1.
Data Processing and Information
Data Processing:
Definition: The systematic conversion of raw data into meaningful
information using methods such as sorting, classifying,
summarizing, and computing.
Types of Processing:
1. Batch Processing:
o Processes data at scheduled intervals.
o Example: Utility bill calculations.
o Pros: Cost-effective for large volumes; simpler to manage.
o Cons: Not suitable for time-sensitive tasks.
2. Real-Time Processing:
o Processes data instantly as it’s entered.
o Example: Airline reservation systems.
o Pros: Immediate response; ideal for critical operations.
o Cons: Higher system costs; complex infrastructure.
3. Online Processing:
o Processes data continuously via a network.
o Example: Online banking.
o Pros: Easy accessibility; user-friendly.
o Cons: Requires a constant internet connection.
Characteristics of Quality Information:
Accuracy: Ensures decisions based on it are correct.
Timeliness: Delivered when required.
Completeness: Must include all necessary data.
Consistency: Uniform and standardized across systems.
Relevance: Pertinent to the decision-making process.
Validation Checks:
1. Presence Check: Ensures required fields are not left empty.
2. Range Check: Ensures numeric data falls within defined limits
(e.g., test scores between 0–100).
3. Format Check: Verifies data conforms to specific patterns (e.g.,
dates in DD/MM/YYYY).
4. Length Check: Ensures input matches the required number of
characters.
5. Type Check: Confirms input type (e.g., numeric or text).
6. Lookup Validation: Compares input with predefined values (e.g.,
dropdown menus).
7. Cross-Field Validation: Checks consistency between fields (e.g.,
birth date cannot be after the current date).
Verification Methods:
1. Double Entry: Data is entered twice and cross-checked for
mismatches.
2. Proofreading: Manual comparison of input data with the original
source.
3. Checksums/Hashing: Verifies data integrity during transmission
by comparing calculated and received values.
2. Hardware and Software
Hardware:
Input Devices:
1. Keyboard:
o Standard: QWERTY, ergonomic keyboards for faster typing.
o Applications: Text input in documents, coding, filling forms.
2. Pointing Devices:
o Mouse: Controls pointer, supports drag-and-drop operations.
o Touchpad: Laptop navigation.
3. Scanners:
o Flatbed: Converts hard copy images to digital.
o QR Code Readers: Used in retail and marketing.
4. Biometric Devices:
o Fingerprint scanners for authentication.
o Retina scanners for secure access in defense systems.
Output Devices:
1. Monitors:
o Types: LCD, LED, OLED, resolution comparison (Full HD, 4K).
o Use Cases: Gaming, CAD, medical imaging.
2. Printers:
o Inkjet: High-quality, lower volume.
o Laser: Cost-effective for bulk printing.
o 3D Printers: Create prototypes for engineering or medical
applications.
Storage Devices:
1. Primary Storage:
o RAM (volatile): Temporary data processing.
o ROM (non-volatile): Contains boot-up instructions.
2. Secondary Storage:
o HDDs: Large capacity, affordable but slower than SSDs.
o SSDs: Fast, durable but costly.
3. Cloud Storage:
o Examples: Google Drive, Dropbox.
o Advantages: Accessible anywhere; scalable storage.
Software:
1. System Software:
o Includes operating systems (Windows, Linux).
o Manages hardware resources.
2. Application Software:
o Productivity Software: MS Office, Google Docs.
o Industry-Specific: CAD for engineers, GIS for geographers.
3. Utility Software:
o Antivirus tools (e.g., Norton, McAfee).
o Disk cleanup and defragmentation software.
3. Monitoring and Control
Monitoring:
Patient Monitoring:
o Devices: Heart rate monitors, oxygen level sensors.
o Data is analyzed by healthcare staff in real-time.
Weather Monitoring:
o Tools: Barometers, hygrometers, satellite data collection.
o Applications: Early warning systems for storms or floods.
Control:
1. Traffic Light Systems:
o Sensors detect vehicle flow; adjust light intervals accordingly.
o Adaptive Traffic Control optimizes traffic flow.
2. Smart Thermostats (e.g., Nest):
o Sensors monitor temperature and adjust heating or cooling.
o Reduces energy wastage.
4. Algorithms and Flowcharts
Algorithms:
Step-by-step instructions for solving a problem.
Characteristics:
o Finite: Must have a defined end.
o Efficient: Minimizes resources.
o Clear: Unambiguous steps.
Example Algorithm:
Task: Calculate the area of a rectangle.
css
1. Input length and width.
2. Area = length × width.
3. Display area.
Flowcharts:
Visual representation of an algorithm.
Symbols:
o Oval: Start/End.
o Rectangle: Process.
o Diamond: Decision.
o Arrows: Flow direction.
Example Flowchart Application:
Problem: Determine if a number is odd or even.
1. Start.
2. Input the number.
3. Decision: Is number mod 2 = 0?
4. Yes → Output "Even."
5. No → Output "Odd."
6. End.
5. e-Security
Advanced Threats:
1. Zero-Day Exploits:
o Exploits unknown vulnerabilities in software before developers
fix them.
2. Keyloggers:
o Capture user keystrokes to steal sensitive data.
3. Man-in-the-Middle Attacks:
o Hackers intercept communication between two parties.
o Example: Eavesdropping on online banking sessions.
Encryption Types:
1. Symmetric Encryption:
o Same key for encryption and decryption.
o Example: AES (Advanced Encryption Standard).
2. Asymmetric Encryption:
o Public and private keys for secure communication.
o Example: RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman).
Firewalls:
Types:
o Software Firewall: Installed on individual devices.
o Hardware Firewall: Dedicated devices for network security.
6. The Digital Divide
Causes:
1. Infrastructure Inequality:
o Lack of broadband in rural areas.
2. Device Affordability:
o Limited access to computers and smartphones in low-income
regions.
3. Language Barriers:
o Majority of online resources are in English.
Bridging Solutions:
1. Subsidies for Low-Income Families:
o Programs like “Internet Essentials” in the US.
2. Community Access Centers:
o Libraries with free internet access.
3. Language Translation Technologies:
o Tools like Google Translate to increase accessibility.
7. Expert Systems
Detailed Examples:
1. Medical Diagnosis Systems:
o Example: IBM Watson.
o Inputs symptoms, suggests possible conditions.
2. Agricultural Use:
o Diagnose plant diseases based on leaf conditions.
3. Customer Support Chatbots:
o Simulates conversations for basic troubleshooting.
8. Modelling
Applications:
1. Economic Models:
o Predicting GDP growth rates.
o Example: Input-output tables in national accounts.
2. Weather Models:
o Tracks temperature changes, wind speed patterns.
3. Engineering Models:
o Stress-testing architectural designs using finite element
analysis (FEA).
9. IT in Society
Ethical Concerns in IT:
1. Data Privacy Violations:
o Examples: Facebook-Cambridge Analytica scandal.
2. Digital Piracy:
o Illegal downloads of movies, software.
3. Automation’s Impact on Jobs:
o Certain roles (e.g., cashiers) becoming obsolete.
10. New and Emerging Technologies
Blockchain:
1. Cryptocurrency:
o Bitcoin for decentralized financial transactions.
o Benefits: Transparency, reduced fraud.
2. Smart Contracts:
o Executes agreements automatically when conditions are met.
IoT (Internet of Things):
1. Applications:
o Wearable Devices: Track fitness metrics.
o Smart Cities: Monitor traffic, water supply.
11. Communications Technology
Detailed Network Types:
1. LAN (Local Area Network):
o Small areas like schools or offices.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network):
o Example: The internet itself.
3. PAN (Personal Area Network):
o Bluetooth connections for devices.
12. Project Management
Detailed Tools:
1. Gantt Charts:
o Show start and end dates for tasks.
2. Agile Tools:
o Kanban boards for dynamic workflow adjustments.
13. System Life Cycle
Phases in Detail:
1. Analysis:
o Interview stakeholders to identify user needs.
2. Design:
o Data flow diagrams (DFDs) for process mapping.
3. Testing:
o Unit Testing: Tests individual components.
o Integration Testing: Ensures modules interact correctly.
4. Maintenance:
o Perfective: Enhancing system functionalities.
