialism, Racism

• Cartagena Conference 1995 (Columbia)

→ The Organizational Structure of NAM was explained in the ‘Cartagena Declaration’
Through – ‘Cartegena Document on Methodology 1996
ASEAN
Association of South East Asian Nations
History

• The Association of South East Asian Nations is a regional organization which was established in 1967 to
promote cooperation among Asia Pacific Nations

- ASEAN was established in 1967 by ‘Bangkok Declaration’.

→ Its founding members were : Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Malaysia
and Indonesia.
→ Later on Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Myanmar (1997), Laos (1997) and
Cambodia (1999) also become part of ASEAN

- The moto of ASEAN is – ‘One Vision, One Identity, One Community’

- 8th August is observed as ASEAN day.
- ASEAN Secretariat is located at : Indonesia, Jakarta

• Historical Development of ASEAN

→ 1967, ASEAN was established after the signing of ‘Bangkok Declaration’

→ For the economic integration of the region : ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) was launched in 1992
→ On December 1995, South East Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone treaty was signed, the treaty
took effect in March 1997.
→ 1997 : Adoption of ASEAN Vision 2020
→ 2003 : Bali Concord II was adopted for the establishment of an ASEAN Community
→ 2007 : Cebu Declaration was adopted to accelerate the establishment of ASEAN Community
by 2015.
→ 2008 : ASEAN Charter comes into force and become a legally binding agreement.
→ 2015 : Launch of ASEAN Community
- ASEAN Community is composed of Three Pillars
∙ ASEAN Political-Security Community
∙ ASEAN Economic Community
∙ ASEAN Socio-cultural community
Association of South East Asian Nations
© Saar Concepts
History

• Historical Development of ASEAN

→ 1967, ASEAN was established after the signing of ‘Bangkok Declaration’

• Fundamental Principles of ASEAN

- The ASEAN fundamental principles are present are present in the ‘Treaty of Amity and Cooperation
in Southeast Asia of 1976
∙ Mutual respect for he independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity and
national identity of all nations.
∙ The right of every state to lead its national existence free from external interference
∙ Non Interference in the internal affairs of one another.
∙ Peaceful settlement of disputes
∙ Renunciation of the threat to use force.

• Objectives of ASEAN
- Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development.
- Promote regional peace and stability.
- Promote extensive cooperation in wide areas of economy and society.
- Maintain close and beneficial relation with the existing regional and international organization.
Association of South East Asian Nations
© Saar Concepts
Institutional Mechanism

• ASEAN Summit :
- It is the supreme policy making body of the ASEAN
- It is the highest decision making authority of ASEAN
- Summits sets the direction for ASEAN policies and objectivies.
- Summit meets twice a year.

• ASEAN Ministerial Council

- The ASEAN Charter established four important new Ministerial Bodies to Support the Summit.
∙ ASEAN Coordinating Council (ACC)
∙ ASEAN Political Security Community Council
∙ ASEAN Economic Community Council
∙ ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Council.
Association of South East Asian Nations
© Saar Concepts
Institutional Mechanism

• ASEAN Led Forums

→ ASEAN Regional Forums (ARF)

- It was launched in 1993 with 27 members
- The objective was to facilitate cooperation on political and security issues.

→ ASEAN Plus Three

- It is a consultative group initiated in 1997 to bring together ASEAN’s ten members and
China, Japan and South Korea.

→ East Asia Summit (EAS)

- The Summit was first held in 2005
- ASEAN Play a central role as agenda setter.
- It includes ASEAN plus Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, South Korea
USA.
African Union
African Union
History

• African Union is an Intergovernmental international organization created in 2002

• The purpose of creating African Union were :-
→ Secure democracy, human rights and a sustainable economy in Africa
→ Bring an end to intra-African conflict
→ Create a common market.

• The AU was formed as a successor of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) which was itself formed in
1967.
- In September 1999, OAU’s head of states and governments adopted ‘Sirte Declaration’
∙ Sirte Declaration called for the establishment of AU.
- In 2000, The Constitutive Act of African Union was signed in Lome, Togo
- The Organization was officially launched in Durban in July 2002.
- 53 countries of Africa are members of AU (All are African except Morocco)
© Saar Concepts
African Union
Organizational Structure

• According to the Constitutive ACT of AU (2002) followings are the organs of the African Union

1. Assembly
∙ It comprises of the head of the states which meets at least once every year.
∙ It is the highest decision making body of the AU.
∙ Its members elect AU Chair who holds office for one year.

2. Executive Council
∙ It is comprised of Foreign Affairs Ministers or Ministers designated by the member
countries.
∙ The Executive Council is responsible to the Assembly.

1. Commission
∙ It is responsible for managing
© Saar Conceptsday to day tasks and implementing AU Policies.
African Union
Organizational Structure

• According to the Constitutive ACT of AU (2002) followings are the organs of the African Union

4. Peace and Security Council (PSC)

∙ This was set up in 2004.
∙ It serve as a collective security and early warning arrangement to respond to conflict
and crisis.
∙ The PSC has 15 members states, elected for 2-3 years terms with equal voting rights.

4. Pan African Parliament

∙ It was established in 2004
∙ It has only consultative power and can only advise heads of state on continent wide issues

5. Economic Cultural and Social Council (ECOSOCC)

∙ It was established
© SaarinConcepts
2005, it seeks to build partnership between African Govt and
Civil Society.
G7/G8 and G20
G7/G8 and G20
History

• G7/G8 : Group of Seven/Eight

G20 : Group of 20
→ These acronyms denote two informal interstate coalitions that coordinate the policies of
nation states in regularly held summits at the Ministerial or Head-of-State level.

→ This informal mode of Governance contrasts the highly organized, formal decision-making
mechanism present in International Organizations like UN, IMF and EU

→ Reasons for the increase in this informality

- Resistance to reform in formal institutions.
- Quick decisions in these informal institutions
- Growth of informal groups in formal institutions.

• The G7/G8 was created in 1975 following the 1973 Oil Crisis and subsequent global recession.

• Originally it was referred to G6

- Because it comprised of six countries : Germany, France, UK, Italy, Japan and USA

• In 1976 Canada joined the group and it became G7

- Since 1977, European Union has participated in all of the group’s summit without being a
recognized member.

• In 1998, Russia is added to the Group making it G8

- Russia is not a full participant in all activities, because it is excluded from G7 Finance Grouping
- G7 members suspended Russia membership on March 24, 2014 because Russia’s annexation
of Crimea.
© Saar Concepts
G7/G8 and G20
History

• G7 countries meet every year in Annual Summits

- The Agenda of G7 include
∙ Financial and economic issues : Core areas
∙ Foreign Affairs, Science and technology, energy, environment, climate change and
labor and employment.

- The Annual Summit of the Heads of State remain the core of the cooperation.
∙ Representatives of each states who are called ‘Sherpas’ prepare for these summits
intensely throughout the year.
∙ These Sherpas remain in contact with each other for the entire year.

• G20 was created was created in response to Asia Financial Crisis of 1997 and 1998
- Many developing countries recognized the fact that not all important economies are integrated
in the informal model of governance of global economy.

• In 1999, Finance Ministers of G7 countries invited the Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors of
following emerging economies to the ‘Berlin Summit’
→ Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, EU, India, Indonesia, South Korea, Mexico, Russia,
Saudi Arabia, South Africa, and Turkey.

→ These countries along with G7 created G20.

• Rome Conference 1998

→ Nation-States of the world came together in Rome to deliberate over the establishment of a
Permanent International Criminal Court.

→ Rome Statue of International Criminal Court was prepared by the participating countries
∙ Final vote was called to decide whether to accept the Rome Statute or not
∙ 120 votes were in favor, 7 were against and 21 countries were absent.

→ After this, Rome Statute of International Criminal Court was opened for signature.

→ On April 11, 2002, the Rome Statute received 60th ratification.

∙ ICC entered into force on July 1, 2002.
∙ Currently Rome Statute has 139 Signatories and 110 ratifications.
© Saar Concepts
International Criminal Court
History

• Jurisdiction of ICC

→ According to the Rome Statue, ICC has jurisdiction over four types of crimes
∙ The Crime of Genocide
∙ Crime against humanity
∙ War Crimes
∙ The Crime of Aggression

- The Court has jurisdiction over these crimes from the time the statute enters
into force.

• When can ICC initiate an investigation ?

→ The court may initiate an investigation if a state party, the United Nations Security Council,
or the prosecutor brought the situation the court.

→ The ICC does not have Universal Jurisdiction

∙ The ICC has jurisdiction within territory of state that is part of the Rome Statute..

→ The ICC has jurisdiction if the case was referred to the Court by the UN Security Council.

→ The ICC has jurisdiction over a non party state if that state voluntarily accepts the
court’s jurisdiction.

• Forms
- Forms are intelligible, unchanging objects, accessible to the mind but not the senses which
provide the only reliable standards for knowledge and good judgement
- The chief of these forms on which the others depends for their being and knowability is
the ‘Form of the Good’

• World of Being
- Collectively the forms constitute the world of Being.

• World of Becoming
- In the visible world, the images of the forms are interrelated and in continuing flux and it is called
the world of becoming.

• Philosophers : Only philosophers can have the knowledge of the forms of the good.
The Philosophers discovers the blueprint of the best human world by looking at these
forms.
© Saar Concepts
Plato
Key Ideas and Works

• The Republic
- The Republic is the story of what sort of society such a philosopher would produce if he were to
acquire political power and become a ‘Philosopher King’
- Plato also tries to prove that Justice pays
∙ We can not achieve happiness except in a just city, so that best city must be just

• Theory of Human Soul and Mind

- Each of us three primary kinds of desires
∙ Appetitive, Spirited and Rational
- This leads to the division of society into three natural classes
∙ Appetitive - Those who take happiness to consist in long term satisfaction of their appetites
∙ Spirited – Those who take happiness to consist in satisfaction of desire for honor
∙ Rational – Those who take happiness to consist in satisfaction of desire
for truth and overall good

• In the Just city each class will have a distinctive role to perform
- The Appetitive will be Producers or Workers
- The Spirited will be Guardians or Soldier-Police
- The Rational will be Rulers

• Justice for the city consists precisely in the enforcement of a principle of specialization, which restricts
each class to the one social role for which it is naturally best fitted.

• Political authority and rule therefore depends on knowledge and not simply on power or consent of the
governed.
• To ensure the continued of the three classes, the Rulers tell a ‘Noble Lie’
- Producers have bronze in them
- Soldiers have Silver
- Rulers have Gold

• Political Decay
- Plato says that even if the Ideal State is established, it can not last forever
- Decline of the Ideal State will take place of

→ Timocracy
∙ Rule of the Auxiliary who emphasis courage, honor and war
→ Oligarchy
∙ Rule of the Wealthy who are motivated by greed and fear to loose their wealth
→ Democracy
∙ Poor masses will demand liberty and a democracy will be established
→ Tyranny
∙ In democracy there will be total anarchy which will lead to the rise of one strong
leader who would later turn into a
‘Tyrant’

• Plato’s work are chronologically divided into four groups

→ Early : Apology, Crito, Euthyphro, Laches

→ Transitional : Gorgias, Meno, Protagoras
→ Middle : Phaedo, Symposium, Republic, Parmenies
→ Last : Timaeus, Sophist, Statesman, Laws, Seventh Letter

• Aristotle’s method
- Aristotle and Plato had a differing view of reality
- Plato believed that reality consists of eternal forms found in heaven
- Aristotle thinks that real nature of anything can not be located outside the object itself
∙ His method of knowing reality is to focus on the highest end or goal of an object.
∙ The principal end is called ‘Telos’. It is what anything becomes after its growth is complete

• Happiness
- The goal of any polis is to achieve human happiness
∙ Happiness is not the same as physical pleasure
∙ Happiness involves search for knowledge that leads to wisdom

• Community
- Unlike Plato, whose central concern is Justice, Aristotle focuses on Community
- Aristotle says, to be human is by definition to be a part of community
- All communities originate from the need to preserve human life but have as their ultimate goal
the happiness of their member
∙ The community that follows the Golden Mean, avoiding extremes, provide means for each
persons search for good life.

• For Aristotle there are three kinds of communities

→ Household : Originate from the biological urge of men and women
Production is done for the family.
→ Village : It originate from the union of household
It provide for greater degree of protection and economic self sufficiency
© Saar
→ Polis : Polis is the Concepts
supreme form of community
Aristotle
Key Ideas and Works

• Political form of the polis

→ Plato favors a form of government dominated by permanent rulers who govern without law

• Aristotle’s Forms of Government Classified

Who Rules ? Good form of Government Bad form of Government

One Monarchy Tyranny
Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Many Polity Democracy

• Polity

→ It is the best political form of true constitution

→ It is best because it is structured to counteract the potentially destabilizing effects of class
antagonism in society
→ A stable polity requires the presence of a large middle class
∙ Middle class are those who compose the poorer segment of the wealthy class and
richer segment of the lower class
∙ Because it is the middle class, this class is able to blend the perspective of rich and poor to
reflect the mean

→ The size of the middle class must be large enough the combined size of rich and poor so as to
enable it to politically dominate the polis.
© Saar Concepts
Aristotle
Key Ideas and Works

• Key works
→ Eudemian Ethics
→ Metaphysics
→ Nichomechian Ethics
→ Politics

• Method
- He is not concerned with ancient or medieval concept of good or evil
- Political evaluation should not be based on how philosophers of past have said people should act
- People should be treated in manner based on fact what they actually are in fact
∙ Only a correct awareness of reality can lead to strong and stable government.
- People must realize that private morality can not be applied to public sphere.
- There is nothing that is absolutely good or absolutely evil
- We must learn from history how to behave in present

• Human Nature
- People are not by nature community oriented but rather egoistic and selfish in nature
- People are basically evil who are always concerned about their individual selfish interest

• Power
- Machiavelli is the first political thinker to focus on power as a positive concept
- He rejects the idea that those engaged in politics should only possess philosophical knowledge or
claim divine sanction
- The Prince should acquire unlimited power and focus how to use them effectively
- Machiavelli advocated negative qualities like being cruel, deceptive for the Prince in order to
get the political ends.
∙ He gives the example of ‘Cesare Borgia’ as a model to emulate for future Prince

• Religion
- Machiavelli adopt an Instrumental View of religion
- He does not reject religion but says that religion should not be the basis of power
- Rulers should use religion as an instrument to shape the nature of masses and control them
© Saar Concepts
Machiavelli
Key Ideas and Works

• Women
- According to Machiavelli, Men and Women are opposite in their thinking
- Men are identified with the value of strength and warfare
- Machiavelli supports the traditional view of Women.

• Liberty
- For Machiavelli, Liberty has two dimensions
∙ Political Liberty
- It includes domestic peace, or people’s freedom from internal disorder, as well as
national independence, or a government’s freedom to act as it wishes, independent
from foreign control
∙ Individual Liberty
- Individual liberty requires the prior condition of political liberty
- Once this© Saar Concepts
is secured, individual liberty entails freedom arbitrary interreference by
government.
Machiavelli
Key Ideas and Works

• Form of Government
- For Machiavelli, there are essentially two types of Government
∙ Monarchies
∙ Republics
- Republics
∙ A Republic is founded by a strong, inspiring leader
∙ A Republic is constitutional
- It is based on Law
- It is governed in the interest of most citizens, not just few
- Members of all class have an opportunity to participate as citizens

• Important Works

- The Prince (1513)

- Discourses on Livy (1532)
- The Art of War (1521)
- The History of Florence (1527)
- The Mandragola

• Through a Social Contract people transfer their natural right to self defense to a Sovereign Authority that is
placed in ‘One Man’ or ‘Assembly of Men’ empowered to act
→ in whichever manner they deem fit to ensure peace and security to people.

• The Sovereign Authority

- All Sovereigns, whether one, few or many are representatives ‘of all and every one of the masses’
- As representatives they are agents of masses
- The sovereign is not party to the contract

• Natural Law and Civil Law

- Law of nature is present in the state of nature which can be understood through the application of
reason.
- Civil law is the command of the sovereign
∙ Natural Law is knowable but unwritten, while civil law must be framed in such a way that
those commanded can easily understand what they have to do.

• Liberty
- For Hobbes, liberty is negative
- Liberty depends on the ‘Silence of the law’
∙ Liberty is present for all those circumstances for which the law neither commands
nor prohibits.
∙ In all such matters, individuals are free to act as they see fit.

• Right to Revolt
- No Contract, No sovereign and no law can repeal the natural right to self preservation or life from
an individual.
- The right to self defense may be activated if a sovereign is no longer able to enforce the contract
by maintaining peace
- If personal security is threatened then people are effectively back to the state of nature.
- And then people can use © Saar Concepts
any means they see fit to protect themselves.
Hobbes
Key Ideas and Works

• Women
- Ideas of Hobbes is based on gender equality, men and women equally participate in making the
contract and choosing the sovereign.
∙ But sovereign can be one and it is male who is selected to be the sovereign.
- Hobbes says that a family, like a people can have only one sovereign
∙ The ruler of the family is the male, the father, the husband
∙ Women are in subordinate position.

• Important Works
- The Elements of Law (1640)
- De Cive (1642)
- Leviathan (1651)

• Locke’s Critique of Filmer

- John Locke wrote his ‘First Treatise’ as a refutation of Robert Filmer who was a defender of
Royal Absolutism or Absolute Monarchy
- Robert Filmer advances his ‘Divine Right Theory of King’ in his book ‘Patriarcha’
∙ Filmer uses Bible to defend his views, specially the portion of Bible that talks about
‘Genesis’ or Creation.
∙ Adam was not only the first Father but also the first King.
∙ Subsequent generations of his descendants are not born free but in subjection to Adam
and his successors.
∙ Power of Adam and his Successors is derived directly from God.
∙ People are not born free but into families, and so naturally subject to the authority of
their father.
∙ According to©Filmer,
Saar Concepts
relationship of subordination are natural.
John Locke
Key Ideas and Works

• Locke’s Critique of Filmer

→ According to Locke
- Filmer’s arguments are based on faulty readings of Bible and its misunderstanding
- What is due to parents is honor, rather than obedience of subjects to their rulers

• Locke raises four specific criticism of Filmer’s arguments

→ Adam was not given the relevant power to rule by GOD
→ Even if Adam had been granted this power, his heirs did have right to it
→ Even if his heirs did have such a right, there are no clear rules of succession according to which
rightful heirs can be named
→ Even if there are such rules, it is impossible to identify Adam’s actual heirs, because of the great
length of time that has passed since God’s original grant of power to him.
© Saar Concepts
John Locke
Key Ideas and Works

• Natural Law
- Natural Law govern people in the state of nature
- It is a set of principle that all rational people can know and agree on.
- The law of nature gives people a natural right to be free from threat of violent death, enslavement
or theft of property.
- Enforcing these natural rights by people themselves is Natural Justice.

• Social Contract
- Locke’s social contract establishes two-level arrangement consisting of Civil Society and Govt.
∙ Civil Society – It is superior authority, it is people united, its role is to
delegate power to the government.
∙ Government – Government is a limited government, not all aspects of life
is subject to the laws of government.
© Saar Concepts
John Locke
Key Ideas and Works

• Religious Toleration
- Locke says that limited government should apply to religious sphere
- The divine right theory he opposes included an official religion, with the king as head of both
church and state.

• Women
- Locke maintains the distinction between Public and Private Sphere.
- Dominance in Public sphere is not similar to dominance in private sphere.
- Locke believes in formal equality saying that all are born equal before God and all possess equal
capacity to reason
∙ But Locke says that this equality does not extend to Private sphere.
- Locke also support the view that women are subordinate because they are naturally weaker
than men.
© Saar Concepts
John Locke
Key Ideas and Works

• Form of Government
- Locke supports any form of Government that guarantees Right to life, liberty and property to
its citizen
- So Locke automatically rejects two forms of government
∙ Divine Right of Kings (also rejected by Hobbes)
∙ Absolute Monarchy (advocated by Hobbes)

- Locke advocates for Legislative Supremacy and says Executive should come second. Legislative
supremacy can be attained in two forms of government
∙ Direct Democracy
∙ Representative Democracy

• Despotism and Revolution

- Locke believes that both Legislature and Executive can become despotic when they violate
or limit people’s right to life, liberty and property.
- When this occurs, legitimate power temporarily reverts to civil society, and the majority of the
citizen can together exercise their right to change the government.
∙ The change can come either peacefully or by force.

• Important Works

- A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)

- Two Treatises of Government (1689)
- An Essay concerning Human Understanding (1690)
- Thoughts on Education (1693)
- On The reasonableness of Christianity (1695)

• Rousseau’s career as a Philosopher with an article he wrote for an essay writing competition
→ ‘Whether the arts and sciences have contributed to human morality ?’
- Rousseau’s article provided a negative answer to the question and he won 1st Prize.

• Rousseau challenged the accepted wisdom and opened a new approach to political questions.
→ He was a part of the counter-enlightenment movement which was a reaction against reason
and science of his time
→ Rousseau stressed the importance of sentiment and emotions.
→ The idea that reason result in progress and freedom is misplaced.
- Change in human condition over time is not progress or improvement
- Reason lead to enslavement
- We need to substitute reason to sentiment to truly understand human affairs.

• Rousseau’s State of Nature is a paradise

- Each inhabitant is like a noble savage(Apelike)
- Neither good nor evil, no vice no virtue,
- Each inhabitant is guided by two principles
∙ Self Preservation – Concern for one’s life
∙ Compassion or pity – Concern for the suffering for others
- All are equal, without reasoning power but possessing a good nature.
- No one has any natural authority to rule over other.

• Human being can not return to state of nature because of the influences of civilization.
• ‘Man is born free, but everywhere he is chains’
- The first part of the sentence refers to condition of people in state of nature
- The second part refers to the oppressed condition of people in civilization.
© Saar Concepts
Rousseau
Key Ideas and Works

• The path to liberation

- Rousseau seeks to establish a new form of community
∙ One which will provide all material benefits of society but also equality and freedom that
people enjoyed in the state of nature.
∙ The society in which people will be governed by their real inner selves and not
some external body.

• The new form of community will be based on ‘General Will’

- Two types of Wills
∙ Actual Will or Private Will – It is related to the selfish interests of the individual
∙ Real Will or General Will – It is related to the collective and overall interests of everyone.
• Force and Freedom
- Once the General Will is found, individual subject who follow it actually follow their own real will
- General Will is collectively established by people so obeying it is like obeying oneself.
- So living under General Will is truly
free, so one disagreeing with General
Will can be forced to follow it. © Saar Concepts
Rousseau
Key Ideas and Works

• Citizenship
- Rousseau’s model of good citizen is that of strong and disciplined city states of Sparta and Rome.
- Rousseau is the proponent of Republican Citizenship.
∙ Every citizen must be ready and willing to act dutifully and doing what the General Will
commands and fully identifying his personal will with these commands of General Will.

• Gender
- Rousseau agrees with Aristotle that the business of government is to be exclusively handles by men
- Women are naturally inferior to men.
- Rousseau accepts the patriarchal nature of family.
∙ He says that rule of man over women and his offspring is natural.
∙ Women is by nature physically weak
∙ Women’s subordination is also because of her inability to participate as full citizen.

• Education
- Rousseau propounds his theory of education in his book ‘Emile’
- Rousseau rejects ‘Rote Learning’ for Emile and Sophie.
∙ They are to learn from nature and experience.
∙ They are to learn what is fit for their natural strength.
- Rousseau advocated different kind of education for men and women
∙ Emile should be taught to become a breadwinner
∙ Sophie should be taught to become a good housewife and mother.

• Form of Government
- Rousseau supports a Republican Form of Government i.e. a Government based on General Will
- Rousseau denounces Representative Democracy
∙ Since sovereignty is inalienable, legislative power can not be delegated to representative.
- Legislature should be based on Direct Democracy
- Authority to enforce General Will can
be given to a small Executive.
© Saar Concepts
Rousseau
Key Ideas and Works

• Main Works

- Discourses on the Sciences and Arts (1750)

- Discourses on the Origin of Inequality (1754)
- Discourses on Political Economy (1755)
- The Social Contract (1762)
- Emile (1762)
- Constitutional Project for Corsica (1765)
- The Government of Poland (1772)
- The Confessions (1782)

• Utilitarianism
- The philosophy of Utilitarianism was developed by Bentham and James Mill
- To Utilitarians, Pleasure is good and pain is bad and all people are pleasure seeking animals

• Act Utilitarians
- The idea that the right action is that which maximizes utility

• Rule Utilitarians
- The idea that the right action is that prescribed by a rule which itself maximized utility

• Mill’s Revision of Utilitarianism

- For Bentham, pleasure from one source is equal to that from other. All things that give pleasure
are equal.
- Mill distinguishes between Higher and Lower Pleasure
∙ Intellectual Pleasure : Higher Pleasure
∙ Physical Pleasure : Lower Pleasure

• Mill on Human Nature

- Mill’s approach to human nature is complex, he accepts that all human being are equal & rational
- But all can not be treated alike.
- Each has a different personality and
talent (Difference recognized)
© Saar Concepts
J S Mill
Key Ideas and Works

• Tyranny of majority
- For a purely utilitarian government : all votes count as equal and the majority rules
- Rule of majority can be used to silence those who are different
- Conforming to the majority opinion becomes cumpolsory.

• Mill’s Defense of Liberty : Harm Principle

- Liberty consists of doing what one reasonably desires without harming others
- Job of government is limited to preventing harm to others
∙ Other regarding actions – Interference allowed
∙ Self regarding actions – no interference allowed
→ ‘Over himself, over his own body and mind, individual is sovereign’

• Spheres of Liberty : Mill designates three areas of personal life where exercising liberty harm no one
→ Liberty of Conscience : Freedom of speech, freedom of press and freedom of religion.
- Freedom of expression and publication of public opinion
→ Liberty of tastes and pursuits : Freedom to choose one’s career
→ Liberty of Combination : Free association of individuals

• Truth
→ Complete free expression of ideas leads towards the goal of truth

• Three reasons why expressions of contrary opinions must be allowed

→ A new opinion might be true and the existing one false
→ A new opinion might be partially true. It can expose the false ideas contained in part of accepted
view.
© Saar
→ If the new idea is false, Concepts
allowing its free expression helps strengthen the truth.
J S Mill
Key Ideas and Works

• Political Economy
→ Mill supported maximum individual liberty and favored free economic competition .
→ But he was concerned with inequality arising because of birth and social status
∙ These factors worked against his belief in maximum improvement of individuals in society
→ Mill does not consider economic liberty a basic liberty
→ Mill thus supports Welfare State
∙ Welfare State promises a minimum standard of living for all

• Women
→ Mill holds strong egalitarian view concerning men and women in society
→ Individual autonomy of men and women can contribute their fullest development and to the
development of society
→ Gender differences are artificial and based on unnatural distinctions
© Saar
→ There should be equality Concepts between men and women.
of opportunity
J S Mill
Key Ideas and Works

• Representative Government
→ Mill favors Democracy where ultimate power is in the hands of the people
→ But democracy is just a means of popular control of the Government

→ Government is of greatest value if it improves the mind and characters of all its citizens
→ Government works best when all participate but guided by an elite minority that include all
qualified men and women
- They can make wise laws and policies
- They can check the rise of mediocrity in governance
→ Political process that allows such guided participation is called Representative Government

→ Mill recommends techniques to encourage better debate by strengthening the role of

Elite Minority :
- Illiterate, Criminals, Bankrupt should be excluded from voting
- Plural Votes for educated
- Proportional Representation
© Saar Concepts
J S Mill
Key Ideas and Works

• Important Works by Mill

- On Liberty (1859)
- Utilitarianism (1861)
- Considerations on Representative Government (1861)
- The Subjugation of Women (1869)

- Principles of Political Economy

- System of Logic

• What is Dialectics ?
- A method of arriving at Truth (Absolute Truth)

• What is Truth ?
- Something that is complete and has no internal contradiction and opposites.
© Saar
- Nature of truth : Being Concepts
complete, being whole, being 100% true.
Karl Marx
Dialectical Materialism

• There are two approaches to arrive at Truth

→ By Discovery
- By applying your reason and logic, you arrive at the truth in one go.
- The truth that is discovered is 100% true

→ By a Gradual Process
- We can not find the absolute truth at once
- We move towards truth gradually, step by step.
∙ It is this approach that we call dialectics

Statement A Opposite Statement B

(40% True) (30% True)

Synthesis Statement C Statement D

(Negation of Negation) (70% True) (70% True)
New Thesis New Anti-Thesis

Statement E
(100% True)

Final Synthesis (Sublation)

Karl Marx
Dialectical Materialism

• Dialectics works through the reconciliation of opposites

- It combines the portion of truth present in both thesis and anti thesis to reach a higher level
of truth
- It continues till we reach a point where there is no opposites or contradictions

There Exist an Absolute Idea This Idea represents the

(Reason, Spirit or Geist) Ultimate Truth (100%)

The Driving force of History is the urge of The Idea wants to gets
the Universal Idea to manifest itself Manifested on Earth completely
completely on Earth
The Idea Manifests itself
History is the story of the development of Through
the Universal Idea on Earth

• Social and Political Institutions

These Institutions develop from
• Art, Culture, Religion and
0% to 100% of the Idea
Philosophy
Karl Marx Marx’s Dialectical Materialism © Saar Concepts
For Marx Reality is Material Reality is not a manifestation of some idea

Reality is made by Practical Human Activity

History is the Story of development of

Productive Forces
Karl Marx
Human Nature and Alienation

• Basic Human Nature – Species Being

• Under Capitalism, this natural feeling of satisfaction is diminished

- People are separated from the product of their labor.
- People are separated from their basic human nature
∙ Marx calls this separation of human being from their basic nature as Alienation.

• According to Marx, People under Capitalism suffers from four kinds of Alienation

→ Alienation from the product of once labor

∙ Product does not belong to the one who produce it

→ Alienation from the Act of Production

∙ Work is a forced labor

→ Alienation from Species being

∙ People separated from their basic human nature

→ Alienation of Man from Man

• According to Marx, the basic fact of any Human Society is :

→ Nature of its Economic Organization (1st Element of any society)

- How something is produced ?

∙ Tools of production, method and technology used for producing material means
of existence
∙ Collectively it is referred to as ‘Force of Production’ or ‘Means of Production’

- Who Owns the Means of Production and Who performs what job
∙ Collectively this is called ‘Relations of Production’

Class Group of People standing in similar relation to the means of production

Group which owns the means of Dominant Class

Production They are rich and control the ruling power

Group which do not own the means Dominated Class

of Production They are poor, property less and powerless
Karl Marx
Economic Determinism
© Saar Concepts
All the societies comprises
of two Classes

A Class which Works and own This Class is in Majority but it lives in a poor
nothing and pathetic condition

A Class which is the Owner and This Class is in minority, it does not work but
feeds on the work of others lives a luxurious and rich life
Karl Marx
Economic Determinism

• Class Relation between the two classes

- Antagonistic
- The poor oppose their condition and try to resist
- Poor class try to raise voice against their exploitation
- Class struggle is a constant feature of all human society

→ Ideas, Values, Religions and Culture

Ideological Structure of
Society
Culture, Ideas,
Secondary Elements of Values, Religions
Society

Political Structure of State, Government, Laws,

Society Police, Army

Relations of Production
Primary Element of Economic Structure of
Society Society
Force of Production

New Superstructure will be established

New Relations of Production is

established

Economic Base
When new Forces of Production
develops in society
Relations of Production

Forces of Production Overtime Forces of Production evolves

Mechanism of Social Change

• With the passage of time, forces of production in society will evolve

Pre-history

Class less, Common Ownership No Exploitation

Primitive Communism
and Primitive

Master and Slave

Slave Society
Means of Production : Slaves

Exploitation of one
History

Feudal Lords and Serfs class by the other –

Feudal Society
Means of Production : Land Class struggle

Capitalists and Workers

Capitalist Society
Means of Production : Factory
Post-history

Classless, Common Ownership

Communism No Exploitation
and Advanced

© Saar Concepts
Karl Marx © Saar Concepts
Force of Production : Land
Feudal Society
Relation of Production : Feudal Lords and Serfs

Development of the Feudal Economy will lead to

growth in Trade

A Third Class will come into existence This Class will have better
Commercial-Merchant Class (Bourgeoise) means of Production : Capital
These Revolutions were
Bourgeoise revolutions
Their advancement will be blocked by the old
Ruling Class : Feudal Lords
English Revolution
American Revolution Eventually Bourgeoise class will gain enough power
French Revolution to revolt against the Feudal Lords

After coming to power Bourgeoise class will set up new relations

of production and new legal, political, cultural superstructure
Karl Marx
Critique of Capitalism

Stages of History according to Marx

Primitive Communism

Slave Society

• Capitalism
- Capitalism is an economic system
- Under capitalism, commodities are produced and sold for profit

- Capitalist is different from Pre-Capitalist economic Systems

Pre-Capitalist Economic System

C M C

Commodity Money Commodity

• Capitalism
- Capitalism is an economic system
- Under capitalism, commodities are produced and sold for profit
Capitalist Economic System

M1 C M2

Money Commodity Money

• Money is invested by the capitalist to produce commodities which are then exchanged for more money

M2 M1 Profit or Surplus Value

Final amount of money Initial amount of money

• Capital is the money that goes into circulation to produce more money
Karl Marx
© Saar Concepts
Theory of Surplus Value

• According to Marx, there are two types of values

- Use Value
∙ It is the utility or usefulness of a commodity
∙ Eg Sugar – Sweetness is its use value
∙ Use value is not dependent on Market

- Exchange Value
∙ It is a value of a commodity expressed in terms of other commodity
∙ Eg 1kg Sugar = 2 Kg Honey
∙ Exchange value are dependent on Market forces
∙ Under Capitalism – Exchange value of a commodity is expressed in terms of money
∙ Money has no us value, it has only exchange value
Karl Marx
© Saar Concepts
Theory of Surplus Value

• How does value gets created ?

Worker is paid only that much
When a worker works and invests
with which he can reproduce his
his labor into the raw material
labor power
He produces a Value ‘V1’

For producing this value worker is Worker will sale his Labor to the
paid a wage of value ‘V2’ Capitalist in return of Wage

V2 (Value Paid to Labor) V1 (Value Produced by Labor)

V2 (Value Paid to Labor) V1 (Value Produced by Labor) Surplus Value

Surplus Value is the source of

• How does value gets created ?

Worker is paid only that much
When a worker works and invests
with which he can reproduce his
his labor into the raw material
labor power
He produces a Value ‘V1’

For producing this value worker is Worker will sale his Labor to the
paid a wage of value ‘V2’ Capitalist in return of Wage

V2 (Value Paid to Labor) V1 (Value Produced by Labor)

V2 (Value Paid to Labor) V1 (Value Produced by Labor) Surplus Value

• Necessary Labor : Time spent to produce value equal to wage

• Surplus Labor : Time spent to produce surplus value for capitalist Surplus Value is the source of
profit and Capitalist’s wealth
Karl Marx
© Saar Concepts
Contradictions within Capitalist System

• The Capitalist can increase the surplus value in two ways

→ By making Working day longer

→ By innovating and investing in Machinery
∙ There will be fierce competition among capitalists
∙ Every Capitalist will try to maximize profit by producing more goods at lower cost.

• Fierce Competition among Capitalist produces Winners and Losers

→ Capitalists loosing in the competition join the proletariat
→ Capitalist gets concentrated in fewer and fewer hands.
→ Capitalist Class grows smaller and richer while the proletariat grows larger and more poor
∙ More Proletariat means more unemployment and more competition for jobs

• Wages suppressed downward towards lowest subsistence level

∙ Jobs are less, workers are more so wages automatically go down
∙ Poor becomes poorer.
Karl Marx
© Saar Concepts
Contradictions within Capitalist System

• In Capitalism – there is always tendency of overproduction

• Capitalism trains its own future destroyer

→ Unlike other mode of production, industrial capitalism concentrate workers in factories and
work places and teach them discipline and mutual dependence.
→ Workers have the opportunity to organize and achieve a common understanding of their
situation.
→ Progressive immiseration of the workers forces them to see their own situation more clearly
- Workers come out of the ‘False Consciousness’
- Workers become a ‘Class for Itself’ rather than just remain a ‘Class in Itself’
Karl Marx
© Saar Concepts
Contradictions within Capitalist System

• Revolution is not a brief event, it will occur in stages

Proletariat Will Come to Power

Dictatorship of Proletariat

Withering away of State

• Communist Society
→ Classless Society
∙ No Dominant and Dominated Class – means there will be no exploitation

→ No Division of Labor
∙ No one will be confined to an exclusive sphere of activity
∙ People can choose whichever field that they want
- ‘Possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the
morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticize after dinner
……. without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, shepherd or critic’

→ Distributive Principle
∙ From each according to his ability to each according to his needs
∙ Marx does not talk about absolute equality

→ No Government – No Politics
∙ Govt and politics will be replaced by Administration
Kautilya Part 2
Kautilya © Saar Concepts
Mandal Theory

• Kautilya’s Mandal Theory

- Theory of the ‘Circle of States’

• Core assumptions
- Relations between states depend on their geographical proximity . (Geopolitical Approach)
- A neighboring state is classified as ‘Enemy’ and a neighbor's neighbor as an Ally.
- A Friend’s friend is likely to be a friend and an enemy’s friend an enemy.

• Kautilya has mentioned in Arthshastra four types of States

→ Vijgishu : Its means Conquer, a State whose ruler is ever on the look out for expansion
This forms the Center
→
Kautilya © Saar Concepts
Mandal Theory

• Kautilya has mentioned in Arthshastra four types of States

→ Vijgishu : It means Conquer, a State whose ruler is ever on the look out for expansion
This forms the Center

→ Ari : It means enemy. These are the states surrounding the Vijgishu and are usually
inimical to the Center.

→ Madhyam : The Middle States which is capable of both either helping or fighting the
the Vijgishu.

→ Udasin : It means the neutral State which is different from the enemy or the middle state
and observes neutrality in its relations with other states.
Kautilya © Saar Concepts
Mandal Theory

• Mandal Theory can be represented with the help of four concentric circles

→ Circle 1 : Comprising the Vijgishu, his friends and his friends’ friends
(Vijgishu,Mitra , Mitramitra) total 3 Rulers
→ Circle 2 : Comprising of the enemy, his friend and his
friends’ friend (three Rulers)
(Ari, Arimitra, Arimitramitra)
→ Circle 3 : Comprising the Madhyama King, his friends and his
friends’ friend (3 Rulers)
→ Circle 4 : Comprising the Udasin King and his friend and his
friends’ friend.
Kautilya © Saar Concepts
Mandal Theory

• Kautilya advocates six types of Foreign policy. He calls it ‘Gunas’

→ Sandhi : It means Alliance. Peaceful method to resolve disputes.

→ Vigraha : War or hostility shown to other state
→ Yana : It means military expedition, marching against the enemy
→ Asana : It means neutrality
→ Samsarya : Seeking protection from a powerful king
→ Dvedhibhaava : It means adopting dual policy of war and peace.

• Envoys or Ambassdors
- Kautilya classifies envoys into four categories
∙ Duta – Highest ranking ministers
∙ Nisristartha
∙ Parimitartha
∙ Sasanabara
Buddhist Tradition
Buddhist Tradition

• The Theory of the Origin of State

- In contrast to the Brahminical literature, we have different version of origin of Kingship.
∙ The Divine origin theory of state is not accepted

- The State originated as a collective arrangement

∙ It comes into operation as a ‘Contract’ between electors and elected
∙ There is no appeal to ‘Divine Right’ or ‘Divine Appointment’

• The Theory of origin of State is found in the Dighanikya

∙ 27th Suta of Dighanikya called ‘Aggana Sutta’

• In Aggana Sutta
∙ Buddha is in conversation with two Brahmanas – Vasistha and Bharadvaja
© Saar
∙ Buddha tell them theConcepts
story of the re emergence of life after the Pralaya
Buddhist Tradition

• In Aggana Sutta
∙ Buddha is in conversation with two Brahmanas – Vasistha and Bharadvaja
∙ Buddha tell them the story of the re emergence of life after the Pralaya

• The Earth, Moon and stars reemerged gradually

- Men and women also reemerged gradually
- Initially the bounties of the nature were equally and freely available for all to use and consume
- But gradually people developed the instincts of greed, accumulation, theft and violence

• People elected a powerful person capable of maintaining a Just Order

∙ People called him ‘Mahasammata’ (The Great Elect)
∙ People called upon him to rule justly, by upholding good deeds and punishing the wicked
∙ People also pledged him a share of the rice they produced.

• In Jataka Texts, Buddha talks about ten duties of the King

- Dana or liberality, generosity, charity or welfare
- Sila or abnegation from cheating, stealing, adultery, exploitation of others
- Paricagga or sacrifice in the interest of the people
- Ajjava or honesty, ntegrity, freedom form fear
- Maddava or kindness, gentleness or good temperament
- Tapa or Simple and austere life
- Akkodha or freedom from anger, hatred, ill will and enemity
- Avihimsa or abnegation from violence and destruction of life and peace
- Khanti or patirnce, forbearance or tolerance
- Avirodh or avoidance of opposition to the will of the people and obstruction of measures of
public welfare.

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a renowned Muslim Reformer of 19th century
- He had a vision to make the community of Muslims advanced and Modern
- His main interest was intellectual development of people through modern education
- He was the first Muslim to have started the process of Muslim Modernization in India.

• Syed Ahmad Khan was born in Delhi in 1817

- He belonged to a Non Orthodox Muslim Family
- He was educated at home by his mother and later sent to traditional school.
- At the age of 20, he joined East India Company
∙ He served as Clerk and then as Judge in various towns in North India

• During the time of 1857 Revolt, Syed Ahmed Khan was posted in the town of Bijnor
- He took side of the Britishers and helped in saving several English Families
- He wrote ‘The causes of Indian Revolt’
∙ Muslims can not be held responsible for the Revolt.
© Saar Concepts
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

• He also wrote ‘Loyal Muhammadans of India’

- He argued against the charge of unfaithfulness of Muslims towards British

• He wanted Muslims to take advantage of Modern Education

- He believed that this will bring Muslims on par with Hindus who were taking advantage of
opportunities afforded by the British Rule
- In 1864, he started a Scientific Society for Muslims, whose members would study modern
works of history, science and political economy, in English and in translation
- He also started a magazine called ‘Tahzibb-ul-ikhlaq’

• In April 1869, Khan travelled to England

- He travelled to England to learn more about the English society
- He also presented before the British Authority the problems and aspirations of his community
i.e. the Muslims
- It was in England only that Khan decided to open up a college for Muslim Men who were willing
to acquire modern education
- He returned to India on October 1870 and started to raise fund for his College

• The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College was founded on 24 May 1875 in Aligarh

- Classes started three years later
- His main objective was to bridge the gap between Hindus and Muslims on the educational
front.

• Khan died in the year 1897

• In 1920, the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College was renamed as Aligarh Muslim University
© Saar Concepts
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

• Major contributions

→ The Causes of Indian Revolt

- He argued that the Muslims were not responsible for the Revolt
- The objective was to remove suspicion of the British Officers and bring them closer
to Muslims

→ Indian National Congress

- He advised Muslims to not join Indian National Congress
- He thought that congress was mainly a Hindu body which worked for the protection
Hindu Rights
- He requested Muslims to get Modern Education first and then come to the field of Politics
- He wanted Muslims to remain apolitical and passive because political activity
would divert the attention of Muslims from the constructive tasks and revive
British mistrust.
© Saar Concepts
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

• Major contributions

→ Aligarh Movement
- Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh Movement
- The movement aimed at spreading modern education to the Muslims
- The Aligarh Movement aimed at spreading western education among Muslims without
weakening their allegiance to Islam
- The movement aimed at bringing social reforms among Muslims
- He condemned Polygamy and restrictions on Widow remarriage.

→ Two Nation Theory

- He is recognized as one of the earliest proponent of Two Nation Theory
∙ Hindus and Muslims are two distinct cultural nation which can not live together
- He was suspicious of Hindu majority in India and always believed that Muslims under
India will be persecuted as minorities
- He supported British presence in India because it guaranteed the minority Muslims a
protection from the majority.

• Conclusion
- He is accused of initiating communalism in India
∙ His disapproval of Indian nationalists and profession of incompatibilities between Hindus
and Muslims created tension between the two communities
- His attempt to modernize Muslims and Islam was criticized by the orthodox Mulsims
- His influence was not very pervasive
∙ It was limited to Aligarh and its adjoining districts
∙ A lot of Muslims were uninfluenced by him.

© Saar Concepts
Political Ideology
Key Thinkers
Liberalism © Saar Concepts
Key thinkers and their Works
• John Locke (1632-1704)
- An English Philosopher and consistent opponent of absolutism

- Books
- A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
- Two Treatises of Government (1689)
- An Essay concerning Human Understanding (1690)
- Thoughts on Education (1693)
- On The reasonableness of Christianity (1695)

• Adam Smith (1723-90)

- A Scottish economist and philosopher

- Books
→ The theory of moral sentiments (1759)
→ The Wealth of Nations (1776)
Liberalism © Saar Concepts
Key thinkers and their Works
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
- He was a German Philosopher

- Books
∙ Critique of Pure Reason (1781)
∙ Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
Liberalism © Saar Concepts
Key thinkers and their Works
• Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
- A British Philosopher, legal reformer and founder of Utilitarianism

- Books
∙ A Fragment on Government (1776)
∙ An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislations (1789)
Liberalism © Saar Concepts
Key thinkers and their Works
• J S Mill (1806-73)
- A British Philosopher, economist and politician

- Books
∙ On Liberty (1859)
∙ Utilitarianism (1861)
∙ Considerations on Representative Government (1861)
∙ The Subjugation of Women (1869)
Liberalism © Saar Concepts
Key thinkers and their Works
• T H Green (1836-82)
- A British Philosopher and Social Theorist

- Books
∙ Lectures on Principles of Political Obligation (1879-80)
∙ Prolegomena to Ethics (1883)
∙ Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract (1880)

• Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

- His ideas influenced American and French Revolution
- Common Sense (1776)
∙ A small pamphlet that urged American Colonies to demand for Independence
- The Rights of Man (1792)
∙ Paine wrote this to defend French Revolution and against Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the
Revolutions in France
Liberalism © Saar Concepts
Key thinkers and their Works
• William Graham Sumner (1840-1910)
- Like his English contemporary, Sumner was also a defender of ‘Social Darwinism’
∙ Individual human beings are locked in a competition for survival and who is the fittest
will survive.
- His work
∙ ‘What social classes owe to each other?’
Liberalism © Saar Concepts
Key thinkers and their Works
• Other important scholars and their works

- Ronald Dworkin : ‘Taking Rights Seriously’

- Robert E Goodin : ‘Reasons for Welfare’
- Paul Krugman : ‘The Conscience of a Liberal’
- James Miller : ‘Democracy is in the Streets’
- Joseph Raaz : ‘The morality of Freedom’
- Alan Ryan : ‘The making of modern liberalism’
- Michael Sandel : ‘Liberalism and the limits of Justice’
Socialism
Key Thinkers and their Works

• Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932)

- A German Socialist Thinker
- Attempted to revise orthodox Marxism
- ‘Evolutionary Socialism’ (1898)

• Vladimir Illich Lenin

- A Russian Marxist Revolutionary and Theorist
- What is to be done ? (1902)
- Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916)
- State and Revolution (1917)

• Leon Trotsky
- A Russian Marxist and Revolutionary Theorist
- Major contribution©: Theory of Permanent Revolution
Saar Concepts
- The Revolution Betrayed (1937)
Socialism
Key Thinkers and their Works

• Richard Henry Tawney

- A British Social philosopher and historian
- A Proponent of Ethical Socialism and Christian Socialism
- The Acquisitive Society (1921)
- Equality (1931)

• Herbert Marcuse
- A German Political Philosopher and social Theorist
- Eros and Civilization (1958)
- One-Dimensional Man (1964)

• G A Cohen – ‘Why not Socialism?’

• Terry Eagleton – ‘Why Marx was Right?’

• Steven Lukes – ‘Marxism and Morality’

• Marry Wollstonecraft
- A British Social Theorist
- A Vindication of the Rights of the Women (1792)

• Simon de Beauvoir
- A French feminist
- The Second Sex (1949)

• Betty Frieden
- A US Political Activist
- The Feminine Mystique (1963)
- The Second Stage (1983)

• Kate Millet
- A US Feminist writer
- Sexual Politics (1970)

• Germaine Greer
- An Australian Feminist writer
- The Female Eunuch (1970)
- Sex and Destiny (1985)
- The Whole Women

• Jean Bethke Elshtain

- A US Political Philosopher and social critic
- Public Man, Private Women (1993)
- Women and War (1987) © Saar Concepts
Feminism
Key thinkers and their works

• Andrea Dworkin
- A Radical feminist and advocate of radical lesbianism
- Women and Hating (1976)
- Pornography and Civil Rights
- With Catharine MacKinnon she drafted a ‘Minnesota Ordinance’
∙ The ordinance proposed that victims of rape and sexual crime should be able to sue
Pornographer for damage.

• bell hooks
- Her real name is Gloria Jean Watkins
- Ain’t I a women (1985)
- Feminism is for everyone (2000)
- Outlaw Culture (2006)
© Saar Concepts
Multiculturalism
Key Thinkers and their works

• Edward Said
- He is associated with Post Colonial Theory
- Orientalism (1978)
- Culture and Imperialism (1993)

• Charles Taylor
- The Politics of Recognition (1994)

• Bhikhu Parekh
- Rethinking Multiculturalism (2005)

• Will Kymlicka
- Multicultural Citizenship (1995)
- Multicultural Odysseys (2007)

• Edmund Burke
- Considered as father of conservatism
- Reflections on Revolution in France (1790)

• Friedrich Von Hayek

- The Road to Serfdom (1944)
- The Constitution of Liberty (1960)
- Law legislation and liberty (1979)

• Michael Oakeshott
- Rationalism in Politics (1962)
- On Being Conservative (1956)
- On Human Conduct (1975)
© Saar Concepts
Conservatism
Key thinkers and their works

• Irving Kristol
- Two Cheers for Capitalism (1978)
- Reflections of Neo Conservatives (1983)

• Russel Kirk
- The Conservative Mind (1953)

• Barry Goldwater – The Conscience of a Conservative (1960)

• Quintin Hogg – The Case for Conservatism (1947)
• Ian Gilmour – Inside Right (1977)
• Lord Coleraine – For Conservatives Only (1970)

Grassroots Democracy : Urban and Rural Government

1. 74th Amendment to the constitution is for Urban Local Governance

- It has added 12th Schedule to the Constitution
- Part IX A – from article 243P to 243ZA deals with municipal bodies.

2. Article 243 Q : Constitution of Muncipalities

- There shall be a Nagar Panchayat – for Transitional Areas
- A Municipal Council for small urban areas
- A Municipal Corporation for larger urban areas

3. 243R : Composition of Municipalities

- 243S : Constitution and composition of ward Committees
- 243T : Reservation of seats
- 243X : Power to impose taxes © Saar Concepts
Indian Polity One Liners

Grassroots Democracy : Urban and Rural Government

4. In Directive Principle of State Policy (Part IV) of the Constitution article 40 provided
for the constitution of Village panchayats.

5. Community Development Program (1952)

National Extension Service Program (1953)

6. Balwant Mehta Committee – 1957

- It studied the Community Development Project and National Extension
Service
- It recommended for the establishment of local bodies
- Basic unit of decentralization : Block/Samiti
- Higher level body : Zila Parishad© Saar Concepts
Indian Polity One Liners

Grassroots Democracy : Urban and Rural Government

7. K Santhan Committee (1963)

- Appointed to look after the Financial issues of Panchayati Raj Insititutions (PRI)
- Pnachayats should have special rights to levy taxes
- A Panchayati Raj Finance Cooperation should be set up.

8. Ashok Mehta Committee (1978)

- It was appointed by Janta Government
- Two Tier System : Mandal Panchyat at base and Zila Parishad at top
- Representation of SCs and STs.
- Four year terms and participation of political parties in election
- Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal accepted the report.

Grassroots Democracy : Urban and Rural Government

9. G V K Rao Committee (1985)

- Block Developmental Officer should be the spinal cord of rural development
process.

10. L M Sighvi Committee (1986)

- Gram Sabha was considered as the Basic Unit.
- Local Self Government Bodies should be constitutionally recognized
- Non Involvement of Political Parties in the Panchayat Elections

11. 64th Constitutional Ammendment Bill was introduced in Parliament by Late PM Rajiv
Gandhi in 1989.. The Bill was defeated in Rajya Sabha.

Grassroots Democracy : Urban and Rural Government

13. 73rd Amendment Act 1993 provided a constitutional status to PRIs.

- Part IX from Article 243 to 243O deals with Panchayati Raj Institutions

13. Election Commission : a constitutional body set up on January 25, 1950 under article
324.
- Until 1989, it was headed by one person.
- At present there is One Chief Election Commissioner and 2 other Election
commisiioner.

14. Comptroller and Auditor General

- Established under article 148(1) of the constitution.
- appointed by president for 6 years or till he attains the age of 65.
- His duties are specified under Comptroller and General Act 1971
- He assists the Public Account Committee

15. Finance Commission

- Established under article 280.
- Finance Commission Act 1951
- Headed by a Chairman and 4 other member appointed by President

16. Union Public Service Commission

- Established under article 315.
- Chairman appointed by President

17. National Commission for Scheduled Castes

- Established by 89th Amendment Act 2003.
- It divided the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes into two Independent Commissions.

18. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes

- Established under Article 338 A by 89th Constitution Amendment Act 2003

19. National Human Right Commission

- Established on October 12, 1993 under the provision of the ‘Protection of
Human Rights Act 1993’
- It consists of a Chairperson and four other members.

20. National Commission for Backward Caste

- SC directed Central and State Govt. to establish such a commission in the
the Indra Sawhney vs Union of India cased in 1992
- Govt. of India enacted National Commission for Backward Classes Act 1993

© Saar Concepts
18. Niti Aayog : National Institute for Transforming India Aayog was established in 2015
by replacing Planning commission
Indian Polity One Liners

22. Central Information Commission (CIC)

- Established under the provision of Right to Information Act 2005
- It includes one Chief Information Commissioner and not more than 10
Information Commissioner

23. Atomic Energy Commission

- Established in August 1948.
- Later a Department of Energy was created on August 3 1954

24. National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities

- Established on march 21, 2005.

25. National Commission for economically backward class

26. Federalism in India

- K C Wheare describes Indian Federalism as ‘Qausi Federal’
- Paul Appleby characterizes Indian System as ‘Extremely Federal’
- Jennings : Indian constitution is mainly federal with some Unitary features
- Granville Austin describes Indian Federalism as ‘Cooperative Federalism’

27. Asymmetrical Federalism

- Indian Federalism is regarded as asymmetrical
- By Asymmetrical federalism we mean unequal power distribution between
centre and states
- In Political, Administrative and fiscal areas, power distribution among the
units is unequal.

© Saar Concepts
28. Article 370 : Provides the State of Jammu and Kashmir a unique position in Indian
Union. It gave the state its own constitution and all the residuary power.
Indian Polity One Liners

29. Article 371 : Various clauses of this article give North Indian States (Arunanchal
Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura) special
provisions.

30. Unitary Tendencies in Indian Federalism :

- Article 3 provides parliament the power to create new states and alter the
boundary of the states.
- Article 368 : State participate in the amendment of only some of the
provisions of the Constitution.
- Parliament can make laws on state list under special conditions
29. Legislative relation between centre and state
- Seventh Schedule of the constitution provides for three lists
- Union List (97 items)
- State List (66 items)
© Saar Concepts
- Concurrent List (52 items)
Indian Polity One Liners

32. Under following articles of the constitution, Parliament can make laws on state lists :
- Article 249 : On request by council of state with 2/3rd majority
One year validity
- Article 250 : When state of emergency is operation
expires after 6 months of emergency
- Article 252 : When two or more states make request
- Article 253 : To implement an International Treaty
- Article 356 : During Presidential Rule

Centre State Relations’ Commissions

33. Administrative Reforms Commission (1966)

- Establishment of Inter State Council under article 263
- Appointment of Non Partisan person as Governor

34. Rajamannar Committee (1969)

- Appointed by Tamil Nadu Government
- Finance commission be made permanent body
- Planning Commission should be disbanded
- Article 356, 357 and 365 should be omitted
- All India Services like IAS,IPS should be abolished
35. Anandpur Sahib Resolution (1973)

© Saar Concepts
- Resolution adopted by Akali Dal demanding that state jurisdiction should
be limited to Defence,Foreign Afairs and Currency management.
Indian Polity One Liners

36. West Bengal Memorandum (1977)

- The word ‘Union’ should be replaced by ‘Federal’
- Article 356 and 357 (Presidential Rule) and Article 360 (Financial Emergency)
should be repealed.

37. Sarkaria Commission (1988)

- A Permanent Inter-State Council called ‘Inter Governmental Council’ should
constituted under article 263
- National Development Council (NDC) should be renamed as the
National Economic and Development Council (NEDC)
- Centre should have power to deploy armed forces even without the consent
of the state.
- Procedure for the appointment of Governor should be mentioned in
constitution.
© Saar Concepts
- Three language policy should be implemented
Indian Polity One Liners

38. Punchi Commission (2007)

- A three member Commission headed by Justice Madan Mohan Punchi
- Article 355 and 356 be amended.
- Lays down the guidelines for the appointment of Chief Minister by the
Governor.
- Pre Poll Alliance should be treated as a Political Party.
- Nominee for Governor should not be a person involved in Active Politics.
- It proposed for the establishment of National Integration Council.

Planning and Economic Development

39. Gandhian View of Development :

- By development Gandhi did not meant only Material Development
- He regarded development to be incomplete without spiritual developent
- He was a critique of Western Civilization and Industrialization.
- He wanted to establish village based economic model.

40. Nehruvian Model of Development

- He laid emphasis on large scale industrialization, centralized planning,
and application of advanced technology.

41. Planning commission was set up in 1950 as result of a cabinet resolution.

© Saar Concepts
- It was a extra constitutional advisory body
- It was headed by PM and a Deputy Chairman (Last : Montek Singh Ahluwalia)
Indian Polity One Liners

42. Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 and 1956

- Both the Industrial Resolutions clearly stated for Planned Economic
Development and Mixed Economy.

43. P C Mahalanobis played an important role in the formulation of Second Fiver Year
Plan. :
- Focused on the Development of Heavy Industries
- His model is called ‘Plan Frame’ or ‘Feldman Mahalanobis’ Model.

44. Green Revolution

- It covered the period of 1960s.
- For increasing food grain production HYV (High Yielding Varieties) of seeds
were used. (Along with chemical fertilizers and pesticides)

Land Reforms

46. Under Indian Constitution, Land Reforms is the responsibility of States

47. First Stage : 1947-1972

- Providing relief to cultivators and ensure security of tenure.
48. Second Stage : 1972-1985
- Bringing more land under cultivation through consolidation of land holdings
49. Third Stage : 1985 to 95
- Concentrated on Watershed development and Drought Area Development
50. Fourth Stage : 1995 onwards
- Land legislations and efforts to improve land administration.

Liberalization and Globalization

51. In Indian context, the term liberalization is used to show that

- The role of govt in market and economy is reducing
- It is also called ‘Rolling Back’ of state.
- It is implemented through the policy of ‘Deregulation, Liberalization and
Privatization’.

52. In India, the process of Economic Liberalization started in 1991

- This was the result of Balance of Payment Crisis that India faced at that time

53. The IMF conditions were

- Devaluation of Rupee by 22 % (done in two phases)
- Reduction in import tariff (from 130% to 30%)
- Excise duty to be hiked by 20%
- All govt expenditure to be cut by 10 % annualy

Part System in India

54. Indian National Congress

- Established in 1885 . (A O Hume was the main architect of Congress)
- In 1969, a faction known as Indian National Congress (Organization) broke
away from the main congress party.
- Another split occurred in 1979 when forces loyal to Indira Gandhi broke away
and formed Congress (I)

55. Bhartiye Janata Party

- Earlier it was known as Bhartiye Jan Sangh
- It fought electoins from 1952 to 1977.
- In 1977 it joined the Janata Government.

© Saar Concepts
- Later it separate from it and in 1980 it renamed itself as Bharitiye Janta party
(BJP)
Indian Polity One Liners

56. Republican Party of India (RPI) also known as Scheduled caste Federation
- It was established in 1952
- Highest number of seats it has won is 4 in 1998 Lok Sabha Election

57. Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)

- It was founded as a regional party in 1949.
- It first gained representation in Lok Sabha in 1957.
- In 1972 a faction got separated from it and formed AIADMK.

58. Peasants and Workers’ party

- A regional party based in Maharashtra.
- It fought the 1952 election

59. Revolutionary Socialist Party

- Has existed since 1952.
- Major support base in West Bengal and Kerela

60. Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD)

- It is a religious sikh party formed in Punjab in 1920s.
- Primary Goal was to advocate greater autonomy for Punjab.

61. Telugu Desam Party

- It was founded in 1982 and the party is based in Andhra Pradesh.

62. Assam Gana Parishad (AGP)

- Part is based in Assam and was founded in 1985.

63. Janata Dal

- It was formed in 1988 as a result of a merger between Jan Morcha, Lok Dal
Janata Party
- Janata Dal has split into many parties : JD (Secular), JD (Central),
JD (Biju), and JD (United)

64. Samajwadi Party

- The Samajwadi Party was formed as a result of merger between Janata Dal
Secular and Janata Party in 1991.

65. Bahujan Samajwadi Party :

- BSP was formed in 1984 by Kanshi Ram
- The party professes to promote for the rights of Untouchables.

66. Rastriye Janata Dal

- The RJD broke away from Janata Dal before the 1996 elections.
- It was formally established as a Political Party by Lalu Prasad Yadav in 1997

67. All India Trinmool Congress

- The Political Party is based in West Bengal
- It was formed in 1998 after getting separated from INC.
- Mamta Banerjee is the founder member of TMC.

68. Biju Janata Dal

- The Party was formed by Navin Patnaik in 1997 after separating from
Janata Dal.
- This regional Party is based in Orissa.

Caste in Indian Politics

69. According G S Ghurey there are 6 features of Caste System in India :

- Segmental Division of society
- Hierarchy
- Restrictions on feeding and social interactions
- Civil and religious disparities
- Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation
- Restriction on Marriage.

73. Association for Democratic Rights

- Association for Democratic Rights came into existence in 1999
- The objective is to improve governance and strengthen democracy by
continuously working in the area of electoral and political reforms

Socio Religious Reforms

74. Brahmo Samaj Movement

- It was started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Debendra Nath Tagore at Calcutta
in 1828.

75. Aligarh Movement

76. Tablighi Jammat Movement

- Moulana Ilyas was an Indian Scholar who founded the
Tablighi Jammat Islamic revivalist movement in 1925.

77. Theosophical Society Movement

- Theosophical Society movement was started by Madame Blavatsky and
Colonel Olcott in 1875.

Peasants Movement
78. Between 1920s and 1940s Peasant organization arose.
- Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929)
- All India Kisan Sabha (1936)

79. Peasant Movement occupy an important place in the history of Social Unrest in India
- Sanyasi Rebellion (1770)
- Wahabi Uprising (1831)
- Santhal Revolt (1855)
- Indigo Unrest (1859)
- Champaran Satyagraha (1912-18)
- Moplah Rebellion (1921)
- Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)

80. The period after 1947 was characterized by two Social Movements
- Naxalite Struggle : Started in 1967 near the region of Nxalbari in Bengal.
- New Farmer’s Movement
• Began in 1970s in Punjab and Tamil Nadu
• Had broadened agenda and included Environment and Women’s
issue.

Worker’s Movement

81. The first Trade Union was established in April 1918 in Madras by B P Wadia
• Same year, Mahatma Gandhi established Textile Labor Association

82. In 1920, All India Trade Union Congress was formed in Bombay. (AITUC)

83. Indian National Congress formed another Union called

• Indian National Trade Union Congress (1947)

Women’s Movement

84. Early 20th Century saw the growth of Women’s Organization at National and Local
level.
• Women’s India Association (WIA) [1917]
• All India Women’s Conference (1926)
• National Council for Women’s in India (NCWI) [1925]

Right to Information Act 2005

80. In 1976, in the Raj Narain vs State of UP, it was held by the Supreme court that
people can not speak unless they know.
- It was also said that in Indian Democracy, People are the masters which give
them the right to know about functioning of the government.

81. Hence Right to Information is embedded in Article 19 of the Constitution.

- RTI Act provides mechanism for exercising this Fundamental Right.

82. Right to Information Act was passed by the Parliament on 15 June 2005 and came
fully into force on 12 October 2005.
−The Precursor of RTI Act 2005 was Freedom of Information Act 2002.

83. As per RTI Act, every citizen has the right to receive a timely response from the
government for any information that is sought by them with respect to the
functioning of government.

84. Under the RTI Act, Every citizen is empowered to :

- Seek information/Ask question to the Government
- Request for copies of Government Document
- Inspect Govt. Document and Work
- Request for samples of material of any government work.

Right to Information in India is Governed by Two Major Bodies

85. Central Information Commission (CIC)

- Chief Information Commissioners who heads all the central departments and
ministries with their own Public Information Officer (PIO)
- CIC is directly under the President of India.

85. State Information Commission

- State public Information Officers or SPIOs head over all the state department
and ministries.

87. State and Central Information Commissions are independent bodies and Central
Information Commission has no jurisdiction over State Information commission.

88. An Individual files an RTI with the Central/State Public Information Officer (PIO)

89. An Information Officer can respond to an RTI in the following ways :

- Provide the requested information within 30 days
- Reject the request within 30 days stating the reason.
- Not respond to the applicant. A fine of Rs. 250 per day is imposed on the
officer after 30 days.

90. Amendment to RTI Act 2005.

- RTI Amendment Bill, 2013
• It proposed to remove political parties from the scope of RTI.
• Political Parties can not be called Public Authorities.
- RTI Amendment Bill, 2018

© Saar Concepts
• It empowers the Central Govt. to decide the tenure and salary of
Information Officers.
Indian Polity One Liners

Citizen’s Charter

91. A Citizen Charter is a written, voluntary declaration by Service Providers about their
service standards, choices, accessibility, accountability, transparency.
• It is basically a set of commitment made by an organization regarding the
the standard of service which it delivers

92. Citizen Charter initiative was started in India in 1997 and was envisaged to act as an
instrument to bridge gap between government and citizens in terms of improvement
of quality of service delivery.

93. The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of
their Grievances Bill, 2011 (Citizen Charter)
• The Bill was brought to create a mechanism to ensure timely delivery of
goods and services to citizens.
• It required every public authority to publish their Citizen Charter within
six month of the commencement of the Act.
• Failure to give proper service would lead to a penalty of Rs. 50,000
• The Bill has lapsed due to dissolution of the 15th Lok Sabha.

94. Principles of service Delivery under Citizen Charter

• Quality
• Choice
• Standard : Specifying what to expect within a time frame
• Value for the taxpayers money
• Accountability of the Service Provider.
• Transparency in rules and procedures
• Participative : Consult and involve

95. Consumer Protection

• Consumer Protection Act, 1986 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted in
1986 to protect the interests of consumers of India.
• It makes provisions for the establishment of Consumer Councils and other

96. The Consumer Protection Act was passed in Assembly in October 1986 and came into force on
December 24, 1986.
• This day is celebrated as Consumer Protection Day.

97. Consumer Protection Bill, 2018

• The Bill will replace the Consumer Protection Act, 1986

98. The Bill sets up Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions (Consumer Courts) to
hear complaints from the consumers
• These Commissions will be set up at District, State and National Level
99. District Commissions will hear case of upto value 1 crore
• State Commission upto 10 crore

96. The Consumer Protection Act was passed in Assembly in October 1986 and came into force on
December 24, 1986.
• This day is celebrated as Consumer Protection Day.

97. Consumer Protection Bill, 2018

• The Bill will replace the Consumer Protection Act, 1986

98. The Bill sets up Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions (Consumer Courts) to
hear complaints from the consumers
• These Commissions will be set up at District, State and National Level

99. District Commissions will hear case of upto value 1 crore

• State Commission upto 10 crore

100. The Bill sets up Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) to promote, protect and enforce
the rights of consumer class.

101. The Bill sets up Consumer Protection Council (CPCs) at the District, State and National
Levels as advisory body.

102. E-Governance
• E Governance is the application of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) in the Government Services to improve the efficiency
of communication and transaction between
- Government to Government
- Government to Business
- Government to Citizen

103. The purpose of E-Governance is to reduce corruption and increase accountability

- It also enables a citizen centric administration where citizens can
participate effectively.

104. Indian Government has launched the national e-Governance Plan (NeGP) which
involves making all Government Process backed by a digital infrastructure.

105. The Three core areas of the program are

- Creating Digital Infrastructure
- Delivery of Services through Digital infrastructure.
- Improving Digital Literacy.

List of Central Level Projects promoting e-Governance

106. MCA 21
- Launched by Ministry of Corporate Affairs for secured access to all its
registries.

107. Unique Identification Authority of India (UIADI)

- The Central Government project which collects the biometric and
demographic information of citizens of India and provide them with
12 digit Unique Identification Number called the Aadhar.

108. Direct Benefit Transfer

- Aadhar enabled payment system used for paying wages and subsidies
directly to the Bank Account.
© Saar Concepts
Indian Polity One Liners

109. My Gov.in
- It was founded for active Citizen Participation in Governance

110. Lokpal and Lokayukta Act 2013

- It was passed in 2013 and it provided for the establishment of Lokpal for the
Union and Lokayukta for States

111. These Institutions are statutory bodies without any constitutional status.
- They perform the function of an ‘Ombudsman’ and inquire into allegation
of corruption against certain public functionaries.

Background and History

112. In 1809, the institution of Ombudsman was inaugurated officially in Sweden

113. New Zealand and Norway adopted this system in the year 1962.

114. In 1967, on the recommendation of Whyatt Report of 1961, Great Britain adopted
the institution of Ombudsman

115. In India, the concept of Constitutional Ombudsman was first proposed by the then
law Minister Ashok Kumar Sen in Parliament in the early 1960s.

116. The term Lokpal and Lokayukta were coined by Dr. L M Singhvi

117. In 1966, the First Administrative Reforms Commission recommended the setting up
of two independent authorities - at the centre and at the state level – to look into
the complaint against public functionaries, including MPs

118. In 1968, Lokpal Bill was passed in Lok Sabha but lappsed due to dissolution of Lok
Sabha.
- Till 2011, 8 attempts were made to pass the Bill, but all met with failure.

119. In 2005, the second Administrative Reforms Commission Chaired by Veerappa

Moily recommended that the office of Lokpal should be established without
delay.

120. ‘India Against Corruption Movement’ led by Anna Hazare put pressure on the
UPA govt. at the centre and that resulted in the passing of Lokpal and Lokayuktas
Bil, 2013 in both the house of the Parliament.

121. It received assent from the President on 1 January 2014 and came into force on
16 January 2014.

Structure of Lokpal

122. Lokpal is a Multi-Member body, that consists of one Chairperson and a maximum
of 8 members.

123. Chairperson of the Lokpal should be either the former Chief Justice of India or
former judge of supreme court or an eminent person with impeccable integrity
and outstanding ability.

124. The term of office for Lokpal Chairman and members is 5 years or till the age of
70 years.

125. The members are appointed by the President on the recommendation of select
committee.
© Saar Concepts
Indian Polity One Liners

126. The Select Committee is composed of the Prime Minister who is the chairperson,
Speaker of Lok Sabha, Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha, Chief Justice or a Judge
nominated by him and one eminent Jurist.

127. The Jurisdiction of Lokpal includes Prime Minister, Ministers,

Members of Parliament, Group A,B, C and D officers and officials of central govt.

128. Jurisdiction of Lokpal included the Prime Minister except on allegations of

corruptions relating to International Relations, Security, The Public Order,
Atomic Energy and Space.

129. The Lokpal does not have Jurisdiction over Ministers and MPs in matter of
anything said in Parliament and vote given there.

130. It has power to superintendence over, and give direction to CBI

- If Lokpal has reffered a case to CBI, the investigating officer can not be
transferred without the approval of Lokpal

131. Several years have gone since the passage of the Lokpal and Lokayukta Act 2013
was passed by the parliament but not a single Lokpal has been appointed till date

132. Social Audit :

- It is a way of publically examining and scrutinizing the details of a govt.
Project or work.
- It includes in-depth scrutiny and analysis of the working of an org. or
public authority
- In this process, complete details of financial and non financial resources
that are being used by a govt agency is shared with the public.
- It also assesses the impact of a work on overall society.

132. In India, the initiative of conducting social audit was taken by Tata Iron and Steel
Company (TISCO), Jamshedpur in the year 1979.

134. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 provided for regular
‘Social Audits’ so as to ensure transparency and accountability in the scheme.

135. The State Government shall identify or establish , under NREGA

(now its called MNREGA) , an independent organization, Social Audit Unit (SAU)
at the state level, to facilitate conduct of social audit by Gram Sabha.

136. In April 2017, Meghalaya became the First state in the country to pass a
Social Audit Legislation.
- Meghalaya Community Participation and Public Services Social Audit
Act 2017.
• This Act mandated, social audit across 21 schemes and 11
departments.

1. Professor Mahendra Kumar in book ‘Theoretical Aspects of International Politics’

defines foreign policy as thought out course of action for achieving objectives in
foreign relations as dictated by the idea of national interest.

2. According to Professor Mahendra Kumar, the detrminants of India’s Foreign Policy

are as follows :
- General Determinant
- Internal Determinant
- External Determinant

3. General Determinants of Foreign Policy

- State’s Sovereignty and Integrity
- Interdependence

4. Internal Determinant
- Geographical location
- Size of Population
- Historical roots
- Availability of natural Resources
- Economic and Military strength

5. External factors
- Particular International Situation at a specific time.
- The involvement of International Organization
- general World Conditions

6. Jawaharlal Nehru
- Adopted and implemented the Policy of Non Alignment.
• Asian Relations Conference 1947, New Delhi
• Afro Asian Conference 1955, Bandung
• First NAM Summit 1961, Belgrade
- India suffered 1962 India – China Border War

7. Lal Bahadur Shastri

- He was also committed to the policy of Policy of Non Alignment
- During 1965 India Pak War , USA and Other Western Power offered
military help to India.
- The War ended with Tashkent Agreement (1966)

8. Indira Gandhi
- She succeeded Shastri in 1966 and remained PM till 1977. Again became
PM in 1980.
- Indira’s major achievement was her efforts to liberate East Pakistan
and make Bangladesh an Indepndent nation in 1971.
- She was more inclined towards Soviet Union
- Indo Soviet Peace Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation 1971

9. Janata Party Government

- Policy of ‘Genuine’ Non Alignment was adopted.
- India moved closer to USA.

10. Rajiv Gandhi

- He held the office from 1984 to 1989
- He organized a Six Nation Summit on January 28, 1985 at New Delhi
• Countries which participated were : Argentina, Greece, Sweden,
Mexico, Tanzania and India.
• It was appealed to Nuclear Power States to stop the Nuclear Arms
Race and Ban Nuclear Weapon.
- His visit to China (1988) and Pakistan (1989) helped improve the relation.
- He dispatched Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri Lanka to help solve
Tamil Problem.

11. National Front Government

12. PV Narsimha Rao (June 1991 to May 1996)

- Policy of Non Alignment had became ineffective
- I K Gujral said ‘non alignment is the mantra we have to keep repeating,
who are you going to be non aligned against’
- Country faced financial crisis.
- Under the leadership of then Fianance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh ,
Economic Reforms were introduced.
- For South East Asia ‘Look East Policy’ was adopted.

13. Inder Kumar Gujral

- Held office of PM from April 21 1997 to March 19, 1998
- Gujral Doctrine
• National Security is the most important issue.
• India’s right to take independent decisions is non negotiable
• India should play ‘Big Brother’ role in the region by giving small
concessions to neighboring countries.
• People to People diplomacy is a better form of diplomacy

13. Atal Bihari Vajpayee

- Remained a PM from 1998 to 2004.
- 1998 Pokhran Nuclear Test and India became a nuclear weapon state.
- 1999 Kargil War

15. Dr. Manmohan Singh

- Indo US Nuclear Deal
- Cooperation in the field of Civilian Nuclear Energy use

16. Narendra Modi

- Make in India campaign
- Look east Policy becomes Act East Policy
- Neighborhood First Plolicy with SAARC nations
- Project Mausam : Cultural Relations with countries
- Para Diplomacy : Cities to establish relation with cities of other countries.

India and South Asia

17. In order to explain the predominance of India in the South Asian Region,
Sisson and Rose have coined the term ‘Indo-Centrity’
• It refers to the feeling of insecurity that arise in the smaller nation of
south Asia because of the size, resources and capabilities of India.

18. B C Upreti in his book ‘India’s Policy Towards its South Asian Neighbor’ refers to three
dimensional approach of the foreign policy of these small nations :
• Interacting closely with extra regional actors at bilateral and multilateral
level.
• Use of extra regional power as counterweight
• Internationalize contentious bilateral issues.

Regional Cooperation : SAARC

19. SAARC was established in the year 1985. There are 8 members of SAARC as of now
• Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan
Sri Lanka

20. At the seventh Summit meeting at Dhaka in 1993, SAARC Preferential Trade
Arrangement (SAPTA) was signed.
• It entered into force on December 7, 1995.

21. In 1996, a first funding mechanism was created in SAARC.

• South Asian Development Fund (SADF) was created by merging the SAARC
Fund for Regional Cooperation(SFRP) and SAARC Regional Fund.

22. SAARC Development Fund (SDF) was inaugurated in 2010 during the 16th SAARC
Summit at Thimpu.
• Its precursor was SADF which itself was created in 1996.

23. SDF funds projects in South Asia by Three Windows :

• Social Window (At present on Social Window is in Operation)
• Economic Window
• Infrastructure Window

- Headquarter of SDF located at Thimpu, bhutan

24. The ninth Summit of SAARC at Male in 1997 constituted a Group of Eminent Persons
(GEP) to submit a Report on the working of SAARC.
- The Group submitted its Report in 1999.
- It mentioned the achievements as : People to People contact, Social
concern for active cooperation.
- It also mentioned failures as : Lack of political will to meet the objectives
of SAARC.
- The Report gave : ‘A Vision for SAARC beyond 2000’.

24. South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) is an agreement reached on January 6, 2004 at
the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad
- A Free Trade Area was created in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka

26. India’s Look East Policy : Two main objectives

- To cultivate extensive economic and strategic relations with the nations of
south east Asia.
- To counter the strategic weight of China in that region

26. The Policy of Look East was developed during the period of Narsimha Rao in 1921.

27. In the beginning the focus of much of Look East Policy was much on ASEAN.
- India became Regional Dialogue Partner in March 1993
- A Full dialogue Partner in 1995
- A member of ASEAN Regional Forum in in July 1996.
- A Summit level Partner in 2002.

29. In 1997, A sub regional group called BIMSTEC was established.

- It comprises of : Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Bhutan and
Nepal
- Its full form : Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi Sectoral Technical and
Economic Cooperation

30. India is also a part of Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC)

- It includes India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Combodia and Vietnam
- It was established on November 10, 2000 in Vientiane, Laos.
- First summit was held in Laos : Vientiane Declaration
- It talked about Cooperation in 4 areas : Tourism, Culture, education
transportation.
- India has hosted the 6th MGC Ministerial Meeting (2012) and 8th MGC Senior
Official Meeting (SOM) in 2017.
© Saar Concepts
Foreign Policy One Liners

29. In 1997, A sub regional group called BIMSTEC was established.

- It comprises of : Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Bhutan and
Nepal
- Its full form : Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi Sectoral Technical and
Economic Cooperation

30. India is also a part of Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC)

31. In the Second India-ASEAN Summit Level Meeting in October 2003, India signed
- ASEAN Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC)

32. The Economic Cooperation between India-ASEAN is managed through following

Institutional Arrangements :
- ASEAN-India Business Summit
- ASEAN-India Business Council
- ASEAN-India Economic Ministers’ Meetings
- ASEAN-India Trade Negotiating Committees
- ASEAN-India Working Group on Trade and Investment.
- ASEAN-India Working Group on Science and Technology
- ASEAN-India Technology Summit and Technology Platform (TSTP)

India Pakistan Relations

33. Indus Water Treaty

- Treaty was signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 with World Bank
as a mediator.
- India has exclusive right over the waters of Eastern Rivers : The Sutlej, Beas
and Ravi and their tributaries.
- Pakistan has right over Western Rivers : Indus, Jhelum and Chenab

33. Dispute over two dams :

- Baglihar Dam on the River Chenab
- Kishanganga Dam Dispute on the river Indus
34. Sir Creek Issue : Sir Creek is a 96 Km strip of water that is disputed between India and

© Saar Concepts
Pakistan in Run of Kutch Region of Gujrat. It divides the Kutch Region of Gujrat and
Sindh Province of Pakistan
Foreign Policy One Liners

36. India Nepal Relations :

- Indo Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship 1950
- Indo Nepal Treaty of Trade and Commerce 1950

There are at present two major multi purpose projects on the Agenda of the two
Countries :

37. Pancheshwar Multi Purpose Project

- The 1996 Mahakali Treaty between India and Nepal provide for the
implementation of the Pacheshwar Multipurpose Project.
- It is a power and irrigation project.

38. Sapta Kosi Sun Kosi Multipurpose Project

- Project located in Nepal and built on Kosi River of India and Sun Kosi river of
Nepal

39. Farakka Barrage Dispute (India – Bangladesh Dispute)

- The town of Farakka is in India on the river Ganges.
- The Farakka Barrage was created by India in 1975 to divert water from
Ganges river to the Bhagirathi Hoogly river system

40. New Moore Island Dispute

- South Talpatti or New Moore, was a small uninhabited offshore island
created in the Bay of Bengal, off the coast of Ganges-Brahamaputra Delta.
- The island emerged in 1970 after Bhola Cyclone but was later submerged

42. The Bangladesh Liberation War refers to the armed conflict between West Pakistan
and East Pakistan that lasted for nearly nine months in 1971.
- The War resulted in Bangladesh’s Independence from India

43. In 1970, the Awami League, the largest East Pakistani Party, led by Sheikh Mujibur
Rehman, Won a Landslide victory in national Election.
- His Party won 160 seats.
- National Assembly was having 300 Seats.
- Zulfikar Ali Bhutto did not allow Mujibur Rehman to become PM of
Pakistan

44. There was a clash between Pakistan Army and Mukti Bahini and the other forces
- The War ended on December 16, 1971. Lt Gen Niazi surrendered to the

© Saar Concepts
head of combined forces Lt. General Jagjit Singh Arora
- After the War, Shimla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan
Foreign Policy One Liners

45. Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) with Bangladesh has been a remarkable
achievement
- Parliament ratified LBA on June 2015.
- The legal exchange process involve 162 enclaves (111 Bangladeshi Enclave
and 51 Indian Enclave)

46. The Indo US Relations during the Cold War Era following World War II were not very
cordial
- US Administration had critical view of India’s Non Alignment Policy.
- Former US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles called the policy of NAM as
‘an immoral and shortsighted conception’

47. Indo US Nuclear Deal

- Indo US Nuclear Deal is also known as 123 Agreement.
- The framework of the agreement was a joint statement released by US
President Bush and Indian PM Manmohan Singh on July 18, 2005.

48. India agreed to to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear facilities as civilian and put these under
the permanent supervision of IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)
- USA agreed to work towards full Civil Nuclear Cooperation with India

49. The deal required :

- Amendment of US Domestic law : Atomic Energy Act of 1954
• Section 123 of this Act was ammended
- India-IAEA Safeguard Agreement
- Nuclear Supplier’s Group Waiver
© Saar Concepts
Foreign Policy One Liners

50. On August 1 IAEA Approved Safeguard Agreement with India.

- The 48 Nation member NSG granted the Waiver to India on September 6,
2008.
- India became the only country to get Waiver without signing NPT.

50. The US House of Representative passed the Bill on September 28, 2008.
- On October 1 US Senate also approved the Civilian Deal

51. On October 8, 2008, US President Bush signed the Indo Us Nuclear Deal
- The Agreement was then signed on 10 October by External Affair Minister
Pranab Mukherjee and US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice

53. India EU Relations can be traced back to 1960s.

54. During their Summit of September 7, 2005

- The EU and India adopted the India-EU Strategic Partnership Joint Action Plan
- They agreed to set up a High Level Trade Group to explore the potential of
more economic cooperation.
- The High level group reported in the 7th EU India Summit in Helsinki 2006.
It recommended for the establishment of Free Trade Area between India
and EU.

54. India has signed Bilateral Investment Protection Agreement (BIPA) with 16 of the 28
EU member states.

56. India has Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement with 18 out of 28 EU member states

54. During their Summit of September 7, 2005

54. India has signed Bilateral Investment Protection Agreement (BIPA) with 16 of the 28
EU member states.

56. India has Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement with 18 out of 28 EU member states

57. Exclusive Economic Zone

- An exclusive Economic Zone is a sea zone prescribed by 1982 United Nations
Convention on Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) over which a state has special right
regarding the exploration and use of marine resources.
- It stretches out to 200 Nautical Miles (nmi) from its sea coast (370 Km)
- Territorial Water ends at 12 nmi (22Km) from the coast line.
- India is trying to double its EEZ from 200 nmi 350 nmi

58. Belt and Road Initiative

- BRI is a development strategy adopted by Chinese Govt. involving
infrastructure development in 152 countries.
- Belt refers to overland roads and Road refers to sea routes.
- It was initiated was Chinese leader Xi Xinping in 2013. Target year of
of completion is 2049
© Saar Concepts
- Till 2016 it was known as ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative
Foreign Policy One Liners

59. String of Pearl theory

- String of pearl theory refers to the strategy of China under which it is building
deep water ports in Indian Ocean in order to encircle India
• Gwader Port Pakistan
• Habantota Sri Lanka
• Sittwe Port Myanmar
• Chittgong Port Bangladesh.

59. Project Mausam

- The Ministry of External Affairs has enunciated a new foreign policy initiative
called Project Mausam
- Its objective is to re establish communication between countries of Indian
Ocean. Focus is to establish cross cultural relationship among countries.

61. Asia Africa Growth Corridor

- It is an Economic cooperation Agreement between the Government of India,
Japan and Multiple African Countires.
- It was launched during the African Development Bank Annual Meeting in
Gandhi Nagar, Gujrat on May 16, 2017.

62. LEMOA
- It stands for Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement
- The Agreement was signed between India and USA in April 2016.
- This Agreement allows both countries to use each other’s bases for repair
and replenishment of Defense supplies.

63. Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)

- It is an inter governmental organization for regional cooperation established
by Coastal Regions bordering Indian Ocean.
- It was established in 6th March, 1997
- It has 22 members and 9 Dialogue Partners
- Its headquarter in at Ebene, Mauritious.

63. Jakarta Concord

- The Indian Ocean Rim Association Summit was held in Jakarta, Capital of
Indonesia from March 5 to 7, 2017
- 21 Member states issued a strategic vision document known as Jakarta Accord
- It sets out a vision strengthening the regional architecture of the organization

63. Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)

63. Jakarta Concord

Western Political Thought Updated
No ratings yet
Western Political Thought Updated
221 pages
Plato PPT by Dr. Lalnundika Hnamte
No ratings yet
Plato PPT by Dr. Lalnundika Hnamte
33 pages
PLATO
No ratings yet
PLATO
33 pages
Political Thought of Plato
No ratings yet
Political Thought of Plato
21 pages
Essay On Plato's Republic
No ratings yet
Essay On Plato's Republic
5 pages
Plato's Theory of Justice
No ratings yet
Plato's Theory of Justice
12 pages
Unit 3
No ratings yet
Unit 3
12 pages
PLATO On Justice
No ratings yet
PLATO On Justice
10 pages
1 Platoo, M. Usman-1
No ratings yet
1 Platoo, M. Usman-1
16 pages
Philosphy
50% (2)
Philosphy
8 pages
Critically Examine Plato's Theory of Justice
No ratings yet
Critically Examine Plato's Theory of Justice
3 pages
SEMINAL CONCEPTS (Philosophical Approach) The Republic by Plato Classical Natural Law
No ratings yet
SEMINAL CONCEPTS (Philosophical Approach) The Republic by Plato Classical Natural Law
10 pages
Plato's View On Justice
100% (1)
Plato's View On Justice
15 pages
Plato Final
No ratings yet
Plato Final
19 pages
Plato's Justice: Concepts & Critiques
No ratings yet
Plato's Justice: Concepts & Critiques
35 pages
The Concept of Justice According To Plato
No ratings yet
The Concept of Justice According To Plato
35 pages
Plato Theory of Justice and Machiavelli Prince
No ratings yet
Plato Theory of Justice and Machiavelli Prince
22 pages
Political Science Semester 1
No ratings yet
Political Science Semester 1
111 pages
Plato and Justice
No ratings yet
Plato and Justice
6 pages
Federal Urdu University (10 Year Papers) - Paper - I (Solved)
100% (1)
Federal Urdu University (10 Year Papers) - Paper - I (Solved)
41 pages
PSPA 1202 - Lesson 2 - Plato
No ratings yet
PSPA 1202 - Lesson 2 - Plato
4 pages
The Republic Study Guide
No ratings yet
The Republic Study Guide
6 pages
Political Thinkers
No ratings yet
Political Thinkers
79 pages
Piyush Sir Psir
No ratings yet
Piyush Sir Psir
79 pages
Plato's Republic: A Philosophical Guide
50% (2)
Plato's Republic: A Philosophical Guide
35 pages
PS1 Final
No ratings yet
PS1 Final
535 pages
Aristotle Thoery of Justice
No ratings yet
Aristotle Thoery of Justice
1 page
Plato
No ratings yet
Plato
5 pages
Plato Theory of Justice
No ratings yet
Plato Theory of Justice
8 pages
First Sem Plato
No ratings yet
First Sem Plato
22 pages
Political Science Notes
No ratings yet
Political Science Notes
36 pages
Plato's Unconventional Justice Theory
No ratings yet
Plato's Unconventional Justice Theory
6 pages
Politcal Socoilogy
No ratings yet
Politcal Socoilogy
11 pages
LegPhilo References Philosophers
No ratings yet
LegPhilo References Philosophers
14 pages
Laing ProblemJusticePlatos 1933
No ratings yet
Laing ProblemJusticePlatos 1933
11 pages
SLM - Ancient & Medieval Political Thought
No ratings yet
SLM - Ancient & Medieval Political Thought
28 pages
Lec 13
No ratings yet
Lec 13
36 pages
CAHN Political Philosophy - Richar KRAUT Platon Introduction PDF
0% (1)
CAHN Political Philosophy - Richar KRAUT Platon Introduction PDF
7 pages
Intro to Plato's Political Philosophy
No ratings yet
Intro to Plato's Political Philosophy
14 pages
PLATO by Institute For Humanities
No ratings yet
PLATO by Institute For Humanities
8 pages
Plato's Theory of Justice
100% (3)
Plato's Theory of Justice
11 pages
Week 1-Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
No ratings yet
Week 1-Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
32 pages
Western Pol Thought4921632880700
No ratings yet
Western Pol Thought4921632880700
86 pages
Theory of Justice
No ratings yet
Theory of Justice
22 pages
Plato Short Notes
100% (2)
Plato Short Notes
4 pages
03 August 2025
No ratings yet
03 August 2025
6 pages
PTOJ
No ratings yet
PTOJ
12 pages
Justice: Individual vs. State
No ratings yet
Justice: Individual vs. State
3 pages
Archaic & Ancient: Commented (GMML1)
No ratings yet
Archaic & Ancient: Commented (GMML1)
7 pages
Chapter7 1 Plato 230411022217 cdcccfb6
No ratings yet
Chapter7 1 Plato 230411022217 cdcccfb6
12 pages
Pol Science Paper 1
No ratings yet
Pol Science Paper 1
150 pages
The Concept of Justice According To Plat
No ratings yet
The Concept of Justice According To Plat
34 pages
Plato
No ratings yet
Plato
3 pages
Cambridge University Press, Royal Institute of Philosophy Philosophy
No ratings yet
Cambridge University Press, Royal Institute of Philosophy Philosophy
11 pages
Plato The Just City
No ratings yet
Plato The Just City
3 pages
Classical Pol Theory
No ratings yet
Classical Pol Theory
113 pages
Republic12 160316180933
No ratings yet
Republic12 160316180933
34 pages
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
No ratings yet
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
5 pages
02 The Kingdom, The Power and The Glory
No ratings yet
02 The Kingdom, The Power and The Glory
293 pages
Blocher8e EOC SM Ch10 Final
No ratings yet
Blocher8e EOC SM Ch10 Final
99 pages
Unit 4-Brontë-Jane Eyre
No ratings yet
Unit 4-Brontë-Jane Eyre
13 pages
I. Even-Zohar, G. Toury: Introduction To Translation Theory and Intercultural Relations
No ratings yet
I. Even-Zohar, G. Toury: Introduction To Translation Theory and Intercultural Relations
8 pages
Isal Ar Template (1) (1) (1) October
No ratings yet
Isal Ar Template (1) (1) (1) October
3 pages
BTBT Global Kã 2
No ratings yet
BTBT Global Kã 2
146 pages
Culture and Customs of Kenya: Neal Sobania
No ratings yet
Culture and Customs of Kenya: Neal Sobania
257 pages
World Legal Systems and Contracts For Oil and Gas November 2005 PDF
50% (2)
World Legal Systems and Contracts For Oil and Gas November 2005 PDF
6 pages
500 Logo Design Inspirations Download #1 - E-Book PDF
No ratings yet
500 Logo Design Inspirations Download #1 - E-Book PDF
52 pages
Aadhaar Card Details
No ratings yet
Aadhaar Card Details
1 page
Foreign Exchange Rate
No ratings yet
Foreign Exchange Rate
19 pages
PE2 Module 2
No ratings yet
PE2 Module 2
9 pages
Taxable Invoice: To: Mohmed Alatalah Mohmed Alatalah 00966593788116 00966593788116
No ratings yet
Taxable Invoice: To: Mohmed Alatalah Mohmed Alatalah 00966593788116 00966593788116
2 pages
Fasting To Get Results Emeka Anslem
No ratings yet
Fasting To Get Results Emeka Anslem
41 pages
Ancient Science of Mantras 1
No ratings yet
Ancient Science of Mantras 1
4 pages
Bem3063 - Topic 5 - Formulation Implementation and Roadmapping - Ele 110225
No ratings yet
Bem3063 - Topic 5 - Formulation Implementation and Roadmapping - Ele 110225
37 pages
IZ2.0 Standard Flat
100% (1)
IZ2.0 Standard Flat
321 pages
Kaizen Event Approach: A Case Study in The Packaging Industry
No ratings yet
Kaizen Event Approach: A Case Study in The Packaging Industry
31 pages
Management Principles Explained
No ratings yet
Management Principles Explained
15 pages
Australian English Phonology Guide
No ratings yet
Australian English Phonology Guide
13 pages
Prime Minister Signature Forgery Case Pune Court Judgement
No ratings yet
Prime Minister Signature Forgery Case Pune Court Judgement
45 pages
Construction Classification Table
90% (20)
Construction Classification Table
2 pages
Question 1
No ratings yet
Question 1
3 pages
Cadiente vs. Santos
100% (2)
Cadiente vs. Santos
2 pages
Movate Campus Hiring
No ratings yet
Movate Campus Hiring
3 pages
Republic Vs Alonte
No ratings yet
Republic Vs Alonte
7 pages
AccountStatement 22 JUL 2023 To 22 JAN 2024
No ratings yet
AccountStatement 22 JUL 2023 To 22 JAN 2024
32 pages
Sample Mla From Ms
No ratings yet
Sample Mla From Ms
5 pages
The Hound of The Baskervilles (Term 2) CHP 8& 9
No ratings yet
The Hound of The Baskervilles (Term 2) CHP 8& 9
1 page