Inheritance

SCIENCE GRADE 9
 Introduction
Human traits and characteristics are inherited from
previous generations. That is, the nature and characteristics
of each person are inherited from their parents. The
inheritance is passed on through genetic material. The
father will pass on the genetic material through sperm cells,
while the mother through the egg or ovum. In inheritance,
there are dominant and recessive terms. Dominant trait is a
character that is able to cover other characters. While the
recessive trait is a characteristic that is covered. Dominant
genes are written in capital letters, while recessive genes are
written in lower case.
 Genetic Material
Genetic material or hereditary factors
are information that every cell of living things
has that can be passed on to their offspring.
Genetic material is composed of genes, nucleic
acids (DNA and RNA), and chromosomes. In
general, the entire genetic information that
determines the characteristics of living things
is stored in DNA which is located in the nucleus
of the cell.
 Chromosome
Chromosomes are fine thread-like objects
that easily absorb color and function as carriers of
heredity. In a diploid cell, the chromosomes appear
in pairs. A pair of chromosomes is called a
homologous chromosome, that is, chromosomes
that have the same shape, size, and gene sequence.
Meanwhile, chromosomes that are not paired are
called non-homologous chromosomes. Each
chromosome has parts such as centromere,
chromatids, chromomeres, telomeres, and satellites.
 Chromosome
● Centromere
The central part of the chromosome which is usually
round. At the centromere there is a kinetochore which has
an important function during cell division. It is at this point
that the spindle thread is attached to each of the
opposite poles.
● The chromatid is one of the two replicated arms of
the chromosome. On the arm of the chromosome
there is a chromonema, which is a spiral-shaped band.
The chromonema is covered by a special substance
called a matrix. The chromatids are attached to each
other at the centromere.
Chromosome
● Telomere is a term used to denote the ends of
chromosomes. Telomeres have a function to
protect chromosomes from environmental
threats.

● Chromomeres are bead-shaped structures that

are accumulations of chromatin material that is
sometimes seen during interphase.
Chromosome
● Satellites are parts of chromosomes that are
spherical in shape and are located at the ends of
the arms of the chromatids. Satellites are formed
due to secondary constriction in that area.
Chromosome
Among many organisms that have separate sexes,
there are two basic types of chromosomes: gonosomes
(sex chromosomes) and autosomes. Autosomes control the
inheritance of all the characteristics except the sex-linked
ones, which are controlled by the sex chromosomes.
Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex
chromosomes.
 DNA
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a
nucleic acid which is a constituent of
genes in the cell nucleus.
 DNA
DNA stores all the biological information of
every living thing and some viruses. DNA consists of
two polynucleotide chains arranged in a double helix.
Each nucleotide consists of three components, namely
a phosphate, a deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous
base. There are two kinds of nitrogenous bases that
make up DNA, namely purine bases consisting of
adenine (A) and guanine (G) bases and pyrimidine
bases consisting of thymine (T) and cytosine (S)
bases.
 RNA
RNA or ribonucleic acid is a polynucleotide
macromolecule in the form of single or double chains
that are not twisted. The chains in RNA are also short,
because they are formed through transcription of
DNA fragments. RNA is mostly found in the cytoplasm
or ribosomes. In contrast to DNA, the presence of RNA
in the cell is not fixed because it is easily decomposed
and must be reshaped. RNA is composed of many
ribonucleotides, where each ribonucleotide consists of
3 components, namely phosphate, ribose sugar, and
nitrogenous base.
 Gene
Gene is the smallest unit of genetic material
that controls the hereditary traits of organisms.
Genes consist of DNA spun by histone proteins and
arranged in a linear and orderly sequence in loci on
chromosomes. Each chromosome has hundreds of
loci, so that in a cell, there are thousands of genes.
 Mendel's Laws of Inheritance
Inheritance can be defined as the process of how a
child receives genetic information from the parent. The whole
process of heredity is dependent upon inheritance and it is the
reason that the off-springs are similar to the parents. This
simply means that due to inheritance, the members of the
same family possess similar characteristics.

It was only during the mid 19th century that people

started to understand inheritance in a proper way. This
understanding of inheritance was made possible by a scientist
named Gregor Mendel, who formulated certain laws to
understand inheritance known as Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Mendel’s Experiments
 Mendel’s Experiments
Between 1856-1863, Mendel
conducted the hybridization experiments
on the garden peas. During that period,
he chose some distinct characteristics of
the peas and conducted some cross-
pollination/ artificial pollination on the
pea lines that showed stable trait
inheritance and underwent continuous
self-pollination. Such pea lines are called
true-breeding pea lines.
 Why was Pea Plant Selected for Mendel’s Experiments?
He selected a pea plant for his experiments:

➢ The pea plant can be easily grown and maintained.

➢ They are naturally self-pollinating but can also be cross-
pollinated.
➢ It is an annual plant, therefore, many generations can be
studied within a short period of time.
➢ It has several contrasting characters.

Mendel conducted 2 main experiments to determine the

laws of inheritance. These experiments were:
1) Monohybrid Cross Experiment
2) Dihybrid Cross Experiment
 Monohybrid Cross
In this experiment, Mendel took two pea plants of
opposite traits (one short and one tall) and crossed them.
He found the first generation offsprings were tall and
called it F1 progeny. Then he crossed F1 progeny and
obtained both tall and short plants in the ratio 3:1.

Mendel even conducted this experiment with other

contrasting traits like green peas vs yellow peas, round vs
wrinkled, etc. In all the cases, he found that the results
were similar. From this, he formulated the laws of
Segregation And Dominance.
Monohybrid Cross
𝑃1 : TT X tt → Genotype
(Tall) (Dwarf) → Phenotype
Gametes : T and T t and t

𝐹1 : Tt (tall) Tt (Tall)

𝑃2 : Tt (tall) X Tt (Tall)
Gametes : T and t T and t
𝐹2 :
T t
T TT (tall) Tt (tall)
t Tt (tall) tt (dwarf)
Genotypic ratio = TT : Tt : tt
1 : 2 : 1

Phenotypic ratio = Tall : Dwarf

3 : 1
 Incomplete Dominance
The phenomenon in which two true-breeding parents
crossed to produce an intermediate offspring (also known as
heterozygous) is called incomplete dominance. It is also referred to
as partial dominance or intermediate inheritance.
Carl Correns performed an experiment on four o’clock
flowers. He took two true-breeding flower traits (red color as
dominant allele and white color as a recessive allele) of four o’clock
flowers and crossed them. The results show an intermediate
heterozygote with pink color flowers (none of the alleles get
dominant). This situation in inheritance is known as incomplete
dominance.
 Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete dominance examples include Pink flowers
of four o’clock flowers (Mirabilis jalapa), and physical
characteristics in humans, such as hair color, hand sizes, and
height.
For F2 generation, the heterozygotes are crossed to see the respective
phenotypes.
Dihybrid Cross
In a dihybrid cross experiment, Mendel
considered two traits, each having two alleles. He
crossed wrinkled-green seed and round-yellow seeds
and observed that all the first generation progeny (F1
progeny) were round-yellow. This meant that dominant
traits were the round shape and yellow colour.

He then self-pollinated the F1 progeny and

obtained 4 different traits wrinkled-yellow, round-
yellow, wrinkled-green seeds and round-green in the
ratio 9:3:3:1.
In cats, the allele for grey fur (G) is dominant over the allele
for beige fur (g). The allele for a solid coat (S) is dominant
over the allele for a striped coat (s). A pure breeding solid,
beige cat is crossed with a pure breeding striped, grey cat.
a) State the genotype and the phenotype of the F1
individuals produced as a result of this cross.
b) Calculate the phenotypes resulting from a cross between
a pure breeding solid, beige cat and an F1 offspring.
A long neck yellow giraffe (T t Y y), mates with a short
neck orange giraffe (t t y y). Show the test cross!
Answer
P: TtYy X ttyy
Gametes: TY, Ty, tY, ty ty, ty, ty, ty
F:

TY Ty tY ty

TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy

ty

TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy

ty

TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy

ty

TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy

ty
Genotypic ratio = TtYy : Ttyy : ttYy : ttyy
1 : 1 : 1 : 1

Long neck yellow : 4

Long neck orange : 4
Short neck yellow : 4
Short neck orange : 4

Phenotypic ratio = 1 : 1 : 1 : 1
Conclusions from Mendel’s Experiments
❑ The genetic makeup of the plant is known as the
genotype. On the contrary, the physical appearance of
the plant is known as phenotype
❑ The genes are transferred from parents to the offsprings
in pairs known as allele.
❑ During gametogenesis when the chromosomes are
halved, there is a 50% chance of one of the two alleles to
fuse with the other parent.
❑ When the alleles are the same, they are known as
homozygous alleles and when the alleles are different
they are known as heterozygous alleles.
 Inheritance of Traits in Humans
Traits in humans are passed on to their offspring following
certain inheritance patterns. These traits include physical,
physiological, and psychological. Physical properties are the visible
state of the body, for example, the shape of the nose and lips.
Physiological properties are the work of body physiology, for
example, allergies and hormones. Psychological traits are
psychological traits of a person that are visible and easy to observe.
In humans, it is known that there are quite a number of
inherited traits, such as skin color, the shape of hair growth on the
forehead, hair shape, the type of attachment of the ear lobes, and
the tongue can roll.
 Skin color and hair shape
Skin color is coded by many
genes, such as genes A, B, and C.
These genes code for the formation of
skin pigment (melanin).
Hair type in humans is
controlled by genes C and c. Gene C
(dominant) codes for curly hair, while
gene c (recessive) codes for straight
hair. In the inheritance of this hair type,
it is known that there is incomplete
dominance.
 Earlobe sticks and hangs
This type of earlobe attachment is also controlled by genes, namely
the G gene for hanging earlobe and G gene for attached earlobe. So,
someone who has the G gene (either GG or Gg genotype) will have a
hanging ear lobe type, while someone with an attached lobe type has the
gg gene.
Genes and Inherited Diseases
Since genes are passed from parent to child, any
changes to the DNA within a gene are also passed. DNA
changes may also happen spontaneously, showing up for
the first time within the child of unaffected parents. This is
referred to as a new mutation, where the word mutation
means change.
When a disorder is dominant, the disease can
occur when there are DNA mistakes in only one of the
two gene copies. This means that if a parent has the DNA
change, there is a 50-50 chance that it will be passed on
to each child.
Genes and Inherited Diseases
When a disorder is recessive, there must be
mistakes in both copies of the gene for the disorder to
occur. This means that both parents must carry at least
one copy of the specific gene change in order to produce
an affected child.
Some disorders that are inherited from parents
are albinism, color blindness and hemophilia.
 Albinism
Albinism is a disorder caused by the
absence of a pigment called melanin.
Melanin pigment serves to protect the skin
from ultraviolet rays. The absence of skin
pigment makes sufferers more susceptible
to skin cancer and the skin is prone to
blisters due to exposure to sunlight. The
gene that causes this disorder is recessive
(gene a). People who suffer from this
disorder have a homozygous recessive
genotype (aa), while normal people have a
homozygous dominant genotype (AA) while
those who are carriers have a heterozygous
genotype (Aa).
Color Blindness
Basically the eye has
special nerve cells
containing pigments
that react to color and
light. In someone who
suffers from color
blindness, the pigment
cells are damaged or
do not function, so the
eye cannot detect
certain colors or even
all colors.
 Color Blindness
Color blindness is a disorder caused by the inability of the
eye cone cells to perceive a certain color spectrum caused by
genetic factors. This disorder is often also called sex linked,
because this disorder is carried by the X chromosome. This means
that the Y chromosome does not carry the color blind factor. This
is what distinguishes color blind people in men and women. A
woman has the term 'carrier of traits', this indicates that there is
one X chromosome that carries the trait of color blindness.
Women with the trait, physically do not experience color blindness
as normal women in general, but women with the trait have the
potential to pass the color blindness factor on to their children in
the future. If both X chromosomes contain color blindness, then a
woman is color blind.
Color Blindness
Symptoms of color blindness are basically divided into three
types, namely red-green, blue-yellow, and total. Each type has a
different symptom character.

1. Red-green color blindness

Some of the characteristics that can be experienced by people

with red-green color blindness:

● Yellow and green look red.

● Orange, red, and yellow look like green.
● Red looks like black.
● Red looks tawny, and green looks like beige.
Color Blindness
2. Blue-yellow color blindness:
This type also includes partial color blindness and has
the following characteristics:
● Blue looks greenish, and it's hard to tell pink from yellow
and red.
● Blue looks like green, and yellow looks like light gray or
purple.

3. Total color blindness

Unlike the two types above, someone who suffers from
total color blindness has difficulty distinguishing all colors. Even
some sufferers can only see white, gray, and black.
 Hemophilia
Hemophilia is a disease that is passed
down from parents to child when the child is
born. Blood in a patient with hemophilia does
not clot by itself normally. The process of
blood clotting in patients with this disease is
not as fast as normal people. Patients with
hemophilia usually experience bleeding
disorders under the skin. For example,
bruises if there is a slight impact, or bruises
that arise by themselves when the patient
does strenuous activities. Another example is
swelling in joints such as knees, ankles, or
elbows.
Inheritance Of Traits In Plant Breeding
Have you ever heard of hybrid soybean, hybrid
rice or hybrid corn varieties? Hybrid variety is a type of
plant that is the offspring of a cross between two or more
types of plants that have different genetic characteristics.
This cross is of course also based on the discoveries
made by Mendel about the laws of inheritance. This
hybrid variety is made to take advantage of the
emergence of a good combination of parents crossed.
Hybrid rice can produce more rice than rice in general, is
more resistant to dry land, fluffier, more fragrant, and
faster to harvest.
Inheritance Of Traits In Animal Breeding
Inheritance also plays an important role in animal
breeding, namely in order to produce high-quality
livestock, for example poultry that are able to produce
many eggs or cows with good quality milk and meat.
While the method applied to animals is known as "the
way to get superior seeds". The way to get superior seeds
in animals is in principle a cross between two individuals
of different races/varieties but still in the same species.
This technique is carried out in order to obtain a
homozygous superior type/pure line by crossing two
varieties, each of which has superior characteristics.
Madrasin Cow
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