NAME Srikanth Dodda

ROLL NUMBER 2314104658

PROGRAM (BCA)

SEMESTER III

SESSION MAY JUNE 2024

COURSE NAME COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

COURSE CODE DCA2103

 Q1. Explain von Neumann Architecture in detail.
ANS :- The von Neumann architecture, also known as the von Neumann model
or Princeton architecture, is a computer architecture design based on the stored-
program computer concept. It was first proposed by John von Neumann in 1945
and has since become the foundational model for modern computers.

Key Components of von Neumann Architecture:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):

o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
o Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor, telling the computer's
memory, ALU, and input/output devices how to respond to the instructions sent
to the processor.

2. Memory:
o Stores both data and instructions. This shared storage is a core aspect of von
Neumann architecture, distinguishing it from other architectures like the Harvard
architecture, which uses separate memory for instructions and data.

3. Input/Output (I/O) Devices:

o Facilitate interaction between the computer and the external world, including
devices like keyboards, mice, and printers.

4. Buses:
o Data Bus: Transfers data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
o Address Bus: Carries the addresses of data (but not the data itself) to be read or
written.
o Control Bus: Carries control signals from the CPU to other components.

OPERATION OF VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE:

1. Fetch: The control unit retrieves an instruction from memory based on the
address in the program counter.
2. Decode: The instruction is decoded to determine what actions are required.
3. Execute: The CPU performs the required actions, which may involve arithmetic
or logic operations, data transfer, or I/O operations.
4. Store: The result of the execution is written back to memory if needed.

 Advantages:
1. Simplicity: Single memory space for instructions and data simplifies design and
development.
2. Flexibility: Easier to reprogram and update software, as both instructions and
data are stored in the same memory.

 Disadvantages:
1. Von Neumann Bottleneck: The single bus used for both data and instructions
can become a bottleneck, limiting performance.
2. Memory Latency: Shared memory for data and instructions can cause delays due
to the need for frequent memory access.
Example: Consider a simple program that adds two numbers. The sequence of
operations be:
1. Fetch the instruction to load the first number.
2. Fetch the instruction to load the second number.
3. Fetch the instruction to add the numbers.
4. Fetch the instruction to store the result.

Q2. Explain in detail the different instruction formats with examples.

ANS :- 2 :- instruction formats define the structure of machine instructions that
the processor can execute. Each instruction format specifies how operands and
operation codes are encoded within the instruction word. Different instruction
formats are designed to accommodate various types of operations and addressing
modes efficiently. An explanation of the common instruction formats along with
examples:

1. Single Operand Instructions:

 In this format, instructions operate on only one operand, which is typically specified
implicitly or explicitly in the instruction.
 Example: MOV A, B (copies the content of register B to register A)

2. Two Operand Instructions:

 This format involves instructions that operate on two operands, usually denoted as
source and destination.
 Example: ADD A, B (adds the content of register B to register A)

3. Three Operand Instructions:

 Instructions in this format involve three operands, often used in arithmetic or logical
operations.
 Example: MUL A, B, C (multiplies the contents of registers B and C and stores the
result in register A)

4. Zero Operand Instructions:

 Zero operand instructions do not require any operands as they operate on internal
registers or memory implicitly.
 Example: HALT (instruction to halt the processor)

5. Immediate Operand Instructions:

 In this format, one operand is specified directly within the instruction itself.
 Example: ADD A, #5 (adds the immediate value 5 to the content of register A)

6. Register-Register Instructions:
 Instructions where both operands are registers.
 Example: AND A, B (performs a bitwise AND operation between registers A and B)

7. Register-Immediate Instructions:
 Instructions where one operand is a register and the other is an immediate value.
 Example: SUB A, #3 (subtracts the immediate value 3 from register A)

8. Register-Memory Instructions:
 These instructions involve one operand as a register and the other as a memory location.
 Example: LOAD A, [X] (loads the content of memory location X into register A)

9. Memory-Memory Instructions:
 Instructions where both operands are memory locations.
 Example: MOVE [X], [Y] (moves the content of memory location Y to memory
location X)

10. Branch Instructions:

 These instructions facilitate control flow by altering the program counter based on a
condition or an address.
 Example: JMP 100 (jumps to the memory address 100)

Detailed Examples:
1. Three-Address Instruction Example:
o Instruction: ADD R1, R2, R3
o Operation: R1 = R2 + R3
o Use Case: Efficient for arithmetic operations, reducing the need for multiple
instructions.

2. Two-Address Instruction Example:

o Instruction: SUB R1, R2
o Operation: R1 = R1 - R2
o Use Case: Useful for operations where one of the operands is also the destination.

3. One-Address Instruction Example:

o Instruction: LOAD R1
o Operation: Accumulator = R1
o Use Case: Simplifies instruction decoding and execution.

4. Zero-Address Instruction Example:

o Instruction: PUSH
o Operation: Pushes the accumulator value onto the stack.
o Use Case: Used in stack-based architectures.

Q3. Discuss the organization of main memory.

ANS :- 3:- Main memory, or primary memory, is a critical component in

computer systems, providing fast and temporary storage that the CPU uses for
active tasks. Its organization impacts performance, efficiency, and capacity.

Main Memory Components:

1. Memory Cells:
o Basic units of memory, each capable of storing one bit of information.
o Organized in rows and columns.

2. Memory Words:
o Groups of memory cells that are accessed together. A typical word size might be
8, 16, 32, or 64 bits.

3. Address Space:
o Each memory cell or word is uniquely identified by an address.
o Address space refers to the range of addresses available.

MEMORY HIERARCHY:

1. Registers:
o Smallest and fastest type of memory located within the CPU.
o Stores immediate data and instructions.

2. Cache Memory:
o Intermediate between the CPU and main memory.
o Provides faster access to frequently used data.

3. Main Memory (RAM):

o Volatile memory used for storing the operating system, applications, and active
data.
o Two main types: Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and Static RAM (SRAM).

 Memory Organization Techniques:

1. Interleaved Memory:
o Divides memory into multiple banks, allowing parallel access to different banks.
o Improves memory access speed and efficiency.

2. Memory Modules:
o Physical packaging of memory chips.
o Common types include DIMMs (Dual In-line Memory Modules) and SIMMs
(Single In-line Memory Modules).

3. Virtual Memory:
o Extends the apparent size of physical memory using disk storage.
o Allows larger programs to run on systems with limited RAM.

Example:
Consider a system with 4 GB of main memory organized in 64-bit words. The
address space ranges from 0x00000000 to 0xFFFFFFFF. The CPU accesses
memory through the following hierarchy:
1. Registers: Store the immediate operands and results.
2. Cache: Speeds up access to frequently used data.
3. Main Memory: Stores the operating system, active applications, and data.

SET-II

Q4. List and explain the mapping functions.

ANS :- Mapping functions in computer organization encompass techniques for
optimizing system design. Relevant functions include memory mapping, I/O port
mapping, address mapping, instruction mapping, cache mapping, and device mapping.
These techniques assign logical addresses to physical memory, devices, and
instructions, optimizing data retrieval, processing, and communication. Understanding
and implementing these mapping functions are crucial for designing efficient and
scalable computer systems.

1. Memory Mapping:
o Memory mapping refers to the technique of assigning physical memory addresses to
locations in the computer's memory space. It involves mapping logical addresses
generated by the CPU to physical addresses in RAM.
o Memory mapping enables efficient memory access and management by allowing the
CPU to interact with memory through a unified address space.

2. I/O Port Mapping:

o I/O port mapping involves assigning addresses to input/output (I/O) ports or devices
connected to the computer system. Each I/O device is assigned a unique address range
for communication with the CPU.
o I/O port mapping facilitates communication between the CPU and external devices
such as keyboards, monitors, printers, and storage devices.

3. Address Mapping:
o Address mapping involves mapping logical addresses generated by the CPU to physical
addresses in memory or I/O space. It includes techniques such as segmentation, paging,
and virtual memory mapping.
o Address mapping enables the CPU to access memory and devices transparently,
regardless of the underlying hardware organization or memory management scheme.

4. Instruction Mapping:
o Instruction mapping refers to the process of translating high-level instructions or
machine code into microinstructions or control signals understood by the CPU's control
unit.
o Instruction mapping involves decoding instructions fetched from memory and
generating the necessary signals to execute them, including ALU operations, memory
accesses, and branch instructions.

5. Cache Mapping:
o Cache mapping involves determining how data is stored and retrieved in the CPU's
cache memory hierarchy. It includes mapping techniques such as direct mapping,
associative mapping, and set-associative mapping.
o Cache mapping strategies impact cache performance, including hit rate, miss rate, and
access latency, and play a crucial role in optimizing memory access in computer
systems.

6. Device Mapping:
o Device mapping involves mapping logical device identifiers or handles to physical
devices or device drivers in the operating system's device management subsystem.
o Device mapping facilitates device discovery, configuration, and communication in the
computer system, allowing applications to interact with hardware devices through
standardized interfaces.

Q5. What is an interrupt? Discuss the hardware actions in interrupt

handling.

ANS :- 5 :- An interrupt is a fundamental concept in computer science, serving as a

mechanism for the processor to handle events that require immediate attention. It
allows the CPU to temporarily suspend its current execution, handle the interrupt
request, and resume normal operation seamlessly. Interrupts can be broadly categorized
into hardware interrupts and software interrupts, each serving distinct purposes.

Hardware interrupts are generated by peripheral devices connected to the computer

system, such as keyboards, mice, network cards, or timers. These interrupts signal
events like key presses, mouse movements, data arrival, or timer expirations. When a
hardware device generates an interrupt, it sends a signal to the CPU to request attention.

On the other hand, software interrupts, also known as traps or exceptions, are generated
by the CPU itself or by programs running on the system. Software interrupts occur
when a program needs to request services from the operating system, such as I/O
operations, memory management, or system calls.
Interrupt handling involves a series of hardware actions orchestrated by the CPU to
manage the interruption efficiently:
1. Interrupt Signal: When a hardware device needs attention, it sends an interrupt signal
to the CPU, indicating the occurrence of an event.

2. Acknowledge Signal: The CPU acknowledges the interrupt by sending a signal back to
the device, confirming that it has received the interrupt request.

3. Interrupt Vector: The CPU uses an interrupt vector, a data structure containing
addresses of interrupt service routines (ISRs), to determine the address of the
appropriate ISR for handling the interrupt.

4. Save State: Before jumping to the ISR, the CPU saves the current execution state,
including the program counter, processor status, and other relevant registers, onto the
 stack. This ensures that the CPU can later resume the interrupted program without
losing its progress.

5. Execute ISR: The CPU jumps to the address specified by the interrupt vector and
begins executing the ISR associated with the interrupting device or event. The ISR
performs the necessary actions to handle the interrupt, such as processing data,
updating system state, or scheduling tasks.

6. Restore State: After the ISR completes its execution, the CPU restores the saved
execution state from the stack. This includes reloading the program counter and other
registers to their values before the interrupt occurred.

7. Resume Execution: With the execution state restored, the CPU resumes execution of
the interrupted program from the point where it was halted, allowing it to continue its
normal operation seamlessly.

For example, when a user presses a key on the keyboard, the keyboard controller sends
an interrupt signal to the CPU. The CPU acknowledges the interrupt, saves the current
execution state, executes the keyboard ISR to process the key press, restores the saved
state, and resumes the interrupted program.

Q6. Explain the characteristics of RISC and CISC architectures.

ANS :- RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) and CISC (Complex

Instruction Set Computing) architectures represent two distinct approaches to
designing computer processors, each with its own set of characteristics.

RISC Architecture:

1. Simplicity: RISC architectures prioritize simplicity by reducing the complexity

of instructions. Instructions are typically simple and execute in a single clock
cycle, which enhances performance.

2. Fixed-Length Instructions: Instructions in RISC architectures are of fixed

length, typically 32 bits long, making decoding easier and more efficient.

3. Large Number of Registers: RISC processors typically feature a large number

of general-purpose registers, which allows for faster access to data and reduces
the need to access memory frequently.

4. Load/Store Architecture: RISC architectures use a load/store architecture,

where data must be loaded from memory into registers before any operation can
be performed on it. Similarly, results must be stored back to memory after
computation.

5. Pipelining: RISC processors often employ pipelining, where multiple

instructions are executed simultaneously in different stages of the pipeline,
leading to improved performance.
6. Compiler Dependency: RISC architectures rely heavily on compilers to
optimize code for execution, as the simplicity of instructions means that more
instructions are needed to perform complex tasks.

CISC Architecture:

1. Complex Instructions: CISC architectures feature complex instructions that can

perform multiple low-level operations within a single instruction. This reduces
the number of instructions needed to perform a task, potentially improving code
density.

2. Variable-Length Instructions: Instructions in CISC architectures can vary in

length, with some instructions being much longer than others. This can make
instruction decoding more complex compared to RISC architectures.

3. Fewer Registers: CISC processors typically have fewer general-purpose registers

compared to RISC architectures. This can lead to more frequent memory accesses,
which may impact performance.

4. Memory-to-Memory Operations: Unlike RISC architectures, CISC

architectures support memory-to-memory operations, where data can be
transferred directly between memory locations without passing through registers.

5. Microcoding: CISC processors often use microcode to implement complex

instructions, breaking them down into simpler micro-operations that are executed
by the hardware.

6. Less Pipelining: CISC processors may have less aggressive pipelining compared
to RISC architectures due to the complexity of instructions, which can make
pipelining less efficient.

RISC architectures prioritize simplicity, with a focus on executing simple

instructions quickly and efficiently. They typically feature fixed-length
instructions, a large number of registers, and rely heavily on compilers for
optimization. On the other hand, CISC architectures feature complex instructions
that can perform multiple operations in a single instruction, potentially reducing
the overall number of instructions needed to execute a program. They often have
variable-length instructions, fewer registers, and may employ microcoding to
implement complex instructions. Each architecture has its strengths and
weaknesses, and the choice between them depends on factors such as
performance requirements, power efficiency, and the nature of the workload.