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Unit-2 Time Response analysis

1. Introduction of Unit

Time response analysis is a method used to study how a system reacts to external changes over
time. This analysis is particularly relevant in control systems, signal processing, and
engineering to understand the dynamics of a system. There are two methods to analyse
functioning of a control system that are time domain analysis and control domain analysis. In
time domain analysis the response of a system is a function of time. It analyses the working of
a dynamic control system. This analysis can only be applied when nature of input plus
mathematical model of the control system is known. It is not easy to express the actual input
signals by simple equations as the input signals of the control systems are not fully known.
There are two components of any system’s time response, transient response and steady
response. Typical and standard test signals are used to judge the behaviour of typical test signals.
The characteristics of an input signal are constant acceleration, constant velocity, a sudden
change or a sudden shock. We discussed four types of test signals that are Impulse Step, Ramp,
Parabolic and another important signal is sinusoidal signal.
What is Time Response?
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called
the time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.
▪ Transient response
▪ Steady state response
The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure

Fig. 2.1
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In the above figure, both the transient and the steady states are indicated. The responses
corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state responses.
Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as
𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝑐𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)
Where,
𝑐𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) is the transient response
𝑐𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) is the steady state response

Transient Response:
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady state. So,
the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. The part of the time response
of the system that goes to zero as time t becomes very large is known as transient response.
The transient response of the system is obtained before the system reaches steady-state value.
Thus ct(t) has the property given by
lim 𝑐𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) = 0
𝑡→∞

Therefore, the response of the control system during the transient state is known as transient
response. The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’
is infinity and practically, it is five times constant.
The significant features of transient response of a system are:
(i) Transient response helps in understanding the nature of variation of the system.
(ii) It does not follow the standard signal applied due to the presence of inertia, friction
and energy storage elements.
(iii) It exhibits damped oscillations.
(iv) The deviation between the applied standard signal and the output is high but not
desirable and it has to be controlled before the steady state is reached.\
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Steady state Response

The part of the time response of the system that is obtained as the independent variable time t
approaches infinity is known as steady-state response of the system. It can also be defined as
a part of the total response found after the transient response dies out. The part of the time
response that remains even after the transient response has zero value for large values of ‘t’ is
known as steady state response. This means, the transient response will be zero even during
the steady state.
The significant features of steady-state response of a system are:
(i) Steady-state response helps in giving an idea about the accuracy of the system.
(ii) As the independent variable time t, tends to infinity, the deviation between the input
and output gives the steady-state error.
(iii) Steady-state response of the system follows the transient response of the system.
(iv) The pattern of the steady-state response of the system varies like sine wave or a
ramp function.
Example
Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control system
𝑐(𝑡) = 10 + 5𝑒 −𝑡
Here, the second term 5𝑒 −𝑡 will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the transient term.
And the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is the steady state term.
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Example 2.1: Determine the time response of the closed-loop system as the function
of time, denoted by c(t) for the system shown in Fig.2.2.

Fig. 2.2

Example 2.2: Determine the current i(t)flowing through the series RC circuit shown in Fig.
2.3(b) when the periodic waveform shown in Fig. 2.3(a) is applied. Also, determine the
transient and steady-state currents.

Fig.2.3
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Example 2.3: Determine the response for the system whose transfer function is given by
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Standard Test Signals

The time response of the control system depends on the type of standard test signals applied
to the system. Control systems are analysed and designed depending on the performance
indices of the systems. But performance indices of various control systems depend on the
type of standard test signal applied to it. It is necessary to know the importance of test signals
as a correlation exists between the output response of the system to a standard test input
signal and the capability of the system to cope with applied standard test input signal.
As discussed earlier, the input signal to a control system is not known ahead of time, but it is
random in nature and the instantaneous input cannot be expressed analytically. Only in some
special cases, the input signal is known in advance and expressible analytically or by curves,
such as in the case of the automatic control of cutting tools.
The standard test signals that can be applied to the control system are
(i) impulse signal,
(ii) step signal,
(iii) ramp signal,
(iv) parabolic signal, and
(v) sinusoidal signal.
However, to determine the time response characteristic of the control system, the first four
of the above standard test signals are applied and to determine the frequency response
characteristic, standard sinusoidal signal is applied.

Impulse Signal
The signal that is also called shock input, having its value as zero at all times except at t = 0
is called impulse signal and it is shown in Fig. 5.1. This type of signal is not practically
available since the occurrence of this type of signal is for a very small interval of time.

Fig. 2.4 | Impulse signal

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Mathematically, a unit-impulse signal is represented by

From the above equations, it is clear that the area of the impulse function is unity.
In addition,
the area is confined to an infinitesimal interval on the t-axis and is concentrated only at t = 0.
Taking Laplace transform, we obtain R(s) = A.
When A = 1, the impulse signal becomes unit-impulse signal i.e., R(s) = 1.
The impulse response of a system with transfer function G(s) is given by
G(s) = C(s)

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we obtain c(t) = g(t), where g(t) is called "weighting
function" of the system when unit-impulse signal is applied to the system.
The impulse signal is important due to the following reasons:
(i) The impulse signal is very useful for analysing the system in time domain.
(ii) It is used to generate the system response if provided with the fundamental
Information about the system characteristic.
(iii) Transfer function of the system can be obtained once the impulse response of the
system is known.
(iv) Impulse responses of the system can be obtained by taking the derivative of the step
response of the system.
(v) Depending on the area under the impulse response of the system, the stability of the
system can be determined. For example, if the area under the impulse response
curve is finite, then the system is stable with bounded input and bounded output.
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A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as

𝛿 (𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡 ≠ 0
0+
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 1
0−

The following figure shows unit impulse signal

So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under
small interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is
zero for all other values of ‘t’.
Step Signal
The signal that resembles a sudden change by changing its value from one level (usually
zero) to another level (may be A) in very small duration of time is known as step signal.
The schematic representation of step signal is shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 | Step signal

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The step signal is represented mathematically

Importance of Step Signal:

(i) It represents an instantaneous change in the reference input signal of the system. For
example, if the input is an angular position of a mechanical shaft, a step input
represents the sudden rotation of the shaft.
(ii) It is useful in revealing the quickness of the system when an abrupt change is applied
to the input.

Unit Step Signal

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as
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So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value is
one during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of
‘t’.
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Ramp Signal
The signal that depends linearly on the independent variable of the system, time t is known
as ramp signal. The ramp signal that starts at zero resembles a constant velocity function.
The schematic representation of ramp signal is shown in Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6 | Ramp signal

The ramp signal is represented mathematically as
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Importance of Ramp Signal:

(i) Ramp signal starts at time t = 0 and varies linearly with it.
(ii) It helps in testing the response of the system when a ramp signal is applied to it. For
example, if the input variable represents the angular displacement of the shaft, the
ramp input denotes the constant speed rotation of the shaft.

So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of‘t’ including zero. And its value increases
linearly with respect to‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal is zero for all negative
values of‘t’.
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Parabolic Signal
The signal that depends on the square of the independent variable of the system, time t is
known as parabolic signal. The parabolic signal that starts at zero resembles a constant
acceleration function. The schematic representation of parabolic signal is shown in Fig. 2.7.

Fig.2.7 | Parabolic signal

The parabolic signal is mathematically represented as

The different types of standard test signals with the corresponding r(t) in time-domain and
R(s) in frequency- domain are given in Table 2.1.
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Unit Parabolic Signal

A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its
value increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit
parabolic signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.
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Example 5.5: Determine i(t) for the step and impulse responses of the series RL circuit
shown in Fig. 2.8.

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we obtain

Impulse Response:
For the impulse response, the input excitation is d (t).
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Example 5.6: Determine i (t) for the step and impulse responses of the series RLC circuit
shown in Fig.2.9.

Fig.2.9
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Example 5.7: For the mechanical translational system shown in Fig.2.8, obtain time response of the
system subjected to (i) unit-step input and (ii) unit impulse input.
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Stability of the System

The stability of the system can be analysed based on the location of roots of the denominator
polynomial or poles of the transfer function of the system. In addition, it does not depend on
the input excitation applied to the system. The roots of the denominator polynomial or the poles
of the transfer function of the system will determine whether the system is stable, unstable or
marginally stable based on the location of poles in the s-plane, provided the degree of the
denominator polynomial is greater than or equal to the degree of the numerator polynomial.
By finding the location of the poles, i.e., the roots of the denominator polynomial of the transfer
function, the stability of the system can be determined.
(i) For a stable system, all the poles of the transfer function must lie in the left half of the
s-plane.
(ii) A system is said to be unstable, if any of the poles of transfer function are located in
the right half of the s-plane.
(iii) A system is said to be marginally stable, if transfer function has any poles on the jw -axis
in the s-plane provided the other poles of transfer function lie in the left half of the s-plane.
Although computer programmes are available for finding the roots of the denominator
polynomial of order higher than three, it is difficult to find the range of a parameter for stability.
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In such cases, especially in control system design an analytical procedure called the Routh–
Hurwitz stability criterion is used to analyse the stability of the system.

Type and Order of the System

The feed-forward transfer function of the system is G(s) and the system has a feedback transfer
function H(s).
5.5.1 Type of the System
Generally, the loop transfer function is expressed as

The TYPE of the system is decided based on the value n present in the general form of transfer
function. The TYPE of the system and its corresponding general form of transfer function for
some systems are given in Table 5.2.
Type of the system and the corresponding general transfer function

5.5.2 Order of the System

For the system described earlier, the generalized closed-loop transfer function is given by
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where K is the gain factor. The order of the system corresponds to the maximum power of
s in the denominator polynomial.
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5.6 First-Order System

The transfer function of the first-order system relating the input and output is given by

5.6.1 Performance Parameters of First-Order System

(i) Rise Time tr: The time taken by the response of a system to reach 90% of the final value
from 10% is known as the rise time tr. It can be obtained by equating the response of the system
in time domain c (t) to 0.1 and 0.9 respectively. Hence, tr is given by

(ii) Delay Time td: The time taken by the response of a system to reach 50 % of the final value
is known as the delay time td. It can be obtained by equating the response of the system in time
domain c(t) to 0.5.
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(iii) Settling Time ts: The time taken by the response of a system to reach 98 % of the final
value is known as the settling time. It can be obtained by equating the response of the system
in time domain c(t) to 0.98. Hence, ts is given by

(iv) Steady-State Error ess: It is the measurement of a difference existing between the standard
input signal r(t) applied and the output response obtained from the system c(t) when such
standard signals are applied.
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5.6.2 Time Response of a First-Order System

The time response of a first-order system when subjected to standard test signals such as unit-
impulse, unit-step and unit-ramp inputs is discussed.
Time response of a first-order system subjected to unit-impulse input: The transfer
function of a first-order system is given by

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we obtain

It is clear that the output value starts at zero and reaches unity as the independent variable
time t approaches infinity as shown in Fig. 5.7.
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Fig. 5.7 | Time response of first-order system subjected to step input

The steady-state error ess is given by

Also, the steady-state error of the system is determined using final value theorem as

Since ess = 0 , the first-order system is capable of responding to a unit-step input without any
steady-state error.
Substituting t = T in the time response of the system, we obtain

Here, the response of the system reaches 63.2% of the final value for the time constant T as
shown in Fig. 5.7. The response of the system cs (t) and the time constant of the system T are
inversely proportional to each other.
Time response of first-order system subjected to unit-ramp input:
We know that, for the first-order system,

For unit-ramp input or velocity input,

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Thus, the first-order system under consideration will track a unit-ramp input with a steady state
error T, which is the time constant of the system.
The input signal, output signal and steady-state error for the first-order system subjected to
ramp input are shown in Fig. 5.8.
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Fig. 5.8 | Time response of first-order system subjected to ramp input The time response of
first-order system when subjected to various standard input signal is given in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 | Time response of first-order system subjected to various test signals

Time-domain specifications for a first-order system subjected to unit-impulse input:

The time response of the first-order system subjected to unit-impulse input is

The time-domain specifications are given below:

(i) Rise Time tr:
From the definition,
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When the response of a system reaches 98 % of the final value, i.e., c (t) = 0.98, the time t0.98
is obtained as
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5.7 Second-Order System

The transfer function of the second-order system is given by

If no zeros exist in the system, the transfer function of the second-order system is given by

For determining the time response and analysing the performance of the second-order system,
𝑛 𝜔2
let us assume that the feed-forward transfer function of the system is (𝑠+2𝜉𝜔 and it has unity
𝑛)

feedback. Hence, the transfer function of the second-order system is given by

where n is an undamped natural frequency and  is the damping ratio which is given
by

The block diagram of the second-order system is shown in Fig. 5.9(a).

Fig. 5.9(a) | Second-order system

5.7.1 Classification of Second-Order System

The second-order system can be classified into four types based on the roots of the
characteristic equation of the system.
The characteristic equation of the second-order system is given by
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Its corresponding roots are given by

Here, the roots of the characteristic equation of the second-order system are dependent on the
damping ratio .
The classification of the second-order system based on the roots of characteristic equation
which depends on the damping ratio  is given in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 | Classification of second-order system

5.7.2 Performance Parameters of Second-Order System

Delay Time td: The time taken by the response of a system to reach 50 % of the final value is
known as the delay time (td). It can be obtained by equating the response of the system c (t) to
0.5, given by

Rise Time tr: The time taken by the response of a system to reach 90 % of the final value from
10 % is known as the rise time. In addition, it can be defined as the difference between the time
at which the response of the system has reached 10 % and 90 % of final value. The time at
which response of the system reaches 10 % and 90 % can obtained by equating the response of
the system c (t) to 0.1 and 0.9 respectively. Hence, tr is given by
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Peak Time tp : The time taken by the response of a system to reach the first peak overshoot is
known as the peak time. It can be obtained by differentiating the time response of the system
and equating it to zero.

Maximum Peak Overshoot Mp: The maximum peak overshoot is obtained at the peak time
of the response of a system, which is given by

Where 𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) the value obtained from the response of the system at peak time and 𝑐(𝑡∞ ) is
the steady-state value of the signal applied to the system.
The maximum peak overshoot is always represented as the percentage peak overshoot as

Special Case: If a standard unit signal is applied to a system, the steady-state value of the signal
applied to the system 𝑐(𝑡∞ ) will be 1 and hence the maximum peak overshoot will be

The relationship between the damping ratio of the second-order system  and peak

overshoot Mp is shown in Fig. 5.9(b), irrespective of the input applied to the system.

It is inferred that for an undamped system ( = 0), the peak overshoot is maximum;

and for the critically damped system ( = 1), the peak overshoot is minimum. In

addition, the peak overshoot does not exist for the second-order overdamped system

(   1). Hence, peak overshoot varies only for the second order underdamped system

( 0    1 ).
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Fig. 5.9(b) | Relation between peak overshoot and damping ratio

Settling Time ts: The time taken by the response of a system to reach 98% of the final

value is known as the settling time. It can be obtained by equating the response of the

system c(t) to 0.98.

Steady-State Error ess : It is the measurement of the difference existing between the

standard input signal r(t) applied and the output response obtained from the system

c(t) when such standard signals are applied.

5.7.3 Time Response of the Second-Order System

The time response of a second-order system (undamped, underdamped, critically damped and
overdamped) when the system is subjected to standard test signals such as unit-step, unit-ramp
and unit-impulse inputs is discussed in this section.
Time response of the second-order system subjected to unit-impulse input:
The closed-loop transfer function of the second-order system is
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Fig. 5.10 | Responses of the second-order system subjected to impulse input for different cases
Time response of a second-order system subjected to a unit-step input:
The closed-loop transfer function of the second-order system is
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Fig. 5.11 | Response of undamped second-order system subjected to unit-step input

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The response of an underdamped second-order system oscillates before settling to a final value
is shown in Fig. 5.12. The oscillation depends on the damping ratio.

Fig. 5.12 | Response of underdamped second-order system subjected to unit-step input

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Therefore, the response of an overdamped second-order system when subjected to unit-step

input has no oscillations but it takes longer time to reach the final steady value as shown in
Fig. 5.14.

Fig. 5.14 | Response of an overdamped second-order system when subjected to unit-step input
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The responses of the second-order system when subjected to a unit-step input are shown in
Fig. 5.15.

Fig. 5.15 | Responses of different second-order systems when the system is excited by unit-
step input
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Time response of a second-order system subjected to a unit-ramp input

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5.7.4 Time-Domain Specifications for an Underdamped Second-Order System

The time-domain specifications of an underdamped second-order system when subjected to
different standard signals are discussed below.
Underdamped second-order system subjected to a unit-impulse input:
The time response of an underdamped second-order system is given by
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Example 5.13: If the characteristic equation of a closed-loop system is s2 + 2s + 2 = 0, then

check whether the system is either overdamped, critically damped, underdamped or
undamped.

Example 5.14: The block diagram of the closed-loop servo system is shown in Fig. E5.14.
The system has a servo amplifier to amplify the weak error signal E(s), a servomotor to
actuate the load and a reduction gear to reduce the load velocity and to increase the load
torque. Determine the transfer function of the system and hence determine the steady
state error of the system subjected to unit-step and unit-ramp input.

Fig. 5.14
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Example 5.15 The moment of inertia and retarding friction of a servo mechanism are 10
x 10−6slug-ft2 and 400x10−6 lb.ft/rad sec respectively. Also, the output torque of the system
is 0.004 lb.ft/rad error. Determine 𝝎𝒏 n and 𝝃 for the system.
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Example 5.16: The values of different parameters of the closed-loop servo system shown
in Fig. E5.16 are B = 66 x 10−6 N.m/rad/sec, 𝝃 = 0.25, J = 1.35 x 10−6 kg-m2, T = 2.72 x 10−4
Nm/volt, gear ratio = 10:1 synchro constant KS = 57.4 V/rad/error and constant error
detector = 1 V/degree. The system has servo amplifier that amplifies the weak error signal
E(s) and a servomotor to actuate the load. Determine (i) 𝝎𝒏 (ii) the gain of the amplifier
and (iii) ess when the input shaft rotates at a speed of 10 rpm.

Fig. 5.16
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Example 5.17: The closed-loop servo system that controls the position of the system as
shown in Fig. E5.17 has servomotor and servo amplifier. Determine (i) amplifier gain and
(ii) steady-state error, given that the moment of inertia of the motor Jm = 1.4 x 10−6 Kg -
m2, JL = 0.0027 Kg - m2, gear ratio is 100:1, synchro constant, Ks = 57.4 V/rad/error, motor
constant Km = 3.3 x 10−4 N.m/V, B = 68 x 10−6 N.m, 𝝃 = 𝟎. 𝟐 and the input shaft rotates at
a speed of 20 rpm.

Fig. 5.17
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Example 5.21: A system with a unity feedback system has an open-loop transfer function
𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝑮(𝒔) = 𝒔(𝒔+𝟐)

Determine time-domain specifications of the system subjected to unit-step input.

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Example 5.22: The system with unity feedback control system has an open-loop transfer
𝟏𝟎
𝑮(𝒔) = 𝒔(𝒔+𝟐). Determine the time-domain specifications when the system is subjected to

a step input of 12 units.

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Example 5.28: The mechanical system shown in Fig. E5.28 has the parameter values as
M = 100 kg, f = 1000N/m/sec and K = 10000N/m. A step force of 100 N is applied to the
system. Determine the (i) damping factor, (ii) undamped natural frequency and (iii)
damped natural frequency and the step response of the system as a function of time.

Fig. 5. 28
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Example 5.29: For the system shown in Fig. E5.29, determine the time response c (t) of the system.
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Example 5.30: For the mechanical system shown in Fig. E5.30, determine the expression
for (i) damping factor, (ii) undamped natural frequency and (iii) damped natural
frequency.

Fig. E5.30
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5.8 Steady-State Error

The objective of the control system is to make the system response follow the specific Standard
reference signal applied to the system in a steady state without any deviation. The steady state
occurs due to the presence of non-linearities in the system. The accuracy of the control system
is measured by steady-state error. The steady-state error is defined as the difference between
the output response of the control system and the standard reference signal applied to it. The
occurrence of steady-state error in the control system is almost inevitable. But the steady-state
error can be maintained at a minimum value by satisfying the specifications of the transient
response of the system.
5.8.1 Characteristic of Steady-State Error
For the system shown in Fig. 5.17(a), R(s) is the step input, C(s) is the output and E(s) =
R(s)−C(s) is the error. As c(t) equals r(t) in the steady-state condition, there will be no error
existing in the system (i.e., e (t) = 0) which is practically impossible with the pure gain K. Thus,
in the steady-state condition, the relation between the steady-state value of the error and the
1
steady-state value of the output is given by 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾 𝐶𝑠𝑠 . Thus, for achieving a smaller steady-

state value of the error ess , a large value of gain K is used. Hence, a steady state error will be
present in the system if a step input is applied to the system that has a gain in the forward path.

Fig 5.17 | A simple closed-loop system

When a step input is applied, the steady error of the system becomes zero if the gain of the
system is replaced by an integrator as shown in Fig. 5.17(b). Thus, the steady-state error varies
with the gain value associated with the system.
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5.8.2 Determination of Steady-State Error

The steady-state error of a system when different types of standard test input signals are
applied to it is discussed in this section. The steady-state error can be determined for the
system with unity feedback and also for the system with non-unity feedback in terms of
closed-loop transfer function of the system.

5.8.3 Steady-State Error in Terms of G(s)

In this section, we will be determining the steady-state error of the system with unity feedback
path. Let G(s) be the transfer function of the forward path and H(s) = 1. Although, the steady-
state error is calculated in terms of closed-loop transfer function of the system for a unity
feedback system, it is better to use the open-loop transfer function G(s).

Fig 5.18 | A simple closed-loop system with unity feedback

Consider a system with unity feedback as shown in Fig. 5.18. The error E(s) is the difference
between the input R(s) and the output C(s). Thus, by solving for E(s), it is possible to get
an expression for the error.
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5.8.4 Steady-State Error in Terms of T(s)

Let G(s) be the transfer function of the forward path and H(s) be the transfer function of
the feedback path. In this case, the steady-state error is calculated in terms of closed-loop
transfer function of the system T (s).

Referring to Fig. 5.19, the error E(s) is the difference between the input R(s) and the output
C(s). Thus, by solving for E(s), it is possible to get an expression for the error. Then, by
applying final value theorem, the steady-state error is obtained as

5.8.5 Static Error Constants and System Type

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In general, the response of a system consists of transient response and steady-state response.
In the previous sections, we have discussed about the transient response of the system and its
performance specifications such as damping ratio, natural frequency, settling time and percent
overshoot subjected to different standard signals. Similarly, the performance specifications of
steady-state error called static error constants can be determined as given below.
Static Error Constants
For a step input, r(t) = u(t),
its corresponding steady-state error is

Since the static error constants are present at the denominator of the steady-state error equation,
the steady-state error will decrease as the static error constant increases. It is clear that the
above three static error constants are dependent on the transfer function of the system G(s) and
the number of poles present at the origin. But it is known that the number of poles present at
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the origin determines the TYPE of the system. Hence, the relationship among the TYPE of the
system, static error constant and steady-state error of the system are given in Table 5.5.
The significant features of static error constants:
(i) Steady-state error characteristics are specified using static error constants.
(ii) The TYPE of the system, the type of input applied to the system can be determined by
knowing the static error constants.
(iii) These coefficients are used for error analysis only if the input is step, ramp and parabolic
inputs.
(iv) The values of static error constants given in Table 5.5 are for the systems only with unity
feedback.
(v) If the input applied to a system is a linear combination of the inputs (step, ramp and
parabolic), then the steady-state error can be obtained by superimposing the errors obtained
due to each input.
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Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller

The derivative controller alone is not used in the control system due to some reasons. One of
the reasons is that if there is a constant steady-state error in the system, the derivative controller
does not take any corrective measure since the derivative of a constant value is zero, which
makes the error to prevail in the system even though a derivative controller is used. Hence, the
derivative controller is used along with some of the other controllers. The block diagram of the
system with proportional derivative controller with unity feedback system is shown in Fig.
5.22. The system is a general second-order system. The actuating signal of the controller
consists of the sum of the control action given by the proportional derivative controller. Hence,
the actuating signal is given by

Taking Laplace transform, we obtain

Fig. 5.22 | Proportional derivative controller of second-order system

The closed-loop transfer function of the system using proportional derivative control is

given by
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Comparing the above equation with the standard form

we obtain

where 𝜉 ′ is the damping ratio of the system with the controller. From the above equation, it is clear that effective
damping ratio has been increased by using the controller, thereby reducing the maximum overshoot.
The forward path transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 5.22 is given by

and the feedback path transfer function is H(s) = 1.

Hence, the error function is given by
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It is clear that by introducing the proportional derivative controller in the system, the damping
ratio 𝜉 has been increased without changing the TYPE of the system and undamped natural
frequency 𝛼𝑛 of the system. Also, due to the increase in the damping ratio of the system, the
maximum peak overshoot and settling time that have direct impact on 𝜉 have been reduced.
Also, the steady-state error of the system remains unchanged even though a proportional
derivative controller has been used.
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Proportional Integral Control

The block diagram of a unity feedback system with proportional integral controller is shown
in Fig. 5.23. The system is a general second-order system. The actuating signal of the controller
consists of sum of the control action given by the proportional and integral controllers. Hence,
the actuating signal is given by
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It is clear that by introducing proportional integral controller in the system, the type and order
of the system can be increased. Also, the steady-state error of the system by introducing
proportional integral controller in the system has been decreased for certain types of inputs
such as parabolic input.
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Performance Indices

The qualitative measure of the performance of a system is very important in designing a control
system. Performance index is a qualitative measure of the performance of the system where
certain parameters of the system can be varied for getting the optimum design and hence
emphasizing on system specifications. A particular performance index referred as cost function
should be chosen and has to be measured for obtaining the optimal design. There are many cost
functions of which some are discussed below:
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Fig. 5.25 | Performance indices obtained using the response of the system
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Review Questions

1. What do you mean by time response of a system and what are its components?
2. Define transient response system and steady-state response of a system. In addition,
mention the significance of these responses of the system.
3. Define the standard tests signals used for time-domain studies:

(a) Impulse signal and unit-impulse signal, (b) step signal and unit-step signal,

(c) ramp signal and unit-ramp signal and (d) parabolic signal.

4. What is the importance of impulse signal, step signal, ramp signal and parabolic signal?
5. What is the relation existing between the standard test signals?
6. Define the type and the order of a system.
7. What do you mean by first- and second-order systems? Give examples.
8. List out the performance indices used for evaluating the performance of first-order
system.
9. Derive the response of a first-order system subjected to the following:

(a) Impulse input and unit-impulse input, (b) step input and unit-step input and

(c) ramp input and unit-ramp input.

10. Derive the performance indices of a first-order system when the system is excited by
the following inputs: (a) Unit-impulse, (b) step input and (c) ramp input.