ADITYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

UNIT I : Systems modeling, Clustering and

virtualization

Aditya College of Engineering & Technology

Surampalem.
 Aditya College of Engineering & Technology

Syllabus
UNIT I
Systems Modeling, Clustering and Virtualization: Scalable Computing over the Internet-The Age of Internet Computing,
Scalable computing over the internet, Technologies for Network Based Systems, System models for Distributed and Cloud
Computing, , Performance, Security and Energy Efficiency
UNIT II
Virtual Machines and Virtualization of Clusters and Data Centers: Implementation Levels of Virtualization,
Virtualization Structures/ Tools and Mechanisms, Virtualization of CPU, Memory and I/O Devices, Virtual Clusters and
Resource Management, Virtualization for Data-Center Automation.
UNIT III
Cloud Platform Architecture: Cloud Computing and Service Models, Public Cloud Platforms, Service Oriented
Architecture, Programming on Amazon AWS and Microsoft Azure

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Syllabus

UNIT IV
Cloud Resource Management and Scheduling: Policies and Mechanisms for Resource Management, Applications of
Control Theory to Task Scheduling on a Cloud, Stability of a Two Level Resource Allocation Architecture, Feedback
Control Based on Dynamic Thresholds. Coordination of Specialized Autonomic Performance Managers, Resource
Bundling, Scheduling Algorithms for Computing Clouds-Fair Queuing, Start Time Fair Queuing.
UNIT V
Storage Systems: Evolution of storage technology, storage models, file systems and database, distributed file systems,
general parallel file systems. Google file system.

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Text Books

Distributed and Cloud Computing, Kai Hwang, Cloud Computing, Theory and Practice,
Geoffry C. Fox, Jack J. Dongarra MK Elsevier. Dan C Marinescu, MK Elsevier.
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Contents

Systems modeling, Clustering and virtualization

 Scalable Computing over the Internet,
 Technologies for Network based systems,
 System models for Distributed and Cloud Computing,
 Software environments for distributed systems and clouds,
 Performance, Security And Energy Efficiency

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SCALABLE COMPUTING OVER THE INTERNET

 Data Deluge Enabling New Challenges.

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THE AGE OF INTERNET COMPUTING:

Billions of people use the Internet every day. As a result, supercomputer

sites and large data centers must provide high-performance computing
services to huge numbers of Internet users concurrently.
HPC/HTC
We have to upgrade data centers using fast servers, storage systems, and
high-bandwidth networks. The purpose is to advance network-based
computing and web services with the emerging new technologies.

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THE PLATFORM EVOLUTION:

Computer technology has gone through five generations of development,
1950 to 1970, a handful of mainframes, including the IBM 360 and CDC
6400, were built to satisfy the demands of large businesses and government
organizations.
1960 to 1980, lower-cost minicomputers such as the DEC PDP 11 and VAX
Series became popular among small businesses and on college campuses.
1970 to 1990, we saw widespread use of personal computers built with VLSI
microprocessors.
1980 to 2000, massive numbers of portable computers and pervasive
devices appeared in both wired and wireless applications.
Since 1990, the use of both HPC and HTC systems hidden in clusters, grids,
or Internet clouds
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 High-performance computing (HPC) is the use of parallel processing for

running advanced application programs efficiently, reliably and quickly. The
term applies especially to systems that function above a teraflop or 1012
floating-point operations per second.
High-throughput computing (HTC) is a computer science term to describe
the use of many computing resources over long periods of time to
accomplish a computational task.
HTC paradigm pays more attention to high-flux computing. The main
application for high-flux computing is in Internet searches and web services
by millions or more users simultaneously.
The performance goal thus shifts to measure high throughput or the number
of tasks completed per unit of time.

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COMPUTING PARADIGM DISTINCTIONS

In general, distributed computing is the opposite of centralized computing.
The field of parallel computing overlaps with distributed computing to a
great extent, and cloud computing overlaps with distributed, centralized, and
parallel computing.
Centralized computing - paradigm by which all computer resources are
centralized in one physical system. All resources (processors, memory, and
storage) are fully shared and tightly coupled within one integrated OS.
Many data centers and supercomputers are
centralized systems, but they are used in parallel,
distributed, and cloud computing applications

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Evolutionary trend toward parallel, distributed, and cloud computing with

clusters, MPPs, P2P networks, grids, clouds, web services, and the Internet of
Things.

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PARALLEL COMPUTING :
 Here all processors are either tightly coupled with centralized shared
memory or loosely coupled with distributed memory.
Interprocessor communication is accomplished through shared memory or
via message passing.
A computer system capable of parallel computing is commonly known as a
parallel computer .
Programs running in a parallel
computer are called parallel
programs.
The process of writing parallel
programs is often referred to as
parallel programming.
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DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING:
A distributed system consists of multiple autonomous computers, each
having its own private memory, communicating through a computer
network. Information exchange in a distributed system is accomplished
through message passing.
A computer program that runs in a
distributed system is known as a
distributed program.
The process of writing distributed
programs is referred to as
distributed programming.

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CLOUD COMPUTING :
An Internet cloud of resources can be either a centralized or a distributed
computing system.
The cloud applies parallel or distributed computing, or both.
Clouds can be built with physical or virtualized resources over large data
centers that are centralized or distributed.
Some authors consider cloud computing
to be a form of utility computing or service
computing.

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UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING
Refers to computing with pervasive devices at any place and time. Using
wired or wireless communication.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a networked connection of everyday objects
including computers, sensors, humans, etc.
The IoT is supported by Internet clouds to achieve ubiquitous computing
with any object at any place and time.
Finally, the term Internet computing is even broader and covers all
computing paradigms over the Internet

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SCALABLE COMPUTING TRENDS AND NEW PARADIGMS

Degrees of Parallelism:
When hardware was bulky and expensive, most computers were designed in a bit-
serial fashion.
bit-level parallelism (BLP): converts bit-serial processing to word-level processing
gradually.
Over the years, users graduated from 4-bit microprocessors to 8-,16-, 32-, and 64-bit
CPUs. This led us to the next wave of improvement, known as instruction-level
parallelism (ILP) , in which the processor executes multiple instructions
simultaneously rather than only one instruction at a time.
For the past 30 years, we have practiced ILP through pipelining, super-scalar
computing,
VLIW (very long instruction word) architectures, and multithreading.
ILP requires branch prediction, dynamic scheduling, and compiler support to work
efficiently.
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Data-level parallelism (DLP): was made popular through SIMD (single

instruction, multiple data) and vector machines using vector or array types of
instructions.
DLP requires even more hardware support and compiler assistance to work
properly.
Ever since the introduction of multicore processors and chip multiprocessors
(CMPs) ,we have been exploring task-level parallelism (TLP) .
A modern processor explores all of the this parallelism types. In fact, BLP, ILP,
and DLP are well supported by advances in hardware and compilers. However,
TLP is far from being very successful due to difficulty in programming and
compilation of code for efficient execution on multicore CMPs.
As we move from parallel processing to distributed processing, we will see an
increase in computing granularity to job-level parallelism (JLP).

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INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS:
Few key applications that have driven the development of parallel and
distributed systems over the years.

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THE TREND TOWARD UTILITY COMPUTING:

Technology Convergence toward HPC for Science and HTC for Business

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TECHNOLOGIES FOR NETWORK-BASED SYSTEMS

Improvement in processor and network technologies over 33 years.

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SINGLE-CHIP MULTI-PROCESSORS (CMP)

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Multicore CPU and Many-Core GPU Architectures:

• Multicore CPUs may increase from the tens of cores to hundreds or more in the
future
• But the CPU has reached its limit in terms of exploiting massive DLP due to the
memory wall problem.
• This has triggered the development of many-core GPUs with hundreds or more
thin cores.
• Now, x-86 processors have been extended to serve HPC and HTC systems in some
high-end server processors.
• Many RISC processors have been replaced with multicore x-86 processors and
many-core GPUs in the Top 500 systems.
• This trend indicates that x-86 upgrades will dominate in data centers and
supercomputers.
• The GPU also has been applied in large clusters to build supercomputers in MPPs
• In future , house both fat CPU cores and thin GPU cores on the same chip
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Multithreading Technology:
• Five micro-architectures in modern CPU processors, that exploit ILP and TLP supported by
multicore and multithreading technologies.

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GPU Computing to Exascale and Beyond:

• A GPU is a graphics coprocessor or accelerator mounted on a computer’s
graphics card or video card.
• A GPU offloads the CPU from tedious graphics tasks in video editing
applications.
• The world’s first GPU, the GeForce 256, was marketed by NVIDIA in 1999.
• These GPU chips can process a minimum of 10 million polygons per second,
and are used in nearly every computer on the market today.
• Some GPU features were also integrated into certain CPUs.
• Traditional CPUs are structured with only a few cores. For example, the Xeon
X5670 CPU has six cores. However, a modern GPU chip can be built with
hundreds of processing cores.

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GPU Programming Model:

• shows the interaction between a CPU and GPU in performing parallel

execution of floating-point operations concurrently. The CPU is the
conventional multicore processor with limited parallelism to exploit.
• The GPU has a many-core architecture that has hundreds of simple
processing cores organized as multiprocessors. Each core can have one or
more threads.
• The CPU instructs the GPU to perform massive data processing.

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Memory, Storage, and Wide-Area Networking:

Memory Technology
• Memory access time did not improve much in the past.
• In fact, the memory wall problem is getting worse as the processor gets faster.
• For hard drives, capacity increased from 260 MB in 1981 to 250 GB in 2004.
• The Seagate XT hard drive reached 3 TB in 2011.
• This represents an approximately 10x increase in capacity every eight years.
Disks and Storage Technology
• The rapid growth of flash memory and solid-state drives (SSDs) also impacts the
future of HPC and HTC systems.
• A typical SSD can handle 300,000 to 1 million write cycles per block
• Eventually, power consumption, cooling, and packaging will limit large system
development.

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System-Area Interconnects:
• Three interconnection networks for connecting servers, client hosts, and
storage devices; the LAN connects client hosts and servers, the SAN connects
servers with disk arrays, and the NAS connects clients with large storage
systems in the network environment.

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Wide-Area Networking:
Rapid growth of Ethernet bandwidth from 10 Mbps in 1979 to 1 Gbps in
1999, and 40 ~ 100 GE (Gigabit Ethernet )in It has been speculated that 1
Tbps network links will become available by 2013
An increase factor of two per year on network performance was reported,
which is faster than Moore’s law on CPU speed doubling every 18 months.
The implication is that more computers will be used concurrently in the
future.
High-bandwidth networking increases the capability of building massively
distributed systems.

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Virtual Machines and Virtualization Middleware:

Virtual machines (VMs) offer novel solutions to underutilized resources,
application inflexibility, software manageability, and security concerns in
existing physical machines.
Today, to build large clusters, grids, and clouds, we need to access large
amounts of computing, storage, and networking resources in a virtualized
manner.
We need to aggregate those resources, and hopefully, offer a single system
image.
In particular, a cloud of provisioned resources must rely on virtualization of
processors, memory, and I/O facilities dynamically.

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Virtual Machines
the architectures of three VM configurations.

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VM Primitive Operations:

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SYSTEM MODELS FOR DISTRIBUTED AND CLOUD COMPUTING:

Distributed and cloud computing systems are built over a large number of
autonomous computer nodes.
These node machines are interconnected by SANs, LANs, or WANs in a
hierarchical manner.
With today’s networking technology, a few LAN switches can easily connect
hundreds of machines as a working cluster. A WAN can connect many local
clusters to form a very large cluster of clusters.
In this sense, one can build a massive system with millions of computers
connected to networks.

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Clusters of Cooperative Computers:

A computing cluster consists of interconnected stand-alone computers
which work cooperatively as a single integrated computing resource.
Cluster Architecture:

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Single-System Image:
an ideal cluster should merge multiple system images into a single-system
image (SSI).
Cluster designers desire a cluster operating system or some middleware to
support SSI at various levels, including the sharing of CPUs, memory, and I/O
across all cluster nodes.
An SSI is an illusion created by software or hardware that presents a
collection of resources as one integrated, powerful resource.
SSI makes the cluster appear like a single machine to the user.

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Major Cluster Design Issues:

Without middleware, cluster nodes cannot work together effectively to
achieve cooperative computing.
The software environments and applications must rely on the middleware to
achieve high performance.
The cluster benefits come from scalable performance, efficient message
passing, high system availability, seamless fault tolerance, and cluster-wide
job management.

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Grid Computing Infrastructures:

Internet services such as the Telnet command enables a local computer to
connect to a remote computer.
A web service such as HTTP enables remote access of remote web pages.
Grid computing is envisioned to allow close interaction among applications
running on distant computers simultaneously.
Grid computing is a form of distributed computing whereby a "super and
virtual computer" is composed of a cluster of networked, loosely coupled
computers, acting in concern to perform very large tasks.

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Computational Grids:
• Like an electric utility power grid, a computing grid offers an infrastructure
that couples computers, software/middleware, special instruments, and
people and sensors together.
• The grid is often constructed across LAN, WAN, or Internet backbone
networks at a regional, national, or global scale.
• Enterprises or organizations present grids as integrated computing resources.
They can also be viewed as virtual platforms to support virtual organizations.
The computers used in a grid are primarily workstations, servers, clusters,
and supercomputers. Personal computers, laptops, and PDAs can be used as
access devices to a grid system.

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• shows an example computational grid built over multiple resource sites owned by different organizations. The
resource sites offer complementary computing resources, including workstations, large servers, a mesh of
processors, and Linux clusters to satisfy a chain of computational needs.

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PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK FAMILIES:

• An example of a well-established distributed system is the client-server
architecture. In this scenario, client machines (PCs and workstations) are
connected to a central server for compute, e-mail, file access, and database
applications.
• The P2P architecture offers a distributed model of networked systems. First,
a P2P network is client-oriented instead of server-oriented.
• In this section, P2P systems are introduced at the physical level and overlay
networks at the logical level.

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P2P Systems:
• In a P2P system, every node acts as both a client and a server, providing part
of the system resources.
• Peer machines are simply client computers connected to the Internet.
• All client machines act
autonomously to join or leave
the system freely. This implies
that no master-slave relationship
exists among the peers.
No central coordination or central
database is needed.

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P2P Application Families:

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Challenges – P2P:
P2P computing faces three types of heterogeneity problems in hardware,
software, and network requirements.
Fault tolerance, failure management, and load balancing are other important
issues in using overlay networks.
Lack of trust among peers poses another problem; Peers are strangers to
one another.
Security, privacy, and copyright violations are major worries by those in the
industry in terms of applying P2P technology in business applications
the system is not centralized, so managing it is difficult.

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CLOUD COMPUTING OVER THE INTERNET:

The Cloud Historical roots in today’s Internet apps
Search, email, social networks
File storage (Live Mesh, Mobile Me, Flicker, …)
• A cloud infrastructure provides a framework to manage scalable, reliable, on-
demand access to applications
• “A cloud is a pool of virtualized computer resources. A cloud can host a
variety of different workloads, including batch-style backend jobs and
interactive and user-facing applications.”
• A model of computation and data storage based on “pay as you go” access to
“unlimited” remote data center capabilities.

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Internet Clouds:
• Cloud computing applies a virtualized platform with elastic resources on
demand by provisioning hardware, software, and data sets dynamically. The
idea is to move desktop computing to a service-oriented platform using
server clusters and huge databases at data centers. Cloud computing
leverages its low cost and simplicity to benefit both users and providers.

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SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENTS FOR DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS AND CLOUDS

Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA):
• In grids/web services, Java, and CORBA, an entity is, respectively, a service, a
Java object, and a CORBA distributed object in a variety of languages. These
architectures build on the traditional seven Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) layers that provide the base networking abstractions. On top of this we
have a base software environment, which would be .NET or Apache Axis for
web services, the Java Virtual Machine for Java, and a broker network for
CORBA. On top of this base environment one would build a higher level
environment reflecting the special features of the distributed computing
environment.

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The Evolution of SOA:

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Trends toward Distributed Operating Systems:

• The computers in most distributed systems are loosely coupled. Thus, a
distributed system inherently has multiple system images.
• This is mainly due to the fact that all node machines run with an
independent operating system. To promote resource sharing and fast
communication among node machines, it is best to have a distributed OS
that manages all resources coherently and efficiently.
• Such a system is most likely to be a closed system, and it will likely rely on
message passing and RPCs for internode communications. It should be
pointed out that a distributed OS is crucial for upgrading the performance,
efficiency, and flexibility of distributed applications.

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Distributed Operating Systems:

Tanenbaum [26] identifies three approaches for distributing resource
management functions in a distributed computer system.
The first approach is to build a network OS over a large number of
heterogeneous OS platforms. Such an OS offers the lowest transparency to
users, and is essentially a distributed file system, with independent
computers relying on file sharing as a means of communication.
 The second approach is to develop middleware to offer a limited degree of
resource sharing, similar to the MOSIX/OS developed for clustered systems.
The third approach is to develop a truly distributed OS to achieve higher use
or system transparency.

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PERFORMANCE, SECURITY, AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Performance Metrics:
• To estimate processor and network performance. In a distributed system,
performance is attributed to a large number of factors.
• System throughput is often measured in Tflops (tera floating-point
operations per second), or TPS (transactions per second). Other measures
include job response time and network latency.
• An interconnection network that high bandwidth is preferred. System
overhead is often attributed to OS boot time, compile time, I/O data rate,
and the runtime support system used.
• Other performance-related metrics include Internet and web services;
system availability and dependability;

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Dimensions of Scalability:
• Users want to have a distributed system that can achieve scalable performance. Any resource
upgrade in a system should be backward compatible with existing hardware and software
resources. The following dimensions of scalability are characterized in parallel and distributed
systems:
• Size scalability This refers to achieving higher performance or more functionality by increasing the
machine size. The word “size” refers to adding processors, cache, memory, storage, or I/O channels.
The most obvious way to determine size scalability is to simply count the number of processors
installed.
• Software scalability This refers to upgrades in the OS or compilers, adding mathematical and
engineering libraries, porting new application software, and installing more user-friendly
programming environments. Some software upgrades may not work with large system
configurations. Testing and fine-tuning of new software on larger systems is a nontrivial job.
• Application scalability This refers to matching problem size scalability with machine size
scalability. Problem size affects the size of the data set or the workload increase. Instead of
increasing machine size, users can enlarge the problem size to enhance system efficiency or cost-
effectiveness.
• Technology scalability This refers to a system that can adapt to changes in building technologies,
When scaling a system design with new technology one must consider three aspects: time, space,
and heterogeneity.

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Amdahl’s Law:
• Consider the execution of a given program on a uniprocessor workstation
with a total execution time of T minutes. Now, let’s say the program has been
parallelized or partitioned for parallel execution on a cluster of many
processing nodes. Assume that a fraction α of the code must be executed
sequentially, called the sequential bottleneck. Therefore, (1 − α) of the code
can be compiled for parallel execution by n processors. The total execution
time of the program is calculated by α T + (1− α)T/n, where the first term is
the sequential execution time on a single processor and the second term is
the parallel execution time on n processing nodes. All system or
communication overhead is ignored here. The I/O time or exception handling
time is also not included in the following speedup analysis. Amdahl’s Law
states that the speedup factor of using the n-processor system over the use
of a single processor is expressed by:
• Speedup =S= T/[αT + (1− α)T/n] =1/[α + (1 −α)/n]

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Fault Tolerance and System Availability - System Availability

• HA (high availability) is desired in all clusters, grids, P2P networks, and cloud
systems. A system is highly available if it has a long mean time to failure
(MTTF) and a short mean time to repair (MTTR). System availability is
formally defined as follows:
• System Availability =MTTF/(MTTF +MTTR)
• System availability is attributed to many factors. All hardware, software, and
network components may fail. Any failure that will pull down the operation
of the entire system is called a single point of failure.
• The rule of thumb is to design a dependable computing system with no
single point of failure. Adding hardware redundancy, increasing component
reliability, and designing for testability will help to enhance system
availability and dependability.

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Network Threats and Data Integrity - Threats to Systems and Networks

• Network viruses have threatened many users in widespread attacks. These
incidents have created a worm epidemic by pulling down many routers and
servers, and are responsible for the loss of billions of dollars
• in business, government, and services.
• damage to users. As the figure shows, information leaks lead to a loss of
confidentiality.
• Loss of data integrity may be caused by user alteration, Trojan horses, and
service spoofing attacks. A denial of service (DoS) results in a loss of system
operation and Internet connections.

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Energy Efficiency in Distributed Computing:

• Primary performance goals in conventional parallel and distributed
computing systems are high performance and high throughput, considering
some form of performance reliability (e.g., fault tolerance and security).
• However, these systems recently encountered new challenging issues
including energy efficiency, and workload and resource outsourcing.
• These emerging issues are crucial not only on their own, but also for the
sustainability of large-scale computing systems in general.

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Energy Consumption of Unused Servers:

• To run a server farm (data center) a company has to spend a huge amount of
money for hardware, software, operational support, and energy every year.
Therefore, companies should thoroughly identify whether their installed
server farm (more specifically, the volume of provisioned resources) is at an
appropriate level, particularly in terms of utilization.
• It was estimated in the past that, on average, one-sixth (15 percent) of the
full-time servers in a company are left powered on without being actively
used (i.e., they are idling) on a daily basis.

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