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Aletta Wessels º Paarl 2015

SUMMARY
EM radiation and the photoelectric effect p. Study and Master

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

 Electromagnetic waves are produced when electric charges accelerate:

 The accelerating charges cause an oscillating (of changing) electrical
field (E).
 The wave is propagated through the electrical field which oscillates in
one dimension, induces a magnetic field (B) perpendicular to it. E field
 The magnetic field then induces an oscillating electrical field Direction of
perpendicular to it, etc. probagation
B field

 Electromagnetic waves:
 are transverse;
 can be propagated in vacuum; for electromagnetic
radiation is v = c
 all move at 3 x 10 m·s in vacuum;
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 obey the wave equation: v = f x ; v=fx 8

c = 3 x 10 m·s
-1

–9 –6
 Remember: 1 nm = 1 x 10 m; 1m = 1 x 10 m.

LIGHT IS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE


8 -1
The speed of all colours of light is 3 x 10 m·s .

 Colour is associated with frequency of light.


yellow

blue

violet
indigo
red

green
orange
Because all light travel at the same speed, the frequency is inversely
1
proportional to the wave length: For constant speed f ∝ .

 Red: low frequency, long wavelength;
 Blue: high frequency, short wavelength.

 Monochromatic light is light with a single wavelength. E.g. blue light is monochromatic.

 Because electromagnetic radiation undergoes interference and diffraction, it is proof that it is a wave.
 Diffraction: The bending of light behind an obstacle.
 Interference: Two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater amplitude (constructive)
or lower amplitude (destructive).

p. 307 PHOTONS

 Electromagnetic waves can also be considered as particles. We talk about the duality of light.

 Electromagnetic particles are ”packets of energy”, or quanta (singular is “quantum”). The packets of
light are called photons.

 The energy (E) of a photon is direct proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
–34
E∝f therefore E = hf with h = 6,63 x 10 J.s (Planck’s constant)

 Because E = hf and v = f x , energy can 𝒉𝒄

E=
be calculate directly from wave length: 
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THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Long wave length Short wave length

Low frequency High frequency
Low energy (E=hf) High energy
Low penetrating power Great penetrating power

Radio TV Micro wave Infra red Visible light Ultraviolet X-rays Gamma rays

red

green

indigo
orange

blue

violet
yellow
 You must know the sequence of the spectrum! Note that it is written in increasing frequency. The order
is reversed for increasing wave length.

p. 305 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

 The photoelectric effect: the process whereby electrons are ejected from a metal surface when light
of suitable frequency is incident on that surface

 The cutoff frequency (threshold frequency) (f0) : the Increasing energy

minimum frequency of light needed to emit electrons from a
certain metal surface.
f too low f high enough
 The cutoff wavelength (0) : the maximum wavelength of
light needed to emit electrons from a certain metal surface. λ too great λ small enough
NO EMISSION PHOTO EFFECT
 Note: the frequency needs to be greater than a minimum and CUTTOFF
the wavelength smaller than a maximum.

 The work function (W0): the minimum energy that an electron in the metal needs to be emitted from the
metal surface.
𝐡𝐜
in terms of frequency: W0 = hf0 in terms of wavelength: W0 =
𝟎

Emitted electrons are called photo electrons.

 Emission of electrons is only possible when:

 the frequency of the incident light ≥ the cutoff frequency of the metal (flight ≥ f0);
OR
 the energy of the photons ≥ the work function of the metal (Elight ≥ W 0).

Photo electrons are not emitted; the photoelectric effect does not take
E < W0 place. –

 Photo electrons are emitted; the photoelectric effect takes place.

E = W0 Ek = 0 J
 The photo electrons don’t have energy to move away from the
metal surface.

 Photo electrons are emitted; the photoelectric effect takes place.

E > W0 Ek = E – W0
 The excess energy becomes the kinetic energy of the electrons as
it move away from the surface of the metal.

 Increase the energy of the incident light by increasing the frequency:

 use another radiation on the electromagnetic radiation with higher frequency;
 change the colour of the light – e.g. use blue instead of red.
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 The photoelectric effect is investigated with a zinc plate on an electroscope:

UV UV white light bright white light UV

glass
zinc zinc zinc zinc
––––––– ++++++ ––––––– ––––––– ––––––– zinc

effect takes place no effect no effect no effect no effect

A B C D E

OBSERVATION EXPLANATION
A Gold leaf drops; The electroscope is negatively charged, the zinc thus has excess
∴ Photo effect takes place electrons. This is a favorable environment for emission of electrons.
The ultraviolet light (UV) frequency is higher than the cut–off frequency of
zinc.
B No photo effect Although the UV frequency is higher than the cutoff frequency,
photoelectric effect does not take place because the electroscope is
positively charged. Electrons are not emitted from a positive
environment.
C No photo effect The frequency of white light is lower than the cutoff frequency for zinc.
D No photo effect Although the brightness of the white light is increased, the photoelectric
effect does not take place, because frequency of white light is lower than
the cutoff frequency for zinc.
E No photo effect The glass prevents the photons to reach the metal.

p. 309 KINETIC ENERGY OF THE PHOTO ELECTRONS

 The maximum kinetic energy (Ek (max)) of the photo electrons are calculated by:

E = W0 + Ek(maks)

Energy of light (photons) Work function of metal Kinetic energy of electrons

2
E = hf W0 = hf0 EK(maks) = mv max

 The equation above can be written as follows: E = W0 + Ek(max)

2
hf = hf0 + mv max

𝐡𝐜 𝐡𝐜 2
= + mv max
 𝟎

 The velocity (v) of the photo electrons can be calculated with the maximum kinetic energy.
 The electron mass (m or me) is a constant and is found on the data sheet.
2 –31
EK(maks) = mv maks me = 9,11 X 10 kg

THE PHOTO DIODE light cathode

 The photoelectric effect can be used to convert light energy into e

–
electrical energy by shining light on a negative cathode and directing
the emitted photoelectrons towards a positive anode in a photo-
diode (see alongside). A
 Note: we use the electron current in the photo electric effect; not
the conventional current.
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p. 309 THE EFFECT OF INTENSITY

 If the photoelectric effect already takes place (E > W 0) and the intensity of the incident light is increased
 the number of photons per time unit that fall on the metal increases;
 then the number of electrons per time unit that are emitted unit increases.

 Therefore, an increase in intensity increases the current in a photo diode.

 The EK of electrons, however, remains unchanged.

 If the photoelectric effect does not take place with radiation (E < W 0), an increase in intensity of the
incident light does not cause emission of electrons. (Only an increase in frequency higher than f 0 will
emit electrons.)

The effect of increase in frequency and intensity of incident photons can be summarized as follows:

– –
e e e– with greater Ek
Suppose photons Increase – are released.
(with E > W0) falls on metal. frequency of light; e (Number of e–
Emission takes place. ∴ increase energy of emitted per time
photons. metal unit remains the
– same.)
e– e
e–

–
More e– are released
metal e– e – e– per time unit;
Increase –
e – e ∴ “stronger current”
intensity of light; e (Ek of e– remains the
∴ increase number of same.)
photons. metal

 When the photo electric effect already takes place the electric current can therefore be increased with an
increase in intensity:
𝐐
 I= ; ∴ the current is equal to the number of photo electrons (Q) emitted per time unit (△t).
𝚫𝐭

 If the photoelectric effect already takes place (E > W 0), an increase in the frequency of the light DOES
NOT increase the current. The strength of the current depends only on the rate at which photoelectrons
emitted.

GRAPHS

 Graph of frequency versus kinetic energy (frequency is independent variable):

E = W0 + Ek(max) y axis Ek(max)

x axis f
Arrange: Ek(max) = E – W0 gradient h
Ek(max) = h f – W0 x Cuts x axis when Ek = 0.
intercept ∴ x intercept = f0
Equation of a line: y = mx + c W 0 is also calculated from the
x intercept, as W0 = hf0
Ek(max) y  The graph is not drawn for
(of intercept f < f0, because at that
photons) positions Ek has no
meaning.
f (of light)  If the line is extended:
f0 “y incept” = –W 0.
 Note that the gradient of the line is Planck’s Ek(max)
constant; therefore the graphs of different metal (of
cathodes have equal gradients. (Each metal has photons)
its own cutoff frequency.
f (of light)
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 Graph of frequency versus kinetic energy (kinetic energy is the independent variable):

E = W0 + Ek(max) y axis f
∴ hf = hf0 + Ek(max) x axis Ek(max)
gradient 1/h
Arrange: hf = Ek(max) + hf0 y Cuts y axis when Ek = 0.
∴ f = 1/h Ek(max) + f0 intercept ∴ y intercept = f0
x If the line is extended:
Equation of a line: y = mx + c intercept “x intercept” = –W 0

f0

Ek(max) (of photons

fotone)
 In a photo diode:
Graph of intensity versus current: Graph of intensity versus kinetic energy:

I For radiation with f > f0 Ek

(current)

intensity intensity

p. 310 DUALITY OF LIGHT

 Evidence that light is a wave: diffraction and interference.

 Evidence that light is a particle: photoelectric effect.

p. 310 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

 The photoelectric effect is used in:

 Light meters in cameras which sense the amount of light available.
 Digital cameras and night vision equipment which converts light signals into electric signals.
 Photo–detectors used by astronomers to measure the faint light from distant stars.
 Solar cells which convert light energy into electric energy.

SPECTRA

ABSORPTION AND EMMISION

The following happens when light falls on an object. Photons (with energy (E = hf) falls in on the atoms in
the object and collide with the electrons in the atoms:
hf = E1 – E0

 Absorption takes place when an electron in its ground state E1 E1

absorbs the energy hf. The electron then moves to a higher absorpsion
E0 E0
energy level. The difference in energy between the two hf
levels equals the energy of the photon ground state exited
(hf = E1 – E0). The electron is now in an exited state.

 An atom cannot remain indefinitely in an exited state. After hf = E1 – E0

a while it will emit a photon of energy hf and the electron will E1 E1
return to it ground state. It is called emission.
emission
E0 E0
hf
exited ground state
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DEFINITIONS OF TYPES OF SPECTRA The definition of atomic emission spectrum is a general

definition. Always distinguish between CONTINUOUS
 There are 2 types of spectra: and LINE when a spectrum is to be identified.

1. An atomic emission spectrum is formed when certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation

are emitted due to an atom's electrons making a transition from a high-energy state to a lower energy
state.
2. An atomic absorption spectrum is formed when certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
that passes through a medium, e.g. a cold gas, is absorbed.

p. 315 ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA

 An atomic emission spectrum is formed when light from a light source (∴ hot object or vapour) passes
through a prism. The light is separated by the prism into its various frequencies.

 There are two types of atomic emission spectra:

 White light (e.g. from the sun) emits all frequencies. It forms a continuous emission spectrum.

orange

yellow

indigo
green

violet
blue
red
white light

 Coloured light (e.g. from a glowing element) emits only certain frequencies. It forms a line emission
spectrum.

hot sodium vapour

(yellow glow)

p. 318 ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

 An absorption spectrum is formed when white light which passes through a cold vapour, passes
through a prism.
 The cold vapour absorbs the frequencies it would have emitted if it was hot. It shows as black lines
on a continuous spectrum.
 The continuous spectrum is that of the white light that passed through the cold vapour.
orange

yellow

indigo
green

violet
blue
red

white light
cold
sodium vapour

 Every element has its own unique line emission and absorption spectrum.

 For every element the frequencies of the coloured lines in the line emission spectrum correspond with
the black lines in the absorption spectrum.

 Comparison of emission and absorption spectra:

p. 319 EMISSION ABSORPTION
 Formed by hot gases.  Formed by cold gases.
 Light photons are emitted by the gas.  Light photons are absorbed by the gas.
 Energy is released when electrons in the atom  Energy is absorbed when electrons in the
move from a high to a lower energy level. atom move from a low to a higher energy
level.
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p. 177 SPECTRA AND THE DOPPLER EFFECT

From the Doppler–effect summary:

 Stars are heavenly bodies that emit white light. Stars sometimes appear more bluish and reddish.

 Red shift:
 Light (or any electromagnetic radiation) emitted from objects moving in space displays the Doppler
Effect. The corresponding light waves reaching earth sometimes shows increasing wavelength (or
decreasing frequency). This is called the red shift. According to the Doppler effect, increase in
wave length corresponds to objects that are moving AWAY from the observer, in this case the earth.
 If a star moves away from the earth, it is observed that the frequency of light decreases, and the light
received on earth is redder in colour.

 Blue shift:
 Light (or any electromagnetic radiation) emitted from objects moving in space displays the Doppler
Effect. The corresponding light waves reaching earth sometimes shows decreasing wavelength (or
increasing frequency). This is called blue shift. According to the Doppler effect, shorter wave
length corresponds to objects that are moving TOWARDS the observer, in this case the earth.
 If a star moves towards the earth, it is observed that the frequency of the light increases, and the
light received on earth is bluer in colour.

 Spectra showing red and blue shift:

 For spectra drawn in increasing frequency:

Suppose the spectral lines of an Red Blue

element in a laboratory on earth
looks as follows:

RED SHIFT: Red Blue

Spectral lines of the same element
from a distant star moving AWAY
from the earth. Spectral lines shift towards the red side of the spectrum.

BLUE SHIFT: Red Blue

Spectral lines of the same element
from a distant star moving
TOWARDS the earth. Spectral lines shift towards the blue side of the spectrum.

 For spectra drawn in decreasing frequency:

Suppose the spectral lines of an Blue Red

element in a laboratory on earth
looks as follows:

RED SHIFT: Blue Red

Spectral lines of the same element
from a distant star moving AWAY
from the earth. Spectral lines shift towards the red side of the spectrum.

BLUE SHIFT: Blue Red

Spectral lines of the same element
from a distant star moving
TOWARDS the earth. Spectral lines shift towards the blue side of the spectrum.

 Because redshift is much more common than blue shift, it is a proof that the universe is expanding,
∴ the galaxies are moving further away from the earth. This means not only that the galaxies are
moving away from us through space, but that space itself expands: ∴ the space between galaxies is
expanding.
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SYMBOLS AND UNITS

energy of photons (E) joule (J) work function of metal (W) joule (J)
frequency (f) hertz (Hz) threshold frequency of metal (f0) hertz (Hz)
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velocity (v) ms kinetic energy (Ek) joule (J)
wave length () meter (m) mass (m) kilogram (kg)

IN PHYSICS
conventional  Circuits
current  Electrostatics
 Machines (motors and
generators)
super
NB!!
direction
electron– In PHYSICS
of curent current  Photoelectric effect

IN all CHEMISTRY
Electrochemical cells
(redox)