Climate

1. Definitions of Climate and Weather

Climate: Refers to the average state of the atmosphere over long periods, typically decades or
more. It encompasses the composite of daily weather conditions recorded over time, as well as
the variations and extremes beyond the average conditions.
Weather: Describes the instantaneous or current state of the atmosphere. It includes parameters
such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, cloudiness,
and precipitation. Weather occurs in the troposphere and is measured using various instruments.

Ethiopia's Climate and Weather Overview

Ethiopia's climate is influenced by several key factors:
1. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): The seasonal migration of this zone and
associated atmospheric circulations play a major role in determining Ethiopia's climate.
2. Topography: The complex terrain creates diverse climatic conditions across the country,
leading to variations in temperature and precipitation
Climate Characteristics:
• Spatial and Temporal Variability: Due to its latitude and proximity to the Indian Ocean,
Ethiopia experiences significant variability in temperature and rainfall across regions and
seasons.
• Temperature Distribution: Mean annual temperatures range from over 30°C in the lowlands to
less than 10°C in high-altitude areas, such as the Bale Mountains.
• Rainfall Patterns: Ethiopia's rainfall is influenced by winds like the Guinea Monsoon and
Southeast Trade Winds, resulting in distinct wet and dry seasons.
Weather Characteristics
Weather in Ethiopia varies greatly by region and season due to:
• Elevation: Higher altitudes experience cooler temperatures, while lowland areas are
significantly warmer.
• Seasonal Winds: Summer rains are driven by equatorial westerly, while winter rains in specific
regions, like Afar, are attributed to northeasterly winds.
Ethiopia’s Climate Zones
Ethiopia’s climate is highly diverse, influenced by its geographic location near the equator and
its varied topography, which includes high-altitude plateaus and lowland deserts. The country
experiences the following climatic zones:
1. Highlands (Cool Temperate Climate): Found in regions above 2,400 meters, these areas have
cooler temperatures and moderate rainfall. Examples include the Ethiopian Highlands.
2. Semi-Arid Lowlands: Covering the eastern and southeastern parts, such as the Ogden desert,
these regions experience hot temperatures and sparse rainfall.
3. Tropical Savanna: Located in the western and southern lowlands, characterized by distinct
wet and dry seasons typical of tropical climates.
Weather Patterns
• Seasonal Distribution:
• Kiremt (Rainy Season): June to September, dominated by heavy rains, particularly in the
highlands.
• Belg (Short Rainy Season): March to May, providing crucial moisture for agriculture in some
regions.
• Bega (Dry Season): October to February, characterized by cooler temperatures and dry
conditions.
• Temperature Variations: High-altitude areas like Addis Ababa maintain mild temperatures
averaging 15°C to 25°C, while lowland regions can exceed 40°C.
Influences on Climate
Ethiopia’s proximity to the equator results in a predominantly tropical climate, while its high
elevations help temper heat in many regions. Wind and rainfall patterns are shaped by the ITCZ,
which moves seasonally across the country, along with monsoonal winds from the Indian Ocean.
Current Weather Insights
Live Monitoring: Real-time weather data from satellites, including those from NASA and
African meteorology systems, indicate that Ethiopia is experiencing variable rainfall and
temperature patterns. This information is essential for agriculture and water management efforts
across the country.

2. Controls of Climate
Earth’s climate is composed of a complex system and interaction of other natural processes. To
understand the current climate crisis, it is essential to understand the variables, controls, and
systems that directly or indirectly affect it.
Climate is the average of weather in that location over a long period of time, usually for at least
30 years. A location’s climate can be described by its air temperature, humidity, wind speed and
direction, and the type, quantity, and frequency of precipitation. Climate can change, but only
over long periods of time. The climate of a region depends on its position relative to many
things. These factors are described in the next sections
1) Latitude
The main factor influencing the climate of a region is latitude because different latitudes receive
different amounts of solar radiation. To review from the Earth’s Atmosphere chapter:
* The equator receives the most solar radiation. Days are equally long year-round and the sun is
just about directly overhead at midday.
* The Polar Regions receive the least solar radiation. The night lasts six months during the
winter. Even in summer, the sun never rises very high in the sky. Sunlight filters through a thick
wedge of atmosphere, making the sunlight much less intense. The high albino, because of ice and
snow, reflects a good portion of the sun’s light.
2) Atmospheric Circulation
Recall from the Earth’s Atmosphere chapter the circulation cells and global wind belts. The
position of a region relative to the circulation cells and wind belts has a great effect on its
climate. In an area where the air is mostly rising or sinking, there is not much wind.
3) Intertropical Convergence Zone
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is the low pressure area near the equator in the
boundary between the two Hadley Cells. The air rises so that it cools and condenses to create
clouds and rain.
Climate along the ITCZ is therefore warm and wet. Early mariners called this region the
doldrums because their ships were often unable to sail because there were no
steady winds.
The ITCZ migrates slightly with the season. Land areas heat more quickly than the oceans.
Because there are more land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, the ITCZ is influenced by the
heating effect of the land.
In Northern Hemisphere summer, it is approximately 5o north of the equator while in the winter
it shifts back and is approximately at the equator. As the ITCZ shifts, the major wind belts also
shift slightly north in summer and south in winter, which causes the wet and dry seasons in this
area.
# Hadley Cell and Ferrell Cell Boundaries
At about 30 degrees N and 30 degrees S, the air is fairly warm and dry because much of it came
from the equator where it lost most of its moisture at the ITCZ.
At this location the air is descending, and sinking air warms and causes evaporation.
Mariners named this region the horse latitudes. Sailing ships were sometimes delayed for so long
by the lack of wind that they would run out of water and food for their livestock. Sailors tossed
horses and other animals over the side after they died. Sailors sometimes didn’t make it either.
# Prevailing Winds
The prevailing winds are the bases of the Hadley, Ferrell, and Polar Cells. These winds greatly
influence the climate of a region because they bring the weather from the locations they come
from. For example, in California, the predominant winds are the westerly blowing in from the
Pacific Ocean, which bring in relatively cool air in summer and relatively warm air in winter.
Local winds also influence local climate. For example, land breezes and sea breezes moderate
coastal temperatures
4) Continental Position
When a particular location is near an ocean or large lake, the body of water plays an extremely
important role in affecting the region’s climate.
A maritime climate is strongly influenced by the nearby sea. Temperatures vary a relatively
small amount seasonally and daily. For a location to have a true maritime climate, the winds
must most frequently come off the sea.
A continental climate is more extreme, with greater temperature differences between day and
night and between summer and winter.
The ocean’s influence in moderating climate can be seen in the following temperature
comparisons. Each of these cities is located at 37 ºN latitude, within the westerly winds.
5) Ocean Currents
There are five major ocean-wide gyres — the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Pacific,
South Pacific, and Indian Ocean gyres. Each is flanked by a strong and narrow western boundary
current, and a weak and broad eastern boundary current.
The temperature of the water offshore influences the temperature of a coastal location,
particularly if the winds come off the sea. The cool waters of along the western United States is
caused by a clockwise rotating ocean current that is bringing cold water from the arctic toward
the equator.
The climatic effect is that coastal regions of California, Oregon, and Washington are cool.
Coastal upwelling also brings cold, deep water up to the ocean surface off of California, which
contributes to the cool coastal temperatures. But that same ocean current brings warm, tropical
water to eastern Japan.
In the Atlantic Ocean, the northern ocean current, called the Gulf Stream, brings warm water
from the tropics to the southern states.
This is major reason why the southern states experience humid conditions in the summer and
tornadoes because of all this warm moisture. The Gulf Stream also impacts Europe by bringing
warm water northward, making this region that is rather northward warmer than expected.
6) Altitude and Mountain Ranges
A lake in the mountains Air pressure and air temperature decreases with altitude. The closer
molecules are packed together, the more likely they are to collide. Collisions between molecules
give off heat, which warms the air. At higher altitudes, the air is less dense and air molecules are
more spread out and less likely to collide. A location in the mountains has lower average
temperatures than one at the base of the mountains. In Colorado, for example, Lakewood (5,640
feet) average annual temperature is 62 degrees F (17 degrees C), while Climax Lake (11,300
feet) is 42 degrees F (5.4 degrees C).
Mountain ranges have two effects on the climate of the surrounding region. The first is
something called the rain shadow effect, which brings warm dry climate to the leeward size of a
mountain range, was described in the Earth’s Atmosphere chapter. The second effect mountains
have on climate systems is the ability to separate coastal regions from the rest of the continent.
Since a maritime air mass may have trouble rising over a mountain range, the coastal area will
have a maritime climate but the inland area on the leeward side will have a continental climate.
3. The inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
The intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ):- is a significant area where the trade winds from the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres meet. It is characterized by converging winds that rise, cool,
and create clouds and heavy rainfall.There is a misconception said as:- intertropical convergence
zone is equator. It is not equator it is the name that given for the area in the tropics characterized
by low pressure.
Its existence is due to the convergence of the trade winds: winds in the tropics that move
predominantly from the east and curve towards the equator.
The position of the ITCZ varies seasonally because it follows the Sun; it moves north in the
Northern Hemisphere summer and south in the Northern Hemisphere winter. As a result, the
ITCZ is responsible for the wet and dry seasons in the tropics.

Position of the intertropical convergence zone in January (in blue) and in July (in red). Source:
Wikicommons. Author Mats Halldin, 13 Dec 2006.
causes and effect of itcz
A) Causes:
1. Exposure of high concentration of sun light or solar heating: The equatorial region receives
more direct sunlight, leading to higher temperatures compared to other latitudes. This heating
causes warm air to rise, creating low pressure. our world is tilted 23°with this 23° tiltation the
tropic of Cancer receives more direct sun light during the month of July( around June 21) and
also the tropic of Capricorn receives more direct sun light in the month of January( around 22
December). so the low pressure created due to the concentration of sun light then in July the itcz
is going to be along the north with high rain fall in the tropic of cancer this shifting of itcz
leaves the tropic of Capricorn in solo concentration of sun light around the south so the south
experience dry season.
Moving through the year the sun began concentrating its energy towards the tropic of Capricorn
by January and the South experience rainy season and the north experience dry season.
2. Trade Winds : The Coriolis effect causes the trade winds to blow from east to west,
converging near the equator, which contributes to the formation of the ITCZ(.When the northeast
trade winds from the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast winds from the Southern
Hemisphere come together, it forces the air up into the atmosphere, forming the ITCZ).
3. Seasonal Changes: The position of the ITCZ shifts with the seasons due to the tilt of the
Earth's axis, affecting precipitation and weather patterns.

Effects:
1. Heavy Rainfall: The convergence of warm, moist air leads to intense precipitation, resulting
in tropical rainforests and high biodiversity in these regions.
2. Climate Variability: The ITCZ influences global and regional climate patterns, including the
formation of monsoons and the distribution of tropical cyclones Seasonal shifts in the location of
the ITCZ drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry
seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. Longer term
changes in the ITCZ can result in severe droughts or flooding counties nearby the tropics
3.Biodiversity: The warm, moist conditions support diverse ecosystems, making these areas
available for plant and animal species.
4. Agriculture: The climatic conditions can be beneficial for agriculture, but unpredictable
rainfall patterns can also lead to droughts or flooding, impacting food security.
Eastern Asia, Atlantic, South American, Australia, south Africa countries get affected by this
intertropical convergent zone. And the climate of Africa (excluding the extreme north and South
)is determined by the movement of itcz.
Generally understanding the dynamics of the intertropical coastal zone is crucial for itcz is
responsible for dry and wet season in tropics so by using that information we can predicting
weather patterns, managing ecosystems, and planning agricultural practices.
4. Overview of Ethiopian Climate
Ethiopia is a country that has a remarkably diverse climate this is mainly because of the interplay
of different controls of weather which we discussed earlier just for a recap the major ones are
latitude, altitude, INTCZ etc.
We will try to understand the spatial and temporal distribution of Ethiopian climate by seeing
them through the lenses of those weather and climate controls.
a) Latitude: Ethiopia lies between 3-15 degree north of the equator which is within the tropical
zone giving Ethiopia the characteristics of tropical climate which are high temperature all year
around, minimum variation of temperature all year around, generally humid etc. but due to
altitude and other factors which we will cover later Ethiopia’s climate is not monolithic.
b) Altitude: Altitude is one of the main factors that are responsible to diversifying the climate
of Ethiopia. Ethiopia topography ranges from Danakil depression in afar which is 125 below the
earth sea level to mount Ras Dashan which is 4620m above sea level. We can see that the
deepest point and the highest point in Ethiopia have a 4745m and due to the inverse relationship
temperature and altitude we would expect the country to have a spectrum of temperature values
not discrete ones.
Example : in the Afar depression( which is between latitudes 10-14 degree North) the
temperature could go as far as 30 degree Celsius on the other side Simien mountains which also
around 12-14 degree north but here its temperature could go as low as -15 degree Celsius
Because of its high altitude.
c) Intertropical Convergence Zone: The seasonal movement of the winds determines the
country rainfall patterns, temperature, and the distribution of wet and dry climates. During the
kiremt season ( June – September) ITCZ shifts to northward over Ethiopia this brings moist
southwesterly monsoon winds from Atlantic and Indian oceans leading to a high level of rainfall
on the contrary during bega season ( October- February ) the winds shift southwards away from
Ethiopia reducing rain.
1. Kiremt (Rainy Season): The main rainy season occurs from June to September, driven by
the southwest monsoon winds. This period is crucial for agriculture as it provides most of the
annual rainfall in the highland regions.
2. Bega (Dry Season): Spanning from October to February, the Bega season is characterized
by clear skies and cooler temperatures, particularly in the highlands.
3. Belg (Short Rainy Season): Occurring between March and May, the Belg season is less
predictable and delivers lighter rainfall, which is vital for planting early crops in certain regions.
D) Proximity to water bodies
Because of Ethiopia’s position in the horn with high proximity to both the Red Sea and Indian
Ocean both of them have influence on the rainfall patterns, temperature and humidity etc. For
example, during monsoon season which is between June and September moisture-laden winds
reach the eastern and southeastern parts of Ethiopia bringing rainfall with it notable cities of the
country eastern region like Dire Dawa and Harar experience relatively higher moisture because
of their position relative to the ocean. So we have seen above why Ethiopia has a diverse climate.
Now based on different elements of weather and climate which we discussed previously we can
divide Ethiopia into different regions with approximately the same type of climate these regions
are as followed:-
1. Tropical Rainy Climate (Kolla) Elevation: Below 1,500 meters above sea level.
Temperature: Hot, with average annual temperatures above 27°C. Rainfall: Low to moderate
(200–800 mm annually), with arid and semi-arid regions.
Regions: Found in lowland areas such as the Afar Depression, Somali Region, and parts of the
Omo Valley. Vegetation: Sparse vegetation, including shrubs, acacia trees, and grasses, adapted
to arid conditions.
2. Subtropical Climate (Woyna Dega)
Elevation: Between 1,500 and 2,400 meters above sea level. Temperature: Moderate, with
average temperatures ranging from 15°C to 20°C. Rainfall: Moderate to high (800–1,200 mm
annually), with well-defined wet and dry seasons. Regions: Includes areas like the central
highlands (Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar)
Vegetation: Dominated by crops like teff, wheat, and barley, along with grasses and scattered
trees.
3. Cool Highland Climate (Dega)
Elevation: Above 2,400 meters. Temperature: Cool, with average annual temperatures below
15°C. Rainfall: High rainfall (1,200–1,800 mm annually), often concentrated during the Kiremt
(June– September). Regions: Found in areas like the Simien Mountains, Bale Mountains, and
parts of northern Ethiopia. Vegetation: Forests, montane grasslands, and crops like barley and
potatoes dominate.
4. Desert Climate
Elevation: Lowlands, especially below sea level in the Danakil Depression. Temperature:
Extremely hot, with average annual temperatures exceeding 30°C, sometimes reaching over
50°C in summer. Rainfall: Minimal (less than 200 mm annually). Regions: Includes the Afar
Depression and parts of the Somali Region. Vegetation: Almost barren, with salt flats and
scattered drought-resistant plants.
5. Tropical Monsoon Climate
Elevation: Varies, primarily in southwestern Ethiopia. Temperature: Warm and humid, with
annual temperatures around 20°C–25°C. Rainfall: Very high, exceeding 1,800 mm annually,
with consistent rains. Regions: Found in areas like Gambella and parts of the western lowlands.
Vegetation: Dense tropical forests and grasslands

5. Climate change
It is a long term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth's local,
regional and global or regional climate patterns, typically seen as a rising average temperature. It
encompasses a wide range of changes, not just temperature increase but also changes in
precipitation patterns, saw level rise and more frequent extreme weather events. Or Climate
change refers to significant alterations in global temperatures and weather patterns over time.
While climate change is a natural phenomenon, current trends are largely driven by human
activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).
These emissions result primarily from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and various industrial
processes. The result is a warming effect on the Earth's atmosphere, which leads to various
environmental and climatic disruptions.

Causes of Climate Change in Ethiopia

The causes of climate change in Ethiopia are multifaceted and reflect both global and local
factors. Here is a more detailed exploration:
1. Deforestation and Land Degradation:
Deforestation: Ethiopia has lost a significant portion of its forest cover due to agricultural
expansion, logging, and fuel wood collection. Forests play a crucial role in sequestering carbon
dioxide (CO2), and their removal releases this stored carbon back into the atmosphere,
contributing to global warming.
Land Degradation: Overgrazing, improper agricultural practices, and deforestation have led to
soil erosion and degradation. Degraded lands lose their ability to absorb CO2 and contribute to
the release of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
2. Agricultural Practices:
Slash-and-Burn Agriculture: This traditional method involves clearing land by burning
vegetation, which releases significant amounts of CO2. While it may be a quick way to clear
land, it contributes to the atmospheric accumulation of GHGs.
Livestock Farming: Ethiopia has a large livestock population. Ruminant animals, such as cattle,
sheep, and goats, produce methane (CH4) during digestion through a process called enteric
fermentation.
Methane is a potent GHG, with a global warming potential much higher than CO2.
Rice Cultivation: Although less common in Ethiopia compared to other regions, rice paddies can
emit methane due to anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in flooded fields.
3. Energy Production and Consumption:
Biomass Burning: A significant portion of Ethiopia’s energy comes from biomass, including
firewood and charcoal. Burning biomass releases CO2 and other pollutants, contributing to
atmospheric GHG levels.
Fossil Fuels: While Ethiopia’s use of fossil fuels is relatively low compared to industrialized
nations, the use of diesel and gasoline for transportation and industry is increasing, leading to
higher CO2 emissions.
4. Industrialization and Urbanization:
Industrial Emissions: As Ethiopia develops, industrial activities increase, leading to higher
emissions of GHGs. Cement production, for example, releases CO2 both from the combustion of
fossil fuels and from the chemical conversion of limestone into lime.
Urbanization: Rapid urban growth leads to increased energy consumption and waste generation.
Urban areas often have higher per capita emissions due to greater energy use for heating,
cooling, and transportation.
5. Transport Sector:
Vehicle Emissions: The number of vehicles in Ethiopia is rising, particularly in urban areas like
Addis Ababa. Most vehicles run on diesel or gasoline, producing CO2, methane, and nitrous
oxide (N2O). Poor fuel quality and inadequate maintenance exacerbate these emissions.
Public Transportation: The lack of efficient public transportation systems forces more people to
rely on private cars and informal modes of transport, increasing overall emissions.
6. Waste Management:
Solid Waste: Poor waste management practices, including open dumping and burning of waste,
release methane and CO2. Landfills and dumpsites generate methane through the anaerobic
decomposition of organic waste.
Wastewater Treatment: Inadequate wastewater treatment can lead to the release of methane and
nitrous oxide. Proper treatment and disposal methods are often lacking, particularly in rural
areas.

7. Population Growth:
Ethiopia has one of the highest population growth rates in the world. A growing population
increases demand for food, energy, and land, leading to deforestation, overgrazing, and higher
emissions. The pressures of a larger population can exacerbate all the aforementioned factors,
leading to more significant environmental impacts.
8. Climate Policy and Governance:
Policy Gaps: While Ethiopia has made strides in developing policies to address climate change,
there are gaps in implementation and enforcement. Limited resources and institutional capacity
hinder effective climate action.
Economic Development Priorities: Balancing economic development with environmental
sustainability is challenging. Development projects often prioritize immediate economic gains
over long-term environmental health, leading to increased emissions and resource degradation.
Consequences of Climate Change
The impact of climate change in Ethiopia is profound and multifaceted:
1. Temperature Increases: Average temperatures in Ethiopia have risen, leading to more
frequent and severe heat waves. This exacerbates water scarcity and stresses agricultural
production, as many crops are sensitive to temperature fluctuations.
2. Erratic Rainfall Patterns: Changes in rainfall patterns have become more noticeable, with
some regions experiencing intense droughts while others face unseasonal and heavy rains. This
inconsistency severely impacts agricultural yields and food security, given that Ethiopia's
economy is largely agrarian.
3. Droughts and Water Shortages: Recurrent droughts have become a major concern, leading to
water shortages that affect not only human consumption but also agriculture and livestock, which
are critical to the livelihood of millions of Ethiopians.
4. Desertification: Climate change accelerates the process of desertification, where fertile land
becomes increasingly arid. This is particularly problematic in regions like the Somali and Afar
areas, where desertification threatens biodiversity and agricultural productivity.
5. Health Impacts: Climate change can exacerbate health issues through increased prevalence of
vector-borne diseases such as malaria, which thrives in warmer climates. Additionally, food and
water shortages can lead to malnutrition and other related health problems.
Control Methods for Climate Change in Ethiopia
Approaches to mitigate Ethiopian Climate
Addressing climate change in Ethiopia requires a multifaceted approach, involving both
mitigation and adaptation strategies:
1. Reforestation and Afforestation: Initiatives to reforest and afforest land are crucial. Ethiopia's
Green Legacy Initiative aims to plant billions of trees to restore degraded landscapes and
enhance carbon sequestration.
2. Sustainable Agriculture: Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, such as conservation
agriculture, agro forestry, and climate-smart farming techniques, can help reduce emissions and
improve resilience. These practices include crop diversification, soil conservation, and the use of
drought-resistant crop varieties.
3. Renewable Energy Development: Expanding renewable energy sources, particularly solar and
wind can reduce reliance on biomass and fossil fuels. Ethiopia's investment in renewable energy
projects, including hydroelectric power, solar farms, and wind turbines, is pivotal in reducing
carbon emissions.
4. Water Management: Improving water management systems, such as the construction of dams
and irrigation infrastructure, can help mitigate the effects of erratic rainfall and droughts.
Efficient water use and conservation techniques are essential for sustaining agriculture and
human consumption.
5. Education and Awareness: Raising awareness and educating communities about climate
change and sustainable practices is vital. Community-based programs and initiatives that engage
local populations in climate action can foster more sustainable practices and increase resilience
6. Policy and Governance: Strengthening climate policies and governance frameworks is
essential for effective climate action. Ethiopia's Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE)
strategy outlines plans to achieve middle-income status by 2025 while developing a green
economy. This involves setting emissions targets, improving environmental regulations, and
integrating climate considerations into national development plans.
Information Sources
Source :
1, Ethiopian metrological institute (https://www.ethiomet.gov.et)
2, NASA world weather (world wind technology) (https://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/worldweather)
Zoom earth (live weather map)
(https://zoom.earth/places/ethiopia)
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-geophysical/chapter/controls-of-climate/
https://slcc.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeography/chapter/10-2/
Sky bray. Aero
Science direct. Com
3. https://science.nasa.gov
4. National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia. “Climate Change National Adaptation
Programme of Action (NAPA) of Ethiopia." Addis Ababa: Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia, 2007.
4. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. "Ethiopia's Climate Resilient Green
Economy (CRGE) Strategy." Addis Ababa: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2011.
5. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). "Climate Change 2014: Impacts,
Adaptation, and Vulnerability." Cambridge University Press, 2014.
6. World Bank. "Ethiopia Climate Risk Profile." Washington, DC: World Bank, 2016.
7. FAO. "Forests and Climate Change Working Paper 12: Forests and Climate Change in Eastern
Africa." Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2010.
8. Environmental Protection Authority. "Ethiopia's Second National Communication to the
UNFCCC." Addis Ababa: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2015.
9. Global Methane Initiative. "Country Profile: Ethiopia." 2019.
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