EMG 4108 PRODUCTION TECHNOLGY I

CHAPTER ONE: POWDER METULLURGY

Introduction
Some materials are generally very hard, e.g. tungsten carbide and convectional machining methods
would be inappropriate. Refractory materials have very high melting points, rendering them unsuitable
for casting. Examples of powder metallurgy products include carbide tools, oil-less bearings, grinding
wheels, clutch plates. Some parts come with complex shapes whose production with conventional
methods would be very expensive. This makes the production method of choice to be through powder
metallurgy.

This is a process where fine powdered materials are blended and pressed into desired shapes, i.e.
compacted and then heated in a controlled atmosphere (sintered) at a temperature below the melting
point of the major constituent. The material is held at this temperature for a sufficient period of time so
as to bond the contacting surfaces of the particles and establish the desired mechanical properties.

Basic processes
Four main processes are generally identified.

a) Powder manufacture (this can be mechanical e.g. grinding, chemical e.g. oxides and acid
reduction, electrolysis, etc)

b) Mixing/blending

c) Compacting to the desired shape and density

d) Sintering – the compact is heated in a controlled environment to ensure there is bonding of the
powder particles.

Powder manufacture methods

Powder metallurgy products have properties highly dependent on the powder material used. Important
powder properties include chemistry and purity, particle size and shape, size distribution and surface
texture of the particles. These properties will depend on the powder production process among other
factors.

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a) Melt atomization

This method mainly involves molten metal that is atomized by a stream of impinging gas/liquid as it
passes through an orifice. The method is illustrated in fig1.1 below. Melt atomization is mainly used in
producing pre-alloyed powders.

Fig1.1. Melt atomization

b) Rotating consumable electrode atomization

In this method, an electric arc impinges on a rapidly rotating electrode in a chamber purged with an
inert gas. The method is illustrated in figure 1.2.

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Other methods of powder production include reduction of compounds (e.g. oxides and ores),
electrolytic deposition from solutions or fused salts.

Powder testing and evaluation

In addition to evaluation of bulk chemistry, size, shape, surface texture and internal structure, metal
powders must also be evaluated for their suitability for further processing. The following key parameters
are evaluated.

a) Flow rate

This is a measure of the ease by which powder can be fed and distributed in a die. It influences the cycle
time of the pressing operation hence affecting the production rate. Poor flow characteristics can result
in pyramiding effect under the nozzles, necessitating the use of multiple feed nozzles or vibration
operation before pressing.

b) Apparent density.

This is a measure of the powders ability to fill available spaces without application of external presuure.

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c) Compressibility tests.

These tests evaluate the effectiveness of applied pressure in raising the density of the powder.

d) Green strength

This is the strength of the pressed powder immediately after pressing. The green compact should be
strong enough to maintain surface finish and sharpness to detail during ejection from the compaction
die and allow for subsequent transfer to the sintering furnace.

Powder mixing and blending

It is very rare to obtain all the required characteristics in a single powder. Therefore, the starting
material is usually a mixture of various grades/sizes of powders (with additions of binders and lubricants
if required). Theoretically, a mixture of various sizes should flow and compact into higher density. It
would be expected that the smaller particles would fit in the spaces between the larger particles.
However, the smaller particles tend to segregate during handling and pouring. It is therefore desirable
to use powders of approximately uniform size.

Depending on the requirements, desired characteristics can be obtained by combining pure metals with
n on metals instead of using pre-alloyed powders. This way, unique composites can be produced, such
as the intimate distribution of immiscible reinforcement material in a matrix or combination of metals
and non-metals in a single product, e.g. tungsten carbide- cobalt matrix cutting tool. Graphite powder
can play a double role: lubricant during compacting and a source of carbon as it alloys with metal during
the sintering. Lubricants such as graphite or stearic acid improve flow characteristics and compressibility
but at the expense of the green strength. Binders produce the opposite effect t.

Compacting
The loose powder is compressed and densified into a shape, referred to as the green compact. When
the die cavity is filled uniformly with the powder, it gives a certain packing density as shown in fig 1.3

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During compacting, a single or a double acting press can be used as illustrated in fig 1.4 and 1.5 below.

In compacting, high product density, and uniformity of the density are the desirable characteristics. The
green strength should e sufficient to enable handling of the compact and transfer to the sintering

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furnace. Compaction presses can be mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic or combinations. During
compacting, frictional forces are encountered in the following areas:

a) Between the die surface and the particles

b) Between the punch and the particles

c) Between the particles

d) Between punch and die.

Usually the powder flows into the die cavity through gravity. The amount is controlled through weighing
or the powder is pre-formed in a tablet making machine. The powder compacts until an equal and
opposite force is developed by friction between the particles and the die surface. For single punch, high
density is attained just below the punch and decreases further down. This wide variation in density can
be addressed through the use of a double acting press, where the density is more uniform, and thicker
products can be compacted. Since side wall friction is a key factor in compaction, the resulting green
density is a function of both thickness and width of the part to be pressed. The thickness to width ratio,
(t/w) should be less than 2.0 whenever possible. Above 2.0, the products tend to exhibit very large
variations in density. Since the product density is a function of the thickness, in single punch pressing, it
is impossible to obtain uniform density in a multi-thickness component, as shown in fig1.6.

Fig 1.6: compaction of a multi-thickness component

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To obtain uniform density in multi-thickness components, more complicated presses, as shown in fig 1.7
are used. This increases the cost of production, and generally, if possible, multi thickness products
should be avoided in powder metallurgy.

Fig 1.7. Multi-punch compaction

Density uniformity can also be improved by using lubricants, but this reduces the green strength. For
very complicated shapes, the powder is encapsulated in a flexible rubber mold and immersed in a
pressurized gas or liquid chamber (i.e. iso-static compaction). This method has very low production rates
but larger parts can be produced.

Dies
Since the powders are abrasive at high pressures, this results in high wear of the die walls. Therefore,
dies are made of hardened tool steel. For particularly abrasive powders or high volume production,
cemented carbides are used.

Powder metallurgy injection molding

In this method, the metal powder is mixed with a thermoplastic material, then heated to a paste like
consistency. This is then fed into a mold cavity under the required conditions of pressure and
temperature to assure die filling. The binder is then removed either through solvents or controlled
heating to above the volatization temperature. The parts are then sintered to attain the final size and
properties. Die design and manufacture is generally costly and are justified by the volumes of
production. The relatively high density and close tolerances, makes the process desirable.

Sintering
The compacts are subjected to elevated temperatures at controlled atmospheric environment.
Generally, sintering is done at 70-80% of the melting point, while refractory materials may require

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temperatures up to 90%. When the powder consists of more than one material, the temperature may e
beyond the melting point of some of the constituents. In this case, the lower melting point materials
flow into the voids of the higher melting point material. Generally, sintering has three main stages:

a) Burn-off zone (purge chamber). This zone entails the controlled gradual heating to combust air
and volatize lubricants and binders. Rapid heating would result in high internal pressures from the
trapped air in pores and volatizing lubricants resulting in compacts swelling or fracturing. If the compact
has sufficient amounts of volatile materials, their removal will result in a porous/permeable product.
This feature is used in producing porous powder metallurgy products such as metal filters

b) High temperature zone. This is where the actual solid state diffusion and bonding between the
powder particles takes place. The compact is allowed sufficient time to produce the desired properties.

c) Cooling zone. The component is cooled in controlled conditions to prevent oxidation and
thermal shock if uncontrolled cooling is adopted.

The three zones described must operate in a controlled protective environment. Otherwise, at elevated
temperatures, rapid oxidation would occur, comprising the properties of the products. Reducing
atmospheres based on hydrogen or dissociated ammonia are preferred since they can reduce any oxide
already present on the particle surfaces and combust harmful gases that may be liberated during
sintering. The three zones are illustrated in fig 1.8 below.

During sintering, changes that may occur include:

a) inter-metallic bonds between powder particles as a result of atomic diffusion.

b) If the powders are of different chemical properties, diffusion may result in formation of alloys or
inter-metallic phases.

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c) The increase in density also results in dimensional decrease (this is compensated in the design
phase)

Pre-Sintering
Powder metallurgy is used to produce parts from materials that are hard to machine. If some machining
is required, it is often made easier through pre-sintering. In this process, the compact is heated to a
temperature lower than the final sintering temperature, and for a shorter duration of time. This
increases the strength to permit machining. After machining, final sintering is done to attain the final
properties.

Hot-isostatic pressing (HIP)

This process combines compacting and sintering processes. The powder is sealed in an air-tight
evacuated flexible container, then subjected to high pressures and temperatures. The product is then
ejected at final density with uniform isotropic properties, superior to other processes. Close tolerances
can be achieved, eliminating the need for machining and material waste. Since powder is totally isolated
and compaction and sintering is done as one process, the method is suitable for reactive and brittle
materials.

Limitations of HIP

a) High cost of containing the powder in the flexible containers

b) Long period for the HIP cycle, resulting in low production rates.

c) Higher cost of the equipment used.

Other methods of producing high density powder metallurgy parts.

a) High temperature forming methods-rods, wires and small billets are produced by hot extrusion
of encapsulated powder or pressed and sintered slugs

b) Powder metallurgy forging- this method is used to produce complex shapes from canned
powder or sintered pre-forms.

c) ceracon process- a heated pre-form is totally surrounded by hot granular material that can
transmit pressure in a pseudo-uniform manner. The entire assembly is then compacted in a
hydraulic press. Since no gas or liquid is involved, encapsulation of the pre-form is not required.
Cycle times for this method are extremely short and the granular material can be re-used as it
readily separates from the product.

d) Osprey process – in this method, molten metal is atomized and propelled toward shaped
collector molds by streams of inert gas (nitrogen or carbon dioxide can also be used). Cooling of
the droplets is controlled, such that they strike the mold in a semi solid state and raiply freeze.
The process differs from either fill casting or conventional powder metallurgy in that the
structure exhibits uniform grain size, uniform chemistry and minimal porosity.

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Secondary operations
For most applications, the powder metallurgy product is ready after sintering. However, in some
instances the following processes may be required.

a) Repressing/coining (sizing)

This is a second pressing process. The part is placed in a die and subjected to pressures equal to
or greater than the initial pressing pressure. This results in some plastic flow improving the
product with respect to size and sharpness to detail. It may also be done to increase strength
and is usually done cold.

b) Powder metallurgy forging

This is similar to coining but with larger deformations. The powder metallurgy part is used as a
pre-for which is finished though forging to produce more complex shapes. The forging process
also increases the density of the product, sometimes up to 99% of the solid metal.

c) Impregnation and infiltration

Impregnation is forcing oil or other liquid into the press, either through immersing the part in a
bath and applying pressure or through the combination of pressure-vacuum process. This is
mainly used in oil impregnated bearings, where the bearing has 10-40% oil by volume. This oil is
slowly released during the service life of the bearing in response to the applied loads and
temperatures.

In case the porous nature of powder metallurgy products is undesirable, the product may be
subjected to metal infiltration. In this process, a molten metal with a lower melting point than
the powder metallurgy constituents is forced into the product under pressure or absorbed by
capillary action.

d) Heat treatment/machining/surface treatment

If the product has been metal impregnated/infiltrated, conventional techniques can be used.
However, for low density parts, care should be exercised. During heat treatment, protective
atmospheres are required and the right quenchers used.

Properties of powder metallurgy products

These properties depend on many variables such as types and size of powder, amount and type of
lubricant, pressing pressure, sintering temperature, duration and environment finishing treatment, etc.
The products vary from low density highly porous parts with low tensile strength to very high density
(close to the solid metal) with high tensile strength. Since the mechanical properties are greatly
dependent on density, powder metallurgy parts are designed to possess the desired properties with
anticipated amount of final porosity. Physical properties are also affected by porosity. Corrosion
resistance is reduced due to the fissures/pores. Electrical, thermal and magnetic properties also vary
with density. However, porosity promotes good sound and vibration damping.

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Design of powder metallurgy parts
Powder metallurgy is a unique production method and this uniqueness should be taken into
consideration during the design. Among others, the following considerations should be taken into
account during design

a) The shape of the part should permit ejection from the die

b) The design should avoid the need for the powder to flow in thin walls, narrow splines, or sharp
corners.

c) Part shape should be able to accommodate the required tooling.

d) Part shape should have allowance for thickness reduction during compacting.

e) Changes in section thickness should be avoided.

f) Design should consider available equipment in terms of capacity, sizes, etc.

g) Product tolerances-higher precision should be in the radial direction (set by the die) other than
the axial direction (set by the punch).

h) Design should consider dimensional changes that occur after pressing eg shrinkage during
sintering.

N
ote: since uniform strength requires uniform density, parts should ideally be designed with
uniform cross-section and short length compared to the cross-section dimension. Design should
not have holes whose axes are perpendicular to the direction of pressing. Stepped diameters,
grooves and undercuts should be eliminated. Abrupt changes in section, narrow deep flutes,
internal flutes without generous fillets should be avoided. Straight knurls are acceptable while
diamond knurls are not. Fig 1.9 illustrates some poor and good powder metallurgy parts design.

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Powder metallurgy products
Five distinct groups are identified.

a) Porous or permeable products

These include bearings, filters and pressure/flow regulators. Oil impregnated bearings used in
household/automotive applications are also included in this group.

b) Complex shapes requiring a lot of machining if made otherwise. Powder metallurgy cuts the cost
of production e.g. large number of small gears, cams, pawls, etc.

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c) Materials difficult to machine or with very high melting points e.g. tungsten carbide cutting
tools.

d) Products requiring unique properties of more than one material e.g. in electrical applications
where copper and graphite are used in motor brushes (graphite is a solid lubricant, copper a
good conductor of electricity), bearings made of copper/iron.

e) Products whose properties will be enhanced through powder metallurgy technology. E.g in
powder metallurgy magnets, a magnetic can be used to align particles before sintering.

Characteristics and testing of powders and powder metallurgy parts

The economic processing and manufacture of powder metallurgy parts depend on the chemical, and
physical properties of the powder

Characteristics of metal powders

i) Chemical composition and purity

ii) Particle size and distribution

iii) Particle shape

iv) Particle porosity

v) Particle super structure and microstructure.

Particle size
Particle size is determined through the use of standard sieves. The size of the powder is defined by the
size of the screen/sieve that just retains or passes the particles. Three distinct classes are identified.

i) ‘Sieve’ (44 µm) this is used for general application

ii) ‘Sub-sieve’ (between 1 µm and 44 µm) this is used in making refractory powder metallurgy
products. e.g. hard carbides and magnetic cores

iii) Sub-micron (less than 1 µm) this finds application in making high temperature alloy bearings
and micro-porous components.

Particle shape
The powder particles may take such shapes as spherical, rounded, droplets, angular, dendritic, flakes,
irregular, e.t.c. as shown in fig 1.10.

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The shape greatly affects packing of powder and influences compacting and sintering characteristics. It
also affects the mechanical strength of the particles. Different particle shapes can be obtained from the
same material depending on the powder production method. Microscopes can be used to determine
the shape. The shape can be described by the use of shape factor, as shown in fig 1.11.

Microstructure
To test the microstructure, a small amount of the metal powder is mixed with an epoxy resin in
container. On hardening, the part is removed, sectioned, ground and polished. The surface is then
examined for the microstructure.

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Specific surface
This is the surface area per unit weight. It mainly depends on particle size, shape, density and surface
conditions. This property influences the contact between metal particles, hence compacting and
sintering. High specific surface results in high sintering rates with increased entrapment of air, resulting
in cracking of compacts before or during sintering.

Apparent density
This is the mass per unit volume of the loose/unpacked powder. It depends on particles’ chemical
composition, particle size shape, size distribution and method of powder manufacture. It generally
decreases with decreased particle size.

Tap density
This is the density of the powder after mechanically shaking. The shaking is usually done when storing
the powders.

Flow rate
This the rate at which the powder will flow under gravity from a container with an orifice of specified
shape and size. The higher the flow rate, the higher the production rate.

Properties of powders
a) Compressibility
This is a measure of the ability of the powder to deform into shape under applied pressure. It is
defined as any of the following the ratios

𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡

i) 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑒𝑟

ii) ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑒𝑟

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑒

iii) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡

maximum compression ratio is given by

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Compressibility varies between 2 and 8, but a value of 3 is generally preferred. Higher ratios would
require more robust dies and associated tooling resulting in increased cost of production.

b) Compactability
This the ratio of the pressure used to the green strength of the compact. It is defined as the
minimum pressure required to produce a compact of given strength.

Note: both compactability and compressibility are dependent on particle size, shape, density and
hardness.

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c) Green density
This is ratio of the mass to the volume of the compact. It increases with:-

i) increased compaction pressure.

ii) decreased particle hardness

iii) decreased compacting speed.

d) Green strength
This is the mechanical strength of the green compact, immediately after compaction. It can be
determined in the following ways:-

i) Bend test

A standard test specimen is loaded as shown in fig1.12. The standard method specifies
the dimensions of the specimen, compaction pressure, loading points etc.

The specimen is loaded until failure. The strength is given as

3𝑊𝐿
𝑆=
2𝐵𝑇 2

Where S = strength
W = load
L = distance between supports
T = beam thickness

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 ii) Radial crush test

This is carried out on tubular specimens as illustrated in fig1.13

𝐾𝐿𝑡 2
The crushing strength, Sc is 𝑆𝑐 = 𝐷−𝑡

Where K = Strength constant

L = length
D = diameter
t = thickness

iii) Dimensional changes during sintering

This the measure of shrinkage during sintering, defined as

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡

𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∗ 100%
𝑈𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

The test is carried out on a specimen compacted and sintered under standard conditions

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iv) Porosity

This a measure of volume of voids in the component in comparison to the solid material.

Fractional porosity, P is defined as

𝜌𝑤
𝑃 =1−
𝜌𝑠

Where ρw = density of sintered part

ρs = density of solid material

Advantages and limitations of powder metallurgy

Advantages
a) Elimination/reduction of waste- the dimensional accuracy achieved with powder metallurgy
reduces or completely eliminates the need for further machining with the associated elimination
of waste.

b) Higher production rates- powder metallurgy processes are simple and easily automated. This
results in low labor costs, improved product uniformity and high production rates.

c) Production of complex shapes – Complex shapes eg cams, gears, etc can easily be made through
powder metallurgy techniques.

d) Possibility of wide variation in compositions e.g. metals and non metals (such as ceramics) can
be readily mixed. Immiscible materials can also be combined. The homogeneity of powder
metallurgy products generally exceeds that of competing techniques.

e) Wide variation in properties. Powder metallurgy products vary from low density to high density.
Damping of noise and vibration and easy to manipulate in powder metallurgy.

f) Reduction/elimination of scrap.

Powder metallurgy techniques can be used without any generation of scrap. This results in the
reduction of the cost of production.

Limitations
a) Lower mechanical properties

Generally, powder metallurgy products have inferior mechanical properties to the wrought
metal, limiting their use in high strength applications

b) Higher die costs

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 Due to the high pressures involved, the robustness of the die results in increased costs. This
makes the technique unsuitable for low volume production.

c) Design limitation

This mainly from the considerations to be taken into account in the design e.g. provision of
compact removal from the die, limitation due to the length to thickness ratio, etc.

d) Property variation

This mainly results from the non-uniformity of the part density.

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CHAPTER TWO: FORMING PROCESSES

2.1 Introduction
These are production methods that use deformation (without material removal) to change the shapes of
materials. The processes generally involve subjecting the stock to stresses until there is plastic
deformation.

2.2 Extrusion
This process involves forcing a billet though an opening whose cross sectional area and dimensions are
different from those of the billet. The machines used are grouped as

a) Hydraulic or mechanical presses

b) Vertical/horizontal presses.

Extrusion can be performed cold, hot (or warm for wire drawing). Solid or hollow sections can be
extruded.

Types of extrusion

a) Direct extrusion
The billet is pushed out of the die by a plunger and slides along the walls of the die as illustrated in fig
2.1. At the end of the process, a small piece of metal called the stub-end scrap remains un-extruded in
the container.

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The nomenclature adopted in extrusion is illustrated in fig 2.2

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The extrusion pressure can be defined as:

σxa = f(Y,r,α,µ)

where σxa is the extrusion pressure/draw stress.

Y is the yield stress

r is the reduction in area

α is the die semi angle

µ is the coefficient of friction

σxa total = σx homogenous + σx friction + σx redundant

Various die semi angles are encountered in practice as shown in fig 2.3

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Recall

σxa = f(Y,r,α,µ)

therefore,

σxa
= f(r, α, µ)
𝑌

It has been shown empirically that for frictionless extrusion,

σxa 1
= 𝑙𝑛
𝑌 (1 − r)

Where Y = the yield stress

𝐴𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 − 𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑑2
r = reduction of area = =1−
𝐴𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝐷2

where d and D are the diameters of the extrudate and stock respectively.

𝑃
Recall 𝜎 = 𝐴 , 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴

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Therefore force P for the frictionless process, Ph is

𝑃ℎ = 𝜎𝑥ℎ ∗ 𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡

But

𝜋𝑑2 1
𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 σxa = 𝑌 𝑙𝑛 (1−r)
4

Therefore

1 𝜋𝑑 2
𝑃ℎ = 𝑌 𝑙𝑛 ∗
(1 − r) 4

Draw stress in direct extrusion

Consider a direct extrusion process as illustrated in fig 2.4.

Consider an element with elemental thickness dx at a distance x from the exit plane, and let µ be the
coefficient of friction, σx is the axial stress and p = σr = radial stress.

Resolving the forces horizontally, and for steady deformation, there must be equilibrium.

Therefore,
π π
(σx + dσx ) ∗ (D + dD)2 − σx ∗ D2 − μpπd. dx = 0
4 4

If the die is cylindrical, dD = 0

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Therefore,
π
∗ D2 dσx − μpπd. dx = 0 ………..1
4

Hence,
π
∗ D2 dσx = μpπd. dx …………. 2
4

To solve equation 2, another expression is required, in this case the yield criterion (how yielding is
assumed to occur).

Recall Trescas yield criterion and Von Mises yield criterion

i) Trescas yield criterion

in Trescas yield criterion, yielding occurs when σmax - σmin = constant = Y

If σx = σ1 and σr = σ3 and these are principle stresses, then

σx – p = Yh ………………………….3

Therefore, p = σx - Yh …………….…. 4

Substitute eq 4 into eq 2

D*dσx = 4µ(σx – Y)dx ……………...5

Rearranging,

dσx 4μ
= dx …………………………6
σx − Y D

Equation 6 is a differential equation that can be integrated to evaluate the value of σx at any distance x
from the exit plane.

𝑑𝜎𝑥 4𝜇
∫𝜎 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 ……………………………7
𝑥 −𝑌 𝐷

Hence,

4𝜇
ln(𝜎𝑥 − 𝑌 ) + 𝐶0 = 𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝐷

Therefore,
4𝜇
ln(𝜎𝑥 − 𝑌) = 𝑥 + 𝐶…………………………….8
𝐷

Applying boundary conditions to equation 8,

at exit, x =0 and σx = σxb

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hence,

ln(𝜎𝑥𝑏 − 𝑌) = 𝐶 …………………………9

Therefore,

4𝜇
ln(𝜎𝑥 − 𝑌) = 𝑥 + ln(𝜎𝑥𝑏 − 𝑌)
𝐷
𝜎 −𝑌 4𝜇
ln (𝜎 𝑥 −𝑌) = 𝑥………………..10
𝑥𝑏 𝐷

Hence,
4𝜇𝑥
𝜎𝑥 −𝑌
= 𝑒 𝐷 ………………………..11
𝜎𝑥𝑏 −𝑌

ii) Von Mises yield criterion

recall von mises yield criterion

if σ1, σ2 and σ3 are principle stresses, and σ1˃σ2 ˃ σ3, yielding occurs when

(σ1 – σ2)2 + (σ2 – σ3)2 + (σ3 – σ1)2 = 2Y2 = 6K2

Where Y = yield stress in uniaxial loading

K = yield stress in simple shear

Von Mises yield criterion compares the energy for distorsion in a complex stress state with that of
simple uniaxial loading or simple shear.

Recall,

dσx 4μ
= dx ;
σx − Y D

4μx
(σx − Y) = (σxb − Y)e D …………12

The extrusion pressure at x = l is

4μl
(σxl − Y) = (σxb − Y)e D …………………….13

From series expansion

𝑎𝑥 (a𝑥)2 (𝑎𝑥)3 (𝑎𝑥)𝑛

𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯+
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!

26
Therefore, up to the third term,

4μx 4μx 2 4μx 3

4μx (
) ( ) ( )
eD = 1+ D + D + D
1! 2! 3!

4μx 4μx
e D ≅ 1+ ( )
D

(since µ is small, the higher order quantities are ignored

Therefore at x = l,

4μl
(σxl − Y) = (σxb − Y) ∗ (1 + ( ) ) ………………………...14
D

Extrusion ratio
Recall reduction ratio, r

𝐴𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 − 𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑑2
𝑟= =1− 2
𝐴𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝐷

The extrusion ratio R, on the other hand is defined as the ratio of un-deformed stock to the area of the
output stock.

𝐷2
𝑅 =
𝑑2

But

𝑑2
𝑟 =1−
𝐷2

Therefore the extrusion ratio can be expressed in terms of the reduction ratio r.

1
𝑟 =1−
𝑅

27
b) Indirect extrusion
In this case, the metal flow out of the die opening in a direction opposite the ram movement as
illustrated in fig 2.5

In this process, there is almost no sliding motion between the billet and the container walls. This
eliminates friction and the extrusion load will be lower than for direct extrusion by
approximately 30%. The amount of stub-end scrap is also reduced. However, this method is not
popular due to the complexity and cost of the tooling required.

c) Hydrostatic extrusion
In this method, a hydraulic fluid is used to transmit the extrusion pressures as shown in fig 2.6

28
This method is mainly used for brittle materials. It requires lower loads than other methods of extrusion
since friction between billet and walls is completely eliminated.

Common sections produced through extrusion include Z sections, T sections, hollow pipes, solid bars,
etc.

2.3 Rolling
This is a forming method that deforms metals by passing the stock through rolls. It is a popular process
since it provides high production rates and close control on final product. Rolling can be carried out cold
or hot. Cold rolling is carried out at approximately room temperature. Hot rolling is carried out above
the re-crystallization temperature of steel and makes the steel more workable.

Hot rolled steel can often be identified by the following characteristics:

• A scaled surface—a remnant of cooling from extreme temperatures

• Slightly rounded edges and corners for bar and plate products (due to shrinkage and less precise
finishing)

• Slight distortions, where cooling may result in slightly trapezoidal forms, as opposed to perfectly
squared angles

29
Benefits of hot rolled steel
Hot rolled steel typically requires much less processing than cold rolled steel, which makes it a lot
cheaper. Because hot rolled steel is allowed to cool at room temperature, it’s essentially normalized—
meaning it’s free from internal stresses that can arise from quenching or work-hardening processes.

Hot rolled steel is ideal where dimensional tolerances aren’t as important as overall material strength,
and where surface finish isn’t a key concern. Where surface finish is a concern, scaling can be removed
by grinding, sand blasting, or acid-bath pickling. Once scaling has been removed, various brush or mirror
finishes can also be applied. De-scaled steel also offers a better surface for painting and other surface
coatings.

Cold rolled steel can often be identified by the following characteristics:

• Better, more finished surfaces with closer tolerances

• Smooth surfaces that are often oily to the touch

• Bars are true and square, and often have well-defined edges and corners

• Tubes have better concentric uniformity and straightness

Benefits of cold rolled steel

With better surface characteristics than hot rolled steel, it’s no surprise that cold rolled steel is often
used for more technically precise applications, or where aesthetics are important. But due to the
additional processing for cold finished products, they come at a higher price.

In terms of physical characteristics, cold rolled steels are typically harder and stronger than standard
hot rolled steels. As the metal is shaped at the lower temperatures, the steel’s hardness, resistance
against tension breaking, and resistance against deformation are all increased due to work
hardening.

These additional treatments, however, can also create internal stress within the material. This can
cause unpredictable warping if the steel is not stress relieved prior to cutting, grinding, or welding.

The rolling process is illustrated in fig 2.7

30
When a single roll is used, it could deform as illustrated in fig 2.8.

To mitigate against this deformation, two approaches are used

i) Roll cambering – this is the deliberate design on the roll surface with a convex surface so as to
take in the deformation on load as illustrated in fig 2.9.

31
ii) Use of multiple (back up) rolls

This employs extra rolls to support the work rolls as illustrated in fig 2.10

32
The power required at each roll can be computed. Referring to fig 2.8, if θ̇ is the angular velocity of
the rolls in rad/sec, the torque

T = p*λL where T = torque

P = Roll force

λL = distance of the line of action from the center

Power P required in each roll is

P = T *ω = T*θ̇ = p*λL *θ̇

For the two rolls, total power = 2p*λL *θ̇

Where λ = 0.45 for cold rolling

λ = 0.50 for hot rolling

Types of rolls arrangement are illustrated in fig 2.11

33
Analysis of the rolling process
A simplified analysis is done below, assuming ideal compression. The rolls are usually large, and the
radius of curvature is ignored. The process is considered as a homogenous compression between two
well lubricated platens.

The area where the deformation occurs is considered as illustrated in fig 2.12 tf

34
35
P = A*Y = L*W*Y

where P is the rolling load, Y is the yield stress in uni-axial compression, W is the strip width and L is the
projected length of arc of contact. But from fig 2.12(b),

(𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑓 ) 2
𝐿2 = 𝑅2 − (𝑅 − )
2

∆𝑡 2
𝐿2 = 𝑅2 − (𝑅 − )
2

But R>>>>>>t

Hence,

𝐿 ≈ √𝑅∆𝑡

Therefore,

36
𝑝 = √𝑅∆𝑡 ∗ 𝑊 ∗ 𝑌

Or

𝑝
= √𝑅∆𝑡 ∗ 𝑌
𝑊

Generally in rolling operations, a wide strip as compared to the thickness is used and the conditions
approximate to plane strain deformation (i.e. the lateral spread is negligible, tz = 0).

If friction contribution is considered, say as a fraction of C of the homogenous component, then the total
roll load including friction, pt can be expressed as:

𝑝𝑡 𝑝 𝐶𝑝 𝑝
=𝑊+ = (1 + 𝐶)
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊

Therefore,

𝑝𝑡
= 𝑌 ∗ √𝑅∆𝑡 ∗ (1 + 𝐶)
𝑊

Applied torque

If pt acts at a distance λL from the exit plane, then the applied torque T is

T = pt * λL (recall λ = 0.45 for cold rolling and λ = 0.5 for hot rolling)

Power supplied to the rolls

If θ̇ is the angular velocity of the rolls, then power supplied to each roll, Ẇ is

𝑊̇ = 𝑇𝜃̇

Therefore, power supplied to both rolls =

2𝑊̇ = 2𝑇𝜃̇ = 2𝑝 𝑡 λLθ̇

37
Estimation of the roll power

1
If the load carried by each bearing is 2 𝑝 𝑡 , then the frictional drag is

1
𝜇𝑁 2 𝑝 𝑡 and the corresponding torque is

1 𝑑
𝜇𝑁 2 𝑝 𝑡 2 ,

where µN is the coefficient of friction of the bearing and d is the diameter of the bearing.

Therefore, total power to overcome friction at the four bearings is

1 𝑑
̇ = 4 ∗ 𝜇𝑁 𝑝 𝑡 ∗ 𝜃̇
4𝑊
2 2

38
 2.4 Bending
The bending of a metal strip or bar results in plastic deformation in compression on one side and tension
on the other side of the neutral axis. As the deformation proceeds, the width of the compressed side of
the bar increases while on the stretched side decreases. To maintain the moment of resistance for the
area, the neutral axis displaces towards the compressed side. This shifting must be taken into account
when estimating the length of the material prior to bending. The bending process is illustrated in fig 2.14

To compute the dimensions of the blank, a ‘U’ section channel, as illustrated in fig 2.15 can be used.

39
The length of the blank required can be obtained by assuming no change in thickness and equating the
surface areas.

i.e. L*B = l*b + h*b*2+ π*r3*b

Analyzing the bending process.

To analyze the bending process, reference is made to fig 2.16

40
The load on the punch P will vary during the operation cycle. A punch load PB is required to produce the
bends. Once the material in the bend region is stressed to the plastic state, the stress distribution is as
illustrated in fig 2.16 (b).

Since the material starts to bend when the yield stress is attained, then

𝑃𝐵 𝑏∗𝑡∗𝜎𝑦
= where b is the breadth (as in fig 2.15(c)), t is the thickness and σy is the yield stress in uni-
2 2
axial loading.

Hence, the bending moment resistance M is

𝑡
𝑃𝐵 ∗ (2) 𝑏 ∗ 𝑡 2 ∗ 𝜎𝑦
𝑀= =
2 4

The moment is obtained by assuming the bending force is a concentrated load acting at the point of
tangency between the punch radius, die radius and the strip
𝑃𝐵 ∗𝑎
Hence, the bending moment BM is 𝑀 = 2

where 𝑎 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑐 (𝑟1 = 𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑟2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Equating the moments,

𝑏 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝜎𝑦 𝑃𝐵 ∗ 𝑎
=
4 2

Therefore,

𝑏 ∗ 𝑡 2 ∗ 𝜎𝑦
𝑃𝐵 =
2∗𝑎

This expression assumes a frictionless process. Decreasing the clearance to less than the strip thickness
increases the friction considerably. Assuming that the material is stressed up to the yield point and the
coefficient of friction is µ, the maximum punch load required to overcome friction, Pf is

𝑃𝑓 = 2 ∗ 𝜇(𝑏 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝜎𝑦 )

41
2.5 Deep Drawing
This is a forming process where a sheet metal work piece is formed into cups. The process is illustrated
in fig 2.17

The process begins with a flat blank, which is formed into the final shape as shown in fig 2.17 (c). The
thickness of the cup varies typically as illustrated in fig 2.18

42
The punch force in drawing is limited by the maximum tensile load that can be carried by the cup wall.
This subsequently sets the limit on the depth of the cup that can be drawn. Fig 2.19 illustrates the
relationship between the blank and the drawn cup.

43
The ratio D/d depends on the thickness ratio t/D. Assuming no change in thickness, then the diameter
of the blank required can be estimated by equating the surface areas.

The surface area of blank = surface area of the drawn cup

𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝑑 2
= 𝜋𝑑ℎ +
4 4

Therefore,

𝐷 = √𝑑 2 + 4𝑑ℎ

It has been established empirically that the drawing load increases approximately linearly with
increasing drawing ratio. When D/d = 2, the punch force is given by P max = σult*πdt, where σult is the
ultimate tensile strength. For other ratios, P = σult*πdt(D/d – 1)

44
Redrawing
This is a process carried out to obtain a deeper cup. It can be carried out either as direct redrawing or as
reverse redrawing as illustrated in fig2.20 . In direct redrawing, the cup is forced down the die as shown,
reducing the cup diameter while increasing the depth. For reverse redrawing, the cup is drawn inside
out, also increasing the cup depth while reducing the cup diameter.

45
CHAPTER THREE: MACHINING PROCESSES

2.1 Grinding
Grinding is the material removal process where an abrasive wheel is used. This process is similar to a
multi point cutting tool, with the wheel being the tool with thousands of tiny cutting edges. The wheel
consists of an abrasive embedded in a matrix. The wheel ‘sharpens’ itself in that new cutting sirfaces are
exposed as the grinding proceeds. A grinding wheel is illustrated in fig 3.1

Usually, grinding is a finishing process and the wheels come in different shapes and sizes to meet
specific needs. In some instances, slots can be machined though grinding. Traditional grinding methods
include horizontal and vertical grinding as illustrated in fig 3.2.

46
Cylindrical grinding, illustrated in fig 3.3, is carried out on cylindrical work pieces, held between centers.

47
Center less grinding

This technique eliminates the need for center holes, drivers, and other fixtures required to hold the
work. The work piece is supported on a work rest blade and backed by a regulating wheel. The
regulating wheel controls the speed of rotation of the work piece and the rate of feeding. The principle
of centre less grinding is illustrated in fig 3.4

The grinding wheel rotates at regular grinding surface speeds. The regulating wheel is usually a
rubber/plastic bonded wheel with a wide face and rotates at low surface speeds of 15 – 60 meters per
minute.

Center less grinding can also be carried out on internal surfaces. The principle of center less internal
grinding is illustrated in fig 3.5.

48
Advantages and limitations of center less grinding

Advantages

a) High production rates

b) Less skills required to operate
c) Easily automated
d) Heavy cuts can be made
e) Little or no distortion on the work piece
f) Higher dimensional accuracy
g) Large wheels can be used, reducing the tool changing time
h) Hollow shafts can easily be ground

Limitations

a) Requires special equipment

b) Can only be carried out on round/cylindrical parts
c) Not suitable for multi diameter parts
d) Concentricity when grinding internal and external surfaces is not guaranteed.

49