Principles of Engineering Assignment

On

Design of Pumped Hydro Energy Storage System in the UK

By

Akintokun, Adegboyega Samuel

Student ID: 449004

Submitted to

Dr Sagar Jain

October 2024.
 INTRODUCTION

Background

There has been a steady shift towards renewable energy in the UK over the past 30 years.

According to the Climate Change Act, the government plans to achieve Net Zero greenhouse gas

emissions by 2050 (David, L., 2024). However, renewable resources like wind and solar are not

constantly available, which makes it difficult to stabilize the energy supply. The current trajectory

towards Net Zero emissions is far from the target.

Figure 1: Current Path of Future Emissions vs. Path to Target

Pumped Storage Hydropower is one of the best renewable energy options that balances supply and

demand by storing surplus energy during low demand to release when there is high demand.

(BiGGAR Economics, 2023).

Aim:

This project aims to design a 1GW pumped hydro storage facility that can address the challenges in

energy storage while contributing to the UK’s renewable energy goals.

Objectives:

• Provide a schematic drawing of the proposed pumped hydro storage facility

• Discuss the engineering principles employed in the design

• Give some recommendations for future work

 METHODOLOGY

Objective:

The primary objective of this design is to develop a schematic for pumped hydro energy storage that

is functional and efficient.

Requirement:

Power Output: 1 GW

Efficiency Target: >85%

Geographical considerations:

• Good topography for water retention.

• A site with a high head (this reduces the cost of reservoir and water conduit).

• The site should require minimal excavation.

• Proximity to the grid for reduced power transmission costs. (IHA, 2018, p23-26).

Compliance with international standards IEC61116, IEC62006, ISO9001, ISO14001, International

Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), and World Bank EHS guidelines.

Design Calculations and Analysis

➢ Energy Output and Reservoir Capacity

The power output (P) of a hydroelectric facility is given by the equation:

𝑃 = 𝜂. 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑄. 𝐻

Where:

• P is the power in watts (1 GW = 1 × 109 W),

• 𝜂 is the efficiency (typically 80% < 𝜂 < 90%),

 • 𝜌 is the density of water (1000 kg/m3),

• 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2),

• 𝑄 is the flow rate in cubic meters per second (m3/s),

• 𝐻 is the effective head (height difference between the upper and lower reservoirs) in meters.

Assumptions: Efficiency (𝜂) is assumed to be 85% and a target head (𝐻) of 500 meters (based on a

similar project – Coire Glas Pumped Storage Hydropower which has a head of approximately

500m).

Rearranging the equation to solve for the flow rate 𝑄:

𝑃
𝑄=
𝜂. 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝐻

Substituting the values into the equation:

1 × 109
𝑄=
0.85 . 1000 . 9.81 . 500

𝑄 ≈ 239.25 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠

i.e. To generate 1 GW of power with a 500 m head, the flow rate through the turbines must be

approximately 239.25 cubic meters per second.

Figure 2: Hydro Power vs. Volume Flow and Head Chart

The figure above shows that the calculation results are within the acceptable range for a 500m head.

➢ Reservoir Volume (V)

The required reservoir volume can only be estimated after calculating the amount of water needed

to be stored to generate electricity for a specific amount of time. For this project, it will be assumed

that the facility is expected to generate 1 GW for 6 hours.

𝐸 = 𝑃. 𝑡 = 𝜂. 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉. 𝐻

Where:

• 𝐸 is the energy in joules

𝐸 = 𝑃. 𝑡 = 1 × 109 . 6 × 3600

𝐸 = 2.16 × 1013 𝐽
 • 𝑉 is the reservoir volume in cubic meters (m3).

Rearranging the equation to solve for the reservoir volume 𝑉:

𝐸
𝑉=
𝜂. 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝐻

Substituting the values into the equation:

2.16 × 1013
𝑉=
0.85 . 1000 . 9.81 . 500

𝑉 ≈ 5.17 × 106 𝑚3

i.e. To store enough water to generate 1 GW for 6 hours, the upper reservoir needs to have a

capacity of approximately 5.17 million cubic meters.

➢ Penstock Diameter (D)

The penstock diameter 𝐷 can be estimated by calculating the cross-sectional area (A) from its

relationship to the flow rate 𝑄 and flow velocity 𝑣

𝐷 2
𝑄 = 𝐴. 𝑣 = 𝜋. ( ) . 𝑣
2

Rearranging the equation to solve for the penstock diameter 𝐷:

4𝑄
𝐷=√
𝜋. 𝑣

Assumption: a flow velocity of 5m/s is used (ESHA, 2004)

Substituting the values into the equation:

4 × 239.25
𝐷=√
𝜋. 5

𝐷 ≈ 3.9 𝑚

i.e. The penstock requires a diameter of approximately 3.9 meters to handle the flow rate required

for the facility.

 ➢ Penstock Length and Head Losses

The head loss due to friction can be estimated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

𝐿 𝑣2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓. .
𝐷 2𝑔

Assumption: The length of the penstock is assumed to be 1km (it can vary based on the vertical and

horizontal distance between the reservoirs)

Where:

• 𝑓 is the friction factor (0.02 for smooth steel),

• 𝐿 is the length of the penstock (1000 m),

• 𝐷 is the penstock diameter (3.9 m),

• 𝑣 is the flow velocity (5 m/s),

• 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2).

Substituting the values into the equation:

1000 52
ℎ𝑓 = 0.02 . .
3.9 2 . 9.81

ℎ𝑓 ≈ 3.24 𝑚

The head loss of approximately 3.24 meters due to friction can be considered negligible in the

design as it is relatively small when compared to the 500 m head.

➢ Turbine Selection

Pelton turbines will be used for this project as they operate efficiently for high heads (250 – 1000

m). The specific design can be flexible depending on the manufacturer as long as the flow

characteristics and power rating are specified to match the calculated flow rate of 239.25 m3/s.
 TURBINE TYPE HEAD RANGE IN METERS

KAPLAN AND PROPELLER 1 < HN < 40

FRANCIS 25 < HN < 350

PELTON 50 < HN < 1300

CROSSFLOW 50 < HN < 200

TURGO 50 < HN < 250

Table 1: Range of heads for specific types of turbines. (Muhammad A. et al., 2014)

Multiple turbines will be used to distribute the flow and ensure redundancy. If each turbine has a

300 MW rating:

1 × 109
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = ≈ 3.33
300 × 106

Therefore, a minimum of four turbines should be used, each handling about 25% of the total flow.

➢ Pumps

The pump should be sized to handle the same flow rate of 239.25 m3/s to pump water back into the

upper reservoir when there is low demand. A reversible pump-turbine is used to do both pumping

and generation.

Pump Priming is important to increase pump responsiveness to grid demands as priming helps to

avoid cavitation which can hinder smooth transitioning between pumping and generating modes.

Safety Margins and Tolerances

Variations in operating conditions must be accounted for by including certain tolerances:

 • Flow Rate: Due to seasonal variations in water availability and fluctuations in grid demand,

the penstock and turbine flow rates should be designed with a 10-15% tolerance to

accommodate such changes.

• Penstock Pressure: To ensure safety under surge conditions, the penstock should be made

to be able to withstand up to 25% more than the expected maximum operating pressure.

• Reservoir Capacity: Reservoir capacities should include up to an extra 15-20% volume for

heavier rainfall or water inflow beyond design specifications.

Environmental Impact Considerations

1. Dams with spillways

• Purpose: This is to prevent flooding downstream by ensuring there is no water

overflow, especially in seasons of high rainfall or unplanned water inflows.

• Environmental Impact: The nearby ecosystem is protected from erosion, flood risks,

or habitat destruction as excess water is channeled safely.

2. Fish Screen

• Purpose: This is a protective screen that prevents the destruction of aquatic

organisms by entering the turbine.

• Environmental Impact: Preservation of local biodiversity and aquatic life which is

crucial to the ecosystem.

3. Underground cabling

• Purpose: To transmit the electricity generated by the facility to the grid without

risking wildlife or the landscape.

• Environmental Impact: There is reduced visual impact and birds are exposed to

fewer hazards. Habitat disruption that could occur from above-ground power lines is

avoided.
 4. Emergency shut-off valves

• Purpose: This allows emergency stop to water flow when equipment fails or any

other crisis.

• Environmental Impact: This prevents erosion and flooding due to a sudden

fluctuation in water level that can be caused by equipment failure.

Component Layout and Connections

• Penstock Layout: The penstock begins as a single large tunnel at the upper reservoir and

travels downward. This main penstock tunnel then splits into four branches near the

powerhouse, each feeding one of the four turbines. This split design allows each turbine to

receive a controlled flow of water and allows for the management of individual turbines.

• Turbines and Generators: Inside the powerhouse, each branch connects to a dedicated

turbine, and each turbine has its generator. This setup allows for the independent operation

of each turbine and provides flexibility in energy generation, especially useful during

varying load demands.

• Return Flow Layout: After passing through the turbines, the water flow is channeled

through four separate branches, which then converge back into a tunnel leading to the lower

reservoir. This layout supports efficient water flow management and minimizes

backpressure on individual turbines.

• Water Flow Path: Water is channeled from the upper reservoir through the main penstock,

splitting into four paths before entering each turbine. Once water has passed through the

turbines, it exits via the branch conduits and reconverges into the return tunnel, ultimately

reaching the lower reservoir.

• Flow Control Mechanisms: To manage the water flow effectively, control valves are

placed before the split in the main penstock and at the exit points of each turbine. These
 valves help regulate the water flow rate, pressure, and distribution, providing flexibility in

response to operational needs and safety requirements.

• Transmission Line Connections: Each turbine’s generator outputs electricity that is

channeled through individual transmission lines, which converge into a common

transmission route leading to the grid. The power lines from each generator can be designed

to combine at a substation before connecting to the grid, facilitating centralized control and

monitoring.

Figure 3: Layout of Pumped HydroStorage Facility

Figure 4: Schematic Drawing of the Pumped Hydro Energy Storage.
 CRITICAL DISCUSSION ON ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES USED IN DESIGN

1. Bernoulli’s Principle

1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑉1 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2 2
1
This states that in a steady, incompressible flow, the sum of kinetic energy (2 𝜌𝑣 2 ), potential

energy (𝜌𝑔ℎ), and pressure energy (𝑝) per unit volume remains constant along a streamline.

This knowledge is utilized in the design as it helps to understand the behavior of water flow

from the upper reservoir, converting the potential energy gained (from height) into kinetic

energy (velocity) which drives the turbine efficiently by utilizing changes in pressure and

velocity.

The design of the penstock uses changes in velocity and pressure to deliver maximum

energy output. During pumping, Bernoulli’s principle also helps to optimize water flow

back into the upper reservoir.

2. Continuity Equation

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

This states that the product of cross-sectional area (A) and velocity (v) remains constant

along a streamline. This implies that if a uniform cross-sectional area can be maintained

along the stream, the flow velocity will also remain unchanged and hence fluctuations are

avoided.

3. Darcy-Weisbach Equation

𝐿 𝑣2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓. .
𝐷 2𝑔

This equation was earlier applied to determine the head loss in the penstock due to friction.

It helps in selecting the optimal dimensions for length (𝐿), diameter (𝐷), and material with
 the appropriate friction factor (𝑓) that can minimize energy losses for the required flow

velocity (𝑣).

4. Torque and Rotational Dynamics

Torque is generated when the water hits the turbine blades with force which in turn, rotates

the turbine shaft. With this knowledge, the blade angles are adjusted to maximize the torque

generated for efficient energy transfer to the generator.

Also, using principles from rotational dynamics, the design is made in such a way that the

rotational speed of the turbine matches the operating range of the generator as there is

optimal power output and minimized energy loss when they are in sync.

5. Stress-Strain Analysis

𝑃𝑅
𝜎=
𝑡

The stress (𝜎) in the penstock is related to the internal pressure (𝑃), radius (𝑅) and wall

thickness (𝑡), by the formula above for Hoop Stress in thin-walled pressure vessels. Hence,

the wall thickness used must be able to withstand fluctuating pressure without fatigue.

Similarly, the stress in the turbine blades is related to the in-plane force 𝑃, plate width 𝑤,

and plate thickness 𝑡, by the formula below:

𝑃
𝜎=
(𝑤𝑡)

Therefore, increasing the plate width or thickness has a reducing effect on the stress

however, they should be within design considerations.

High tensile steel is also employed so it can withstand intense pressure from the water

without deformation.
6. Principle of Thermal Expansion

Temperature change can lead to the expansion or contraction of materials and ultimately,

structural stress over time. Considering this, the material used should be of low thermal

expansivity. FEA (Finite Element Analysis) is also used to determine stress points and

examine the thermal cycle of the material in consideration to ensure it can withstand the

maximum stress.

7. Corrosion Resistance

To minimize structural degradation, stainless steel is used due to its high natural resistance

to corrosion. Epoxy-coated steel can also be used.

8. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control

PID controllers help to match the grid demand by adjusting the turbine speed and valve

positions accordingly.

9. Sustainable Design

Incorporating design elements like a fish screen helps to prevent fish from entering the

turbine thereby protecting the ecosystem and promoting long-term environmental health.
 SUMMARY

The pumped hydro energy storage project integrates different engineering principles to develop a

resilient structure with sustainability and optimal energy efficiency. Hydraulic principles were used

to ensure consistent flow and minimize head loss. Mechanical engineering uses rotational dynamics

to optimize the performance of the turbine blades. Material selection utilizes stress analysis and

chemical engineering principles like corrosion prevention. Flow and demand balance is maintained

using control engineering principles in PID controllers. Environmental engineering also ensures

sustainable design measures like fish screens and spillways allow ecosystem preservation.

Recommendations for Future Work

• As the electricity source used for pumping from the lower to the higher reservoir can allow

the Pumped storage to indirectly contribute to GHG emissions (although little) if the source

is of fossil origin, Pumped storage can be designed to operate during low-demand periods

and using excess renewable energy from sources like wind or solar to have perfectly net

zero emissions.

• Filtration systems can be incorporated into the design for increased efficiency of the turbine

blades as small sediments that can impact the operations are already filtered out before

intake.

• Composite or Self-healing material alternatives can be explored. This will increase the

lifespan of the components and reduce maintenance costs. More research can still be done to

identify better materials for varying environmental conditions.

• Artificial intelligence can be used in the control systems to balance flow according to energy

demand with greater precision than the PID controllers.

Knowledge Gaps

• Pumped storage hydro energy systems have been in the UK for only around a century so

there is not much knowledge on the long-term impact of these systems on the environment.

• Additional research for extreme climates. Analyzing thermal stress for such conditions can

help in developing materials that are more resilient.

REFERENCES

1. David, L. (2024). Navigating the Path to Net Zero: a closer look at the UK’s low-carbon and

renewable energy economy. Cambridge Industrial Innovation Policy. 2024, May 28.

Navigating the path to Net Zero: a closer look at the UK's low-carbon and renewable energy

economy - Cambridge Industrial Innovation Policy

2. The Economic Impact of Pumped Storage Hydro. BiGGAR Economics. 2023, May. pp 6.

3. IHA (2018). Hydropower Sustainability Guidelines

4. ESHA (2004). Guide on How to Develop a Small Hydropower Plant. pp 114.

5. Muhammad A., Saeed B., Talal A., & Noor R. (2014). Modelling and Analysis of a Very

Low Head Kaplan Turbine Runner Blades for Rural Area of Punjab. International Journal

of Scientific & Engineering Research, Vol. 5 (7):905. DOI: 10.14299/ijser.2014.07.006

6. J.L. Gordon & D.G. Murray. Material Selection for Penstocks. Hydro Review Fall. 1985. pp

80.

7. UNIDO (2019). Small Hydropower Technical Guidelines