Pr

inci
plesofI
nher
it
ance

St
ruct
ure&behav
iorofchr
omosomes
Nucl
eicaci
ds&genes

Sexdet
ermi
nat
ion

Geneact
ion

Var
iat
ion

Ev
olut
ion&speci
ati
on

PLB201I
NTRODUCTORYGENETI
CS&EVOLUTI
ON
I
NTRODUCTI
ON

WHATI
SEVOLUTI
ON?

Thewor devol
uti
oni sder
ivedfrom Lat
inwords–e= f rom;v olvere= unroll
i
ng orunfoldi
ng.
The termi sfi
rstused by Her bertSpencer.Ev ol
ution has been defined as a gradual
change from one condition toanother
.In otherwor ds,biologi
calev ol
uti
on i
s genetic
changei napopul ati
onf rom onegener at
iontoanot her.Cont i
nuousev ol
uti
onovermany
generat
ionscanr esul
tint hedev el
opmentofnew v ari
etiesandspecies. Likewi
se,fail
ure
toevolveinresponset oenv i
ronmentalchangescan,andof tendoes, l
eadt oext
inct
ion.

BASI
CCONCEPT/
UNDERSTANDI
NGOFEVOLUTI
ON

The basi
cconceptoforgani
cev
olut
ion i
scont
inui
tyofl
if
e wi
th const
antmodi
fi
cat
ions
whi
cht akespl
aceduefol
lowi
ngr
eason:

1.Env
ironment
alcondi
ti
onsi
nnat
urear
eunst
abl
eandev
er-
changi
ng.

2.Organi
sms have an inher
ent pot
enti
ali
ty of changi
ng accor
ding t
o the changing
env
ironment
alcondi
ti
on.Thisiscal
ledadaptabi
li
ty.I
tleadstoevolut
ionofnew speci
es.

3.Al
lt he pr
esentspeci
es had common ancest
ors atsome ort
he ot
hert
ime oft
hei
r
evol
uti
onaryhist
ory
.

THEORI
ESOFEVOLUTION:Lamarcki
sm &lat
er(Neo-Lamar
cki
sm)
,Dar
wini
sm &l
ater(
Neo-
Dar
wini
sm/
Synt
het
ic/
Moderntheor
y),
Mutat
iontheor
y

1.LAMARCKI
SM/French/1744-1829/I
nher
it
anceofacqui
redt
rai
ts/
UseandDi
suseof

1
or
gans/JeanBapt
ist
edeLamar
ck

New Needs(I
ncrease)
..
.Use&DisuseofOrgans(New or
gans).
..
..
Inher
it
anceofacqui
redt
rai
ts
(
Development
).
..
Afteranumberofgener
ati
ons,anewspeciesi
sformed.

E.g.Horse(Hardgr
ound)
,El
ephant
,gi
raf
fe,Snakes,(
Aquat
icbi
rds)Ducks,Geese,Fl
ight
less
bi
rds(Ostr
ich)
.

Lamarcki
sm:Itisalsocall
ed“Theor
yofi
nheri
tanceofacqui
redchar
acter
s”andwasproposed
byagr eatFrenchnatural
ist
,JeanBapt
ist
edeLamar ckin1809A. D.inhisfamousbook
“Phi
l
osphicZoologi
que”
.

Thi
st heoryi s based on the compar
ison
bet
weent hecontemporar
yspeci
esofhisti
me
tof
ossilr
ecords.
Histheoryisbasedontheinheri
tanceofacquir
edcharacter
swhichar edefi
nedasthechanges
(var
iati
ons)developedi
nthebodyofanor ganism f
rom normalcharact
ers,i
nresponsetothe
changesi nenvi
ronment
,orinthef unct
ioni
ng(useanddisuse)oforgans,i
nthei
rownl i
feti
me,
tofulf
il
lthei
rnewneeds.

Thus Lamarck stressed on adaptat

ion as
meansofevolut
ionarymodifi
cat
ion.

A.Assumpt
ions/
Post
ulat
esofLamar
cki
sm:

Lamar
cki
sm i
sbasedonf
oll
owi
ngf
ourpost
ulat
es:

1.Newneeds:Ev er
yliv
ingorgani
sm isfoundinsomeki ndofenvironment.Thechangesi
nthe
envir
onment alf
actorsl
ikel
ight,t
emperatur
e,medium,food,airet
c.ormi gr
ati
onofanimall
ead
totheorigi
nofnewneedsi nthelivi
ngorgani
sms,especial
lyanimals.Toful
fi
llt
hesenewneeds,
theli
vingorgani
smshav etoexertspeci
aleff
ort
sli
kethechangesi nhabit
sorbehaviour
.

2.Useanddi suseoforgans:Thenewhabi t
sinv
olv
ethegreateruseofcer
tai
nor
ganst
omeet
new needs,andthedisuseorl esseruseofcer
tai
notherorganswhichar
eofnouseinnew
2
condi
ti
ons.Thi
suseanddi
suseofor
gansgr
eat
lyaf
fectt
hef
orm,st
ruct
ureandf
unct
ioni
ngof
theor
gans.

Cont
inuousandext rauseoforgansmaket hem mor
eeff
ici
entwhilethecontinueddisuseof
someot herorgansleadtothei
rdegener
ati
onandult
imat
edisappearance.So,Lamarckism i
s
al
socall
ed“ Theoryofuseanddi
suseoforgans.
”

Sotheorgani
sm acqui
rescer
tai
nnewcharact
ersduetodir
ectorindi
rectenv
ironment
alef
fect
s
dur
ingi
tsownl i
fespanandarecal
l
edAcquir
edoradapti
vecharact
ers.

3.I
nheri
tanceofacquir
edchar
acters:Lamarckbeli
evedt hatacqui
redcharact
ersar
einheri
tabl
e
and aretransmitt
ed tothe off
springs so t
hatt hese are bornf i
ttof ace t
he changed
env
ironmentalcondi
ti
onsandthechancesoftheirsurvi
valareincr
eased.

4.Speciati
on:Lamarckbeliev
edt hati
nev er
ygenerati
on,new char
act
ersareacquir
edand
tr
ansmittedtonextgener
ati
on,sothatnewcharact
ersaccumul
ategener
ati
onaft
ergenerat
ion.
Afteranumberofgenerat
ions,anewspeci
esisformed.

Soaccor
dingtoLamarck,anexi
sti
ngindi
vi
duali
sthesum t
otalofthechar
act
ersacqui
redbya
numberofprev
iousgener
ati
onsandthespeci
ati
onisagr
adualprocess.

Summar
yoff
ourpost
ulat
esofLamar
cki
sm:

1.Li
vi
ngor
gani
smsort
hei
rcomponentpar
tst
endt
oincr
easei
nsi
ze.

2.Pr
oduct
ionofnewor
gani
sresul
tedf
rom anewneed.

3.Conti
nueduseofanor
ganmakesi
tmor
edev
eloped,whi
l
edi
suseofanor
ganr
esul
tsi
n
degener
ati
on.

4.Acquir
edchar
acter
s(ormodif
icat
ions)devel
opedbyindi
vi
dual
sduri
ngthei
rownl
i
fet
imear
e
i
nheri
tabl
eandaccumulat
eoveraperiodofti
mer esul
ti
nganewspeci
es.

B.Ev
idencesi
nfav
ourofLamar
cki
sm:

1.Phyl
ogeneti
cstudiesofhorse,el
ephantandot
herani
mal
sshow t
hatal
lthesei
ncr
easei
n
thei
rev
olut
ionfrom si
mpletocomplexforms.

2.Gi
raf
fe

Devel
opmentofpresentdaylong-
neckedandl
ongfore-
neckedgi
raffefrom deer
-l
ikeancestor
bythegr
adualel
ongati
onofneckandf or
eli
mbsinr
esponsetodefi
ciencyoffoodont hebarr
en
gr
oundindrydeser
tsofAfri
ca.Thesebodypar
tswereel
ongatedsoast oeattheleavesonthe

3
t
reebr
anches.Thi
sisanexampl
eofef
fectofext
rauseandel
ongat
ionofcer
tai
nor
gans.

3.Snakes:

Devel
opmentofpresentdayl
imbl
esssnakeswi thl
ongslenderbodyf
rom t
hel i
mbedancest
ors
duetoconti
nueddisuseoflimbsandst r
etchingoft hei
rbodytosuitt
heircreepi
ngmodeof
l
ocomoti
onandf ossori
almodeofli
vingoutoff earoflar
gerandmorepowerfulmammals.I
tis
anexampl
eofdisuseanddegenerat
ionofcertainorgans.

4.Aquat
icbi
rds:

Developmentofaquat icbirdsli
keducks,geeseetc.fr
om thei
rterr
est
ri
alancest
orsbythe
acqui
r edcharacter
sli
kereducti
onofwi ngsduet
othei
rcont
inueddi
suse,
devel
opmentofwebs
betweentheirtoesforwadi
ngpur poses.

Thesechangeswer
einducedduet
odefi
ciencyoffoodonl andandseverecompet
it
ion.I
tisan
exampl
eofbothext
rause(ski
nbet
weenthetoes)anddisuse(wings)ofor
gans.

5.Fl
i
ght
lessbi
rds:

Devel
opmentoffl
i
ghtl
essbir
dsl
ikeostr
ichf
rom fl
yi
ngancestorsduet
ocont
inueddi
suseof
wingsast
heseweref
oundinwel
lpr
otect
edareaswi
thpl
entyoffood.

6.Hor
se:

Theancest or
sofmodem hor se(Equuscaball
us)usedt oli
vei
nt heareaswit
hsof tgroundand
wereshor tleggedwi t
hmor enumberoff unctionaldigi
ts(
e.g.4f unct
ionalfingersand3
funct
ionaltoesinDawnhor se-
Eohippus)
.Thesegr adual
lyt
ooktoliv
ei nar
easwi thdryground.
Thischangei nhabitwasaccompaniedbyincreaseinlengt
hoflegsanddecr easeinfuncti
onal
digi
tsforfastrunni
ngoverhardground.

C.Cr
it
ici
sm ofLamar
cki
sm:

Ahardblow t
oLamar cki
sm camef r
om aGer manbi
ologi
st,AugustWei
smannwhopr oposed
t
he“Theoryofconti
nuityofgermplasm”in1892A.D.Thist heor
ystat
est
hatenv
ironment al
f
act
orsdoaffectonl
ysomaticcel
lsandnottheger
m cel
ls.

Ast heli
nkbet weenthegenerat
ionsisonlythr
ought heger
m cel
l
sandt hesomaticcel
lsarenot
tr
ansmi tt
edt othenextgenerat
ionsotheacquiredcharact
ersmustbelostwit
hthedeathofan
organism sot heseshouldhav enor ol
ei nevolut
ion.Hesuggestedthatgermplasm iswith
specialpart
icl
escall
ed“ids”whichcontr
olthedevel
opmentofparental
charact
ersinof
fspri
ngs.

Weismannmut il
atedthetai
lsofmicef orabout22gener at
ionsandallowedthem t
obr eed,but
tai
ll
essmi cewereneverborn.Pavl
ov,aRussi anphysi
ologi
st,tr
ainedmicetocomef orfoodon
heari
ngabel l.Her eport
edt hatthistrai
ningisnoti nheri
tedandwasnecessar yinev ery
generat
ion.Mendel’
slawsofi nher
itancealsoobjectthepost ul
ateofinher
it
anceofacqui red
charact
ersofLamarckism.
4
Si
mi l
arl
y,bori
ngofpinnaofexter
nalearandnosei nIndi
anwomen;t i
ghtwai
st,ofEuropean
l
adiescir
cumcisi
ng(removalofpr
epuce)i
ncert
ainpeople;smallsi
zedf
eetofChinesewomen
et
car enottr
ansmit
tedfr
om onegener
ati
ontoanothergenerat
or.

Eyeswhi charebeingusedconti
nuousl
yandconst ant
lydevel
opdefectsi
nst
eadofbeing
i
mprov ed.Si
mil
arl
y,hear
tsi
zedoesnotincr
easegenerat
ionaf
tergener
ati
ont
houghi
tisused
cont
inuously
.

Presenceofweakmuscl
esinthesonofawrestl
erwasal sonotexpl
ainedbyLamarck.Fi
nal
ly
,
ther
ear eanumberofexamplesi
nwhichther
eisr educti
oninthesizeoforganse.g.among
Angiosper
ms,shr
ubsandher
bshaveevol
vedfr
om thetrees.

D.Si
gni
fi
cance:

1.I
twasf
ir
stcompr
ehensi
vet
heor
yofbi
ologi
cal
evol
uti
on.

2.I
tst
ressedonadapt
ati
ont
otheenv
ironmentasapr
imar
ypr
oductofev
olut
ion.

MERI
TSOFLAMARCKI
SM

1.I
twast
hef
ir
stcompr
ehensi
vet
heor
yofbi
ologi
cal
evol
uti
on.

2.I
tst
ressedonadapt
ati
ont
otheenv
ironmentasapr
imar
ypr
oductofev
olut
ion

CRI
TICI
SM

Mi
cet
ail
(22gener
ati
on)

Mi
cef
orf
ood(
Pav
lov
)

Hol
esi
near
sandnoseI
ndi
an

Sonofwr
est
ler

Cont
inuoususeofEy
es(
eyepr
obl
em)andHear
t(Noti
mpr
oved)
.

So,
Lamar
cki
sm wasr
eject
ed.

(
2)Dar
wini
sm orTheor
yofNat
ural
Sel
ect
ion
DARWI
NISM/
Engl
i
sh Nat
ural
i
st Geol
ogi
st/
1809-
1882/
Nat
ural sel
ect
ion/
Dar
win-
Wal
l
ace
5
t
heor
y/Char
lesRober
tDar
win

Char
lesDarwin(
1809-1882A.D.
),anEngl
i
shnat
ural
ist
,wast
hemostdominantf
igur
eamong
thebiol
ogi
stsofthe19thcent
ury.Hemadeanex t
ensi
vest
udyofnat
ureforover20y
ears,

especi
all
yin 1831-
1836 when hewenton a voyageont
hef
amous
shi
p“H.
M.S.Beagl
e”andexploredSouthAmerica,theGalapagosIslands
andot
heri
slands.

Hecollect
edtheobservat
ionsonanimaldist
ri
buti
onandt her elat
ionshi
pbet weenlivingand
ext
inctani
mals.Hefoundt hatexi
sti
ngli
vi
ngformsshar esimilari
ti
est ovaryi
ngdegr eesnot
onl
yamongt hemsel
vesbutal sowi
ththel
ifef
ormst hatexi
stedmi l
li
onsofy earsago,someof
whichhavebecomeext
inct.

Hest atedt
hateverypopul
ati
onhasbui l
tinv
ari
ati
onsintheircharact
ers.From theanalysi
sof
hisdataofcoll
ecti
onandf r
om Mal thus’
sEssayonPopulation,hegotthei deaofstrugglefor
exist
ence wit
hin allt
he populat
ions due t
o conti
nued reproducti
ve pressur
e and limit
ed
resourcesandthatallor
ganisms,includi
nghumans,aremodi fieddescendentsofpr evi
ously
exist
ingfor
msoflife.

In1858A. D.,Dar wi
nwashi ghl
yinf
luencedbyashor tessayenti
tl
ed“Ont heTendencyof
Vari
eti
est oDepar tIndef
ini
telyfr
om theOr i
ginalType”writ
tenbyanothernatur
ali
st,Al
fr
ed
RusselWallace( 1812-
1913)whost udiedbiodiver
sit
yonMal ay
anarchi
pel
agoandcamet o
si
milarconclusi
ons.

DarwinandWall
ace’svi
ewsaboutev
olut
ionwer
epresentedi
nthemeeti
ngofLinneanSociety
ofLondonbyLy ellandHookeronJuly1,1858.Darwin’
sandWal l
ace’
swor kwasj oi
ntly
publ
ishedin“
Proceedi
ngsofLi
nneanSociet
yofLondon”in1859.Soi
tisalsocal
ledDarwin-
Wall
acetheor
y.

Dar
winexplai
nedhi
stheoryofevol
uti
oni
nabookent i
tl
ed“Ont heOriginofSpeci
esbymeansof
Nat
uralSel
ecti
on”
.Itwaspubli
shedon24thNov.
,1859.Inthistheor
y ,
CharlesDar
winpr
oposed
t
heconceptofnat
uralsel
ect
ionasthemechani
sm ofevol
ution.

Themechani sm thatDar
winproposedforev
olut
ionar
ychangei
scall
ednatural
sel
ecti
on.Thi
sis
rel
atedtoar ti
fi
cialsel
ecti
on—theprocessofintent
ional(
oruni
ntent
ional
)modifi
cati
onofa
speciest
hroughhumanact ions.
6
Nat uralSelecti
onwhi chencour aget hebr eedi
ngofcer t
aintrai
tsov erother s.Exampl esi ncl
ude
croppl ants,suchasr i
ceandwheat ,
whi chhav ebeenar t
ifi
cial
lyselectedf orpr otein-richseeds,
anddai r
ycowswhi chhav ebeenar t
ifici
all
ysel ectedf orhighmi lkyi
elds.Thewi dev ar i
etyofdog
breedsi sal soar esul tofar ti
ficialsel ection( forhunt i
ng,herding,pr ot
ect i
on,compani onshi p,
andl ooks)andi ll
ustratest hatrathersi gnifi
cantchangescanbeobt ainedi nal imitedamountof
ti
me( acoupl eoft housandy ear si nt hecaseofdogs. )Youshoul dnot et hatf orar tif
icial
selectiontobepossi bl eint hef irstpl ace,ther eneedst obenat urallyoccur ringandher i
table
variati
oni nt r
ait
sofi nterest:i
ti sonl ypossi blet obr eedhigh-proteingr asssor t
s,i ft herear e
somegr asspl antsthatpr oducemor eseedpr oteinthanot hers,andi fthatt raitisi nheritedby
theirdescendant s.Dar winsuggest edt hatasi mi larprocessoccur snat urally:individual sint he
wildwhopossesschar acteri
sticst hatenhancet hei
rpr ospectsf orhav i
ngof fspr i
ngwoul d
under goasi mil
arprocessofchangeov ertime.Speci fi
call
y,Darwi npost ulatedt hatt herear e
fourpr operti
esofpopul ati
onst hatt oget herresul tinnaturalsel
ection.

Thesear
e:

1.Eachgener
ati
on(
e.g.housef
ly120eggsi
nonel
ayi
ng,Ascar
is70,
000i
n24hr
s)mor
e
of
fspr
ingi
sbor
nthant
heenv
ironmentcansuppor
ti.
e.t
her
eisSt
ruggl
eforexi
stence(
Predat
or,
f
ood&spaceet
c. g.ap
)e. opul
ati
onofbut
ter
fl
iest
hatar
epr
eyedupon
bybi
rds-afracti
onofof
fspr
ingt
her
efor
edi
esbef
orer
eachi
ngr
epr
oduct
iveage.

2.
Indi
vi
dual
sinapopul
ati
onv
aryi
nthei
rchar
act
eri
sti
cs.

3.
Someoft
hisv
ari
ati
oni
sbasedongenet
icdi
ff
erences.

4.I
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thf
avor
abl
echar
act
eri
sti
cshav
ehi
gherr
atesofsur
viv
alandr
epr
oduct
ion
compar
edt
oindi
vi
dual
swi
thl
essf
avor
abl
echar
act
eri
sti
cs.

Ifallf
ourpost
ulat
esaretr
ue(andthisi
sgeneral
lyt
hecase)thenadv
antageoustr
ait
swi l
l
automati
cal
l
ytendtospr
eadinthepopul
ati
on,whi
cht
her
ebychangesgr
aduall
ythr
oughtime.
Thi
sisnat
uralsel
ect
ion.Letusconsi
der
,fori ance,ap
nst opul
ati
onofbut
ter
fl
ies
t
hatar
epr
eyeduponbybi
rds.Nowi
magi
net
hatatsomepoi
ntabut
ter
fl
yisbor
n
wit
hamut ati
onthatmakesthebut t
erf
lymor ediff
iculttodetect.Thisbutter
fl
ywi llobviously
haveasmal l
erri
skofbeingeaten,andwi l
lconsequent l
yhaveani ncr
easedchanceofsur vivi
ng
to produce of f
spri
ng.A fraction of the fort
unat e butt
erfl
y’
s of f
spri
ng wi l
li nheri
tt he
advantageousmut ati
on,andint henextgener at
iont herewil
lthereforebesev eralbutterf
lies
wit
hani mprovedchanceofsurvivingtoproduceoffspr i
ng.Aft
eranumberofgener ati
onsi tis
possibl
et hatal
lbutt
erf
li
eswil
lhav ethemut at
ion,
whi chisthensaidtobe“ f
ixed”.

7
B.Post
ulat
esofDar
wini
sm:

Mai
npost
ulat
esofDar
wini
sm ar
e:

1.Geomet
ri
cincr
ease.

2.Li
mit
edf
oodandspace.

3.St
ruggl
eforexi
stence.

4.Var
iat
ions.

5.Nat
ural
sel
ect
ionorSur
viv
aloft
hef
it
test
.

6.I
nher
it
anceofusef
ulv
ari
ati
ons.

7.Speci
ati
on.

1.Geomet
ri
cincr
ease:

Accor
dingtoDarwi
nism,thepopul
ati
onstendt
omult
ipl
ygeomet
ri
cal
lyandther
epr
oducti
ve
power
sofl ivi
ngor
ganisms(bi
oti
cpotent
ial
)ar
emuchmorethanrequi
redt
omaint
ainthei
r
numbere.g.
,

Parameci
um di
v i
desthr
eet i
mesbybinaryf
issioni
n24hoursduri
ngfav
ourableconditi
ons.At
thi
srat
e,aParamecium canproduceacl
oneofabout280mill
i
onParameci
ai njustonemont h
andinfiv
eyears,canproduceParameci
ahavingmassequalto10,
000ti
mest hant hesizeof
theear
th.
8
Otherrapidl
ymult
ipl
yi
ngor ganismsar e:Cod(onemi l
l
ioneggspery ear)
;Oyster(114mil
li
on
eggsinonespawning);Ascari
s( 70,00,
000eggsin24hours);housef
ly(120eggsinonelayi
ng
andlayi
ngeggssixti
mesi nasummerseason) ;arabbi
t(pr
oduces6y oungonesi nali
tt
erand
fourl
it
tersinay
earandy oungonesst artbr
eedi
ngattheageofsixmonths).

Simil
arl
y,theplant
salsoreproducev er
yrapi
dlye.
g.,asi
ngl
eev eni
ngpri
mrosepl
antpr
oduces
about1,18,000seedsandsingl
ef er
nplantpr
oducesafewmill
i
onspores.

Evenslowbreedi
ngorganismsreproduceatar atewhichi
smuchhigherthanr
equirede.g.,an
el
ephantbecomessexuallymatureat30y earsofageanddur i
ngitsli
fespanof90y ears,
producesonl
ysixoff
spri
ngs.Atthi
sr at
e,i
fallelephant
ssur
viv
ethenasingl
epairofelephants
canproduceabout19mil
li
onelephantsin750y ears.

Theseexamplesconfi
rmthatev
eryspeciescanincr
easemanifol
dwit
hinafewgenerat
ionsand
occupyal
ltheavail
abl
espaceontheear th,pr
ovi
dedallsur
viv
eandrepeatthepr
ocess.Sothe
numberofaspecieswil
lbemuchmor ethancanbesuppor t
edontheeart
h.

2.Li
mit
edf
oodandspace:

Darwini
sm statesthatt
houghapopul at
iontendst oincreasegeomet r
icall
y,t
hefoodincreases
onlyari
thmeti
call
y.Sotwomai nli
miti
ngfact
or sonthet r
emendousi ncreaseofapopulati
onar e:
l
imitedfoodandspacewhi chtogetherf
ormt hemaj orpar tofcar
ryi
ngcapacityofenvi
ronment .
Thesedonotal l
owapopul at
iontogrowindef i
nit
elywhi charenearl
yst abl
einsizeexceptfor
seasonalfl
uctuati
on.

3.St
ruggl
eforexi
stence:

Duet orapidmulti
pli
cat
ionofpopul
ati
onsbutli
mi t
edfoodandspace,t
her
est
art
sanev er
last
ing
compet i
ti
onbet weenindi
vi
dualshavi
ngsimil
arr equi
rement
s.I
nt hi
scompet
it
ion,ev
eryliv
ing
organism desi
restohaveanupperhandoverothers.

9
Thi
scompeti
ti
onbetweenliv
ingor
gani
smsforthebasicneedsofl
i
fel
i
kef
ood,
space,
mat
eet
c.,
i
scall
edst
ruggl
eforexi
stencewhi
chisoft
hreetypes:

(
a)I
ntr
aspeci
fi
c:

Bet
weent
hemember
sofsamespeci
ese.
g.t
wodogsst
ruggl
i
ngf
orapi
eceofmeat
.

(
b)I
nter
speci
fi
c:

Bet
weent
hemember
sofdi
ff
erentspeci
ese.
g.bet
weenpr
edat
orandpr
ey.

(
c)Env
ironment
alorExt
raspeci
fi
c:

Bet
weenl ivi
ngor gani
smsandadv
erseenv
ironment
alf
act
orsl
i
keheat
,col
d,dr
ought
,fl
ood,
ear
thquakes,l
ightetc.

Outofthesethreeformsofstruggl
e,t
hei
ntraspeci
fi
cstr
uggleisthestrongestt
ypeofst
ruggl
e
astheneedsoft heindi
vi
dualsofsamespeciesaremostsimil
are.g.
,sexualsel
ect
ioni
nwhich
acockwi t
hamor ebeauti
fulcombandplumagehasbet t
erchancest owinahent hanacock
wit
hlessdevelopedcomb.

Si
milar
ly,cannabi
l
ism i
sanot
herexampl
eofi
ntr
aspeci
fi
ccompet
it
ionasi
nthi
s;i
ndi
vi
dual
seat
uponthemember sofsamespeci
es.

Int
hisdeat
handlifestr
uggle,
themajori
tyofindiv
idualsdiebef
orereachi
ngthesexualmaturi
ty
andonlyafew i
ndivi
dualssurvi
veandreacht hereproducti
vestage.Sostr
uggl
ef orexi
stence
act
sasanef f
ect
ivecheckonanev er
-i
ncreasi
ngpopul ati
onofeachspecies.

10
Thenatur
eappearssayi
ng,“Theyareweighedinthebalanceandarefoundwanti
ng.
”Sot
he
numberofof
fspr
ingsofeachspeci
esremainsnear
lyconstantov
erl
ongperi
odofti
me.

4.Var
iat
ions:

Vari
ati
onist hel
awofnatur
e.Accor
dingtot
hislawofnat
ure,
not woindi
vi
dualsexceptident
ical
(monozygotic)t
winsareident
ical
.Thiseverl
asti
ngcompetit
ionamongt heor gani
smshas
compell
edt hem t
ochangeaccordi
ngtothecondit
ionst
outi
li
zet henat
uralresourcesandcan
sur
vivesuccessf
ull
y.

Darwin stat
ed t
hatthe vari
ati
ons are general
l
y oft wo types—cont
inuous vari
ati
ons or
fl
uctuat
ionsanddi
scont
inuousvar
iat
ions.Onthebasi
soft hei
reff
ectonthesurvi
valchancesof
l
ivi
ngorganisms,
thevar
iati
onsmaybeneut r
al,har
mfulanduseful
.

Darwinproposedthatli
vingorganismstendtoadaptt
ochangingenvir
onmentduetousef
ul
conti
nuousvari
ati
ons{e.g.,
incr
easedspeedinthepr
ey;
incr
easedwaterconser
vat
ioni
npl
ant
s;
etc.
),ast
hesewill
haveacompet i
ti
veadvant
age.

5.Nat
ural
sel
ect
ionorSur
viv
aloft
hef
it
test
:

Darwinstatedthatasmanyselectst
heindi
vi
dualswit
hdesir
edchar
acter
sinarti
fi
cialsel
ection;
natur
esel ectsonlythosei
ndi
v i
dual
soutoft hepopul
ati
onwhicharewithusefulcontinuous
var
iat
ionsandar ebestadapt
edt otheenvi
ronmentwhil
et hel
essfi
torunfitindivi
dualsare
rej
ectedbyi t
.

Darwinstatedthatifthemancanpr oducesuchal argenumberofnewspeci es/v

arieti
eswit
h
l
imitedresourcesandi nshortperi
odoftimebyar t
if
icialsel
ecti
on,t
hennat
uralsel
ectioncoul
d
accountforthislargebiodiv
ersit
ybyconsiderablemodi fi
cati
onsofspeci
eswi t
ht hehelpof
unli
mitedresourcesavail
abl
eov erl
ongspanoft i
me.

Dar
winst
atedt
hatdi
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsappearsuddenl
yandwi
l
lmost
lybehar
mful
,soar
e

11
notsel
ect
edbynat ur
e.Hecall
edthem “
sports”
.Sothenat
uralsel
ect
ioni
sanaut
omat
icand
sel
fgoi
ngprocessandkeepsacheckontheanimal
popul
ati
on.

Thi
ssorti
ngoutoft
heindivi
dual
swit
huseful
vari
ati
onsfrom ahet
erogeneouspopulat
ionbythe
nat
urewascall
edNaturalsel
ect
ionbyDar
winandSurvivaloft
hefit
testbyWallace.Sonatural
sel
ect
ionact
sasarestri
cti
vefor
ceandnotacreat
ivef
orce.

6.I
nher
it
anceofusef
ulv
ari
ati
ons:

Darwi
nbeliev
edt hattheselect
edindi
vi
dual
spasst hei
rusef
ulcont
inuousv
ari
ati
onst
othei
r
of
fspr
ingssothattheyarebornfi
ttot
hechangedenv
ironment
.

7.Speci
ati
on:

Accordi
ngt oDarwinism, usefulv
ari
ati
onsappearineverygenerat
ionandareinher
it
edf
rom one
generat
iont oanother .Sot heusefulvar
iat
ionsgoonaccumul at
ingandaf t
eranumberof
generat
ions,t
hevariationsbecomesopr ominentthatt
heindivi
dualtur
nsint
oanewspecies.So
accordi
ngt o Darwinism,ev olut
ionisagr adualprocessandspeci ati
onoccursbygr adual
changesintheexisti
ngspeci es.

Thust
het
wokeyconcept
sofDar
wini
anTheor
yofEv
olut
ionar
e:

1.Br
anchi
ngDescent
,and2.Nat
ural
Sel
ect
ion.

C.Ev
idencesi
nfav
ourofDar
wini
sm:

1.Ther
eisacl
osepar
all
eli
sm bet
weennat
ural
sel
ect
ionandar
ti
fi
cial
sel
ect
ion.

2.Ther
emar
kabl
ecasesofr
esembl
ancee.
g.mi
micr
yand pr
otect
ivecol
our
ati
on can be
12
achi
evedonl
ybygr
adual
changesoccur
ri
ngsi
mul
taneousl
ybot
hint
hemodel
andt
hemi
mic.

3.Corr
elat
ionbetweenposi
ti
onofnect
ari
esi
nthef
lower
sandl
engt
hoft
hepr
obosci
soft
he
pol
li
nati
nginsect
.

D.Ev
idencesagai
nstDar
wini
sm:

Dar
wini
sm i
snotabl
etoexpl
ain:

1.Thei
nher
it
anceofsmal lvar
iat
ionsinthoseorganswhi
chcanbeofuseonl ywhenf ul
l
y
for
mede.
g.wingofabi
rd.Suchorganswil
lbeofnouseini
nci
pientorunder
dev
elopedst
age.

2.I
nher
it
anceofv
est
igi
alor
gans.

3.I
nher
it
anceofov
er-
speci
ali
sedor
ganse.
g.ant
ler
sindeerandt
usksi
nel
ephant
s.

4.Pr
esenceofneut
erf
lower
sandst
eri
l
ityofhy
bri
ds.

5.Di
dnotdi
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weensomat
icandger
minal
var
iat
ions.

6.Hedi
dnotexpl
aint
hecausesoft
hev
ari
ati
onsandt
hemodeoft
ransmi
ssi
onofv
ari
ati
ons.

7.I
twasal
sor
efut
edbyMendel
’
slawsofi
nher
it
ancewhi
chst
atet
hati
nher
it
ancei
spar
ti
cul
ate.

Sothi
stheor
yexpl
ainsonl
ythesur
viv
aloft
he
fi
tt
estbutdoesnotexpl
ainthear
ri
valoft
he
13
f
it
testso Darwin himselfconfessed,“naturalselection has been main butnotthe
excl
usi
vemeansofmodi
fi
cat
ion.
”

(
3).Mut
ati
onTheor
yofEv
olut
ion:

Themutati
ontheoryofevol
uti
onwasproposedbyaDutchbotanist
,HugodeVri
es(
1848-1935
A.D.
)in1901A. D.inhi
sbookentit
led“SpeciesandVar
iet
ies,TheirOr
igi
nbyMutat
ion”.He
workedoneveni
ngprimrose(
Oenot
heralamarcki
ana)
.

A.Exper
iment
:

HugodeVr i
esculturedO.lamar cki
anainbotani
calgar
densatAmst er
dam.Thepl antswere,
al
lowedtoselfpol
linat
eandnextgener at
ionwasobtai
ned.Theplantsofnextgenerati
onwere
agai
nsubject
edt oselfpol
linat
iont oobtai
nsecondgenerat
ion.Processwasr epeatedfora
numberofgenerat
ions.

B.Obser
vat
ions:

Maj or
it
yofpl antsoffi
rstgenerat
ionwer efoundtobel i
ketheparentalty
peandshowedonl y
mi norvar
iat
ionsbut837outof54, 343member swerefoundtobev erydi
ffer
entinchar
act
ers
l
ikef l
owersize,shapeandar rangementofbuds,si zeofseedsetc.Thesemar kedl
ydif
fer
ent
plantswerecalledpr
imaryorelement ar
yspecies.

Afew plant
sofsecondgener ati
onwer efoundt obesti
l
lmor edif
fer
ent.Fi
nall
y,anew ty
pe,
muchlongerthantheori
ginalt
ype,cal
ledO.gigas,waspr
oduced.Healsofoundthenumeri
cal
chr
omosomal changesinthevari
ants(
e.g.wit
hchromosomenumber s16,20,22,
24,28and30)
upt
o30( Normaldi
ploi
dnumberi s14).

C.Concl
usi
on:

1.Theevolut
ionisadi scont
inuousprocessandoccursbymutati
ons(L.mutat
e=tochange;
suddenandinheri
tabl
el ar
gediffer
encesfrom t
henormalandarenotconnect
edtonor
malby
i
ntermedi
atefor
ms) .I
ndivi
dualswit
hmut ati
onsarecal
l
edmutant
s.

2.El
ement
aryspeci
esar
epr
oducedi
nlar
genumbert
oincr
easechancesofsel
ect
ionbynat
ure.

3.Mutati
onsarerecurr
ingsothatthesamemut
ant
sappearagai
nandagai
n.Thi
sincr
easest
he
chancesofthei
rselect
ionbynatur
e.

4.Mut
ati
onsoccuri
nal
ldi
rect
ionssomaycausegai
norl
ossofanychar
act
er.
14
5.Mut
abi
l
ityi
sfundament
all
ydi
ff
erentf
rom f
luct
uat
ions(
smal
landdi
rect
ional
changes)
.

Soaccordi
ngtomut ati
ont heor
y,evol
uti
onisadi scont
inuousandjer
kyprocessinwhicht her
e
i
sajumpf rom onespeciestoanothersothatnewspeciesari
sesfrom pr
e-exi
sti
ngspeciesina
si
ngl
egener at
ion(macr ogenesi
sorsal tat
ion)and notagr adualprocessaspr oposed by
LamarckandDarwin.

D.Ev
idencesi
nfav
ourofMut
ati
ont
heor
y:

1.Appear
anceofashort
-l
eggedsheepv ar
iet
y,Anconsheep,f
rom long-
leggedparent
sina
si
ngl
egenerati
oni
n1791A.D.I
twasfi
rstnot
icedi
nar am (
malesheep)byanAmer i
canfarmer
,
Set
hWr i
ght.

2.Appear
anceofpol
l
edHer
efor
dcat
tl
efr
om hor
nedpar
ent
sinasi
ngl
egener
ati
oni
n1889.

3.DeVr
iesobser
vat
ionshav
ebeenexper
iment
all
yconf
ir
medbyMcDougal
andShul
li
nAmer
ica
andGat
esinEngl
and.

4.Mut
ati
ontheorycanexpl
aintheori
ginofnewvari
eti
esorspeci
esbyasi ngl
egenemut
ati
on
e.
g.Ci
cergi
gas,Nuval
orange.Redsunf
lower
,hai
rl
esscats,
doubl
e-toedcat
s,etc.

5.I
tcanexpl
aint
hei
nher
it
anceofv
est
igi
alandov
er-
speci
ali
zedor
gans.

6.I
tcanexpl
ainpr
ogr
essi
veaswel
lasr
etr
ogr
essi
veev
olut
ion.

E.Ev
idencesagai
nstMut
ati
ont
heor
y:

1.I
tisnotabl
etoexpl
aint
hephenomenaofmi
micr
yandpr
otect
ivecol
our
ati
on.

2.Rat
eofmut
ati
oni
sver
ylow,
i.
e.onepermi
l
li
onoronepersev
eral
mil
l
iongenes.

3.Oenotheral
amar
cki
ana i
sahy
bri
dpl
antandcont
ainsanamol
oust
ypeofchr
omosome
behav
iour.

4.Chr
omosomal
numer
ical
changesasr
epor
tedbydeVr
iesar
eunst
abl
e.

5.Mut
ati
onsar
eincapabl
eofi
ntr
oduci
ngnewgenesandal
l
elesi
ntoagenepool
.

(
4)NEOLAMARCKI
SM

Longf
orgot
tenLamar
cki
sm hasbeenr
evi
vedasNeo-
Lamar
cki
sm,
int
hel
i
ghtofr
ecent

15
fi
ndingsinthefieldofgenet
icswhichconf
ir
mt hatenvi
ronmentdoesaf
fectt
hef
orm,
str
uctur
e;colour
, si
zeet
c.andthesechar
act
ersareinher
it
abl
e.

Mainsci
ent
ist
swhocontri
butedintheev ol
uti
onofNeo- Lamar
ckism are:Fr
enchGi
ard,
Ameri
canCope,T.
H.Morgan,Spencer
,Packard,Bonner
,Tower,Naegali
,McDougal,
etc.
Ter
m neo-
Lamarcki
sm wascoinedbyAlphaeusS.Packard.

Neo-
Lamar
cki
sm st
ates:

1.Ger
m cel
lsmaybef ormed f
rom t
hesomaticcel
l
sindi
cat
ing si
mil
arnat
ureof
chr
omosomesandgenemakeupi
ntwocel
ll
inese.
g.

(
a)Regener
ati
oni
near
thwor
ms.

(
b)Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ioni
npl
ant
sli
keBr
yophy
ll
um (
wit
hfol
i
arbuds)
.

(c)Apar
tofzygot
e(equi
pot
ent
ialegg)ofhumanf
emal
ecandev
elopi
ntoacompl
ete
baby(
Dri
esch)
.

2.Eff
ectofenvi
ronmentongerm cel
lsthroughthesomaticcel
l
se.
g.HeslopHarr
ison
foundthatapal
ev ar
iet
yofmot h,Seleni
abi l
unar
ia,whenfedonmanganesecoated
food,
at r
uebr
eedingmelani
cvar
iet
yofmot hisproduced.

3.Eff
ectofenvi
ronmentdi
rect
lyongerm cel
l
s.Towerexposedthey oungonesofsome
potat
obeetlestot emper
atur
ef l
uct
uati
onandf oundt hatt
houghbeet lesremained
unaff
ectedwit
hnosomat icchangebutnextgener
ati
onhadmar kedchangesinbody
col
ourat
ion.

Mullerconfi
rmedt hemutageni
croleofX-raysonDr osophil
awhi
leC.Auer
bachet.,al
.
confir
med t he chemicalmutagens (mustard gas v apour
s)causi
ng mutat
ion in
Drosophil
amel anogast
er,
soneo-Lamar
ckism proved:

(
a)Ger
m cel
l
sar
enoti
mmunef
rom t
heef
fectofenv
ironment
.

(
b)Ger
m cel
l
scancar
rysomat
icchangest
onextpr
ogeny(
Har
ri
son’
sexper
iment
).

(c)Germ cel
ls may be di
rect
ly af
fect
ed by t
he env
ironment
alf
act
ors(
Tower
’s
exper
iment
).

(5)NEO-
DARWINI
SM OR MODERN CONCEPT OR SYNTHETI
C
THEORYOFEVOLUTI
ON

16
Thedetai
ledstudi
esofLamar cki
sm,Dar wini
sm andMutat
iont
heoryofevolut
ionshowedt
hat
nosingl
et heor
yisfull
ysati
sfact
ory.Neo-Dar
wini
sm i
samodi f
iedver
sionoftheor
yofNatur
al
Sel
ecti
onandi sasortofr
econcil
iat
ionbetweenDarwi
n’
sanddeVr i
estheor
ies.

Moder
norsynthet
ictheoryofevolut
ionwasdesi gnat
edbyHuxley(1942)
.Itemphasi
sesthe
i
mport
anceofpopulat
ionsastheunitsofev ol
uti
onandthecent
ralr
oleofnatur
alsel
ect
ionas
t
hemostimpor
tantmechanism ofevolut
ion.

Thesci
enti
stswhocontri
butedtotheout
comeofNeo-
Dar
winism wer
e:J.
S.Huxley,
R.A.Fi
scher
andJ.
B.S.HaldaneofEngl
and;andS.Wri
ght
,For
d,H.
J.Mul
lerandT.DobzhanskyofAmeri
ca.

Natur
alselect
ionofNeo-Darwini
sm di
ffer
sfrom thatofDarwinism thatitdoesnotoper
ate
t
hrough“survi
valofthef
it
test
”butoper
atesthroughdif
fer
ent
ialreproducti
onandcomparat
ive
r
eproduct
ivesuccess.

Diff
erenti
alr
eproductionstat
esthatthosemember s,whicharebestadapt
edtotheenvir
onment,
reproduceatahi gherrat
eandpr oducemor eoffspri
ngsthanthosewhicharelessadapted.So
these contr
ibute propor
ti
onately gr
eaterpercentage ofgenes tot he gene poolofnext
generati
onwhi l
elessadaptedindiv
idual
sproducef eweroff
spri
ngs.

I
fthediff
erent
ialr
eproduct
ioncont
inuesforanumberofgener
ati
ons,t
hent
hegenesofthose
i
ndivi
dual
swhi chproducemoreoffspri
ngswil
lbecomepredominanti
nthegenepoolofthe
popul
ati
on

Duetosexualcommuni cati
on,thereisfreef l
owofgenessot hatthegeneticvari
abil
it
ywhi ch
appearsincer
tai
nindi
vi
duals,gradual
lyspreadsf rom onedemet oanot herdeme,from demet o
populat
ionandthenonneighbouringsi
sterpopul ati
onsandfinall
yonmostoft hemember sofa
speci
es.So nat ur
alselect
ion causes pr ogressiv
e changes in gene f r
equenci
es,‘ i
.e.the
fr
equencyofsomegenesi ncreaseswhil
et hefrequencyofsomeot hergenesdecreases.

Neo-Dar
wini
sttheor
yisjustatheoryi
ncorpor
ati
ngcur
rentsci
enti
fi
cadvancesi
nsciencerel
ated
totheevol
uti
onandbi ol
ogy,astheLawsofMendel,butconti
nuestodenytheinf
luenceofthe
envi
ronmentorthei
nternal
developmentofli
vi
ngbei
ngsintheloadofgenet
ici
nfor
mat i
on.

Synthet
ictheor
yThemoder ntheor
yofev ol
uti
on,i
ncor
porat
ingDarwi
nianthi
nking,Mendel
i
an
geneti
cs,andanunder
standi
ngofgenesandgeneti
cchangeatthemol
ecularl
evel.

17
TheModer nEv ol
uti
onarySy nt
hesishasincorporatedthelatestadvancesofsci enceinbi ol
ogy
andgenetics.Ift
heNeo-Dar wi
nism orneo-Darwini
anTheor yexplici
tl
yincorporatedtherandom
vari
ati
onsormut ati
onswithinthepopulat
ion,theSy nt
heti
cTheor yofevoluti
oni ncor
poratesthe
random vari
ati
onsormut ati
onsoft hegeneti
ci nf
ormationandaccept sthismechani sm aspart
oftheevoluti
onthat
,togetherwiththemechanism ofthenatur al
selecti
on,produceev ol
utionas
awhole.

EVI
DENCESFOR EVOLUTI
ON
Scienti
fi
c evi
dence for ev
olut
ion comes from many aspect
s of bi
ology
,and i
ncl
udes
fossil
srecor
ds,anat
omicalr
ecordsandmolecularr
ecor
ds.

1.Fossi
lrecor
ds

AncientOrgani
sm Remai ns:i
nsect sinamber( hardenedtr
eesap),and
petr
ifi
edwood.Anot hertypeofpr eservedorganism, whi
chDarwi
ndi dnotf
ind,
i
sani malssuchasmammot hsfroz enandpreser vedini
ce.
FossilLayer
s:Fossi
llayersarefossi l
sthatf
ormedi nsedi
mentar
yr ock.
The st udy of Fossi ls provides ev idence about t he changes i n or ganisms ov er l
ong
periods of t i
me.Moder n pal eontology began wi th t he wor k of Geor ges Cuv i
er
(1769–1832) .Cuv i
er noted t hat,i nsedimentar yr ock,each l ayer cont ained a speci fi
c
groupoff ossi l
s.Thedeeperl ayers,whi chhepr oposedt obeol der ,cont ai
nedsi mplerl i
fe
forms.He not ed thatmanyf ormsofl i
fef r
om t he pastar eno l ongerpr esentt oday.I n
an at tempt t o expl ai
n ext i
nction, Cuv i
er pr oposed t he i dea of “ r
ev oluti
ons”or
catastrophi sm ( suddendi saster)i nwhi chhespecul atedthatgeol ogi
calcat astropheshad
occur r
edt hroughoutt he Ear t
h’s history,wiping outl arge number s ofspeci es.Cuv ier'
s
theoryofr evol ut
ions wasl aterr eplaced byuni formitari
an t heori
es. A v er
yl arge number
off ossi ls hav e now been di scovered and ident i
fi
ed.These f ossils ser ve as at i
mewi se
record of ev ol uti
on.The f ossilr ecord provides ex amples of t ransitionalspeci es that
demonst r
ate ancest ralli
nks bet ween pastand pr esentl i
fef orms.One such t r
ansiti
onal
fossili sAr chaeopt eryx,an anci entor gani
sm t hathad t he di stinctchar act eri
sti
cs ofa
reptil
e( such asal ong,bonyt ailand conicalt eeth)y etal so had char acteristi
csofbi rds
(such asf eathersand a wi shbone) .Thei mplicati
onf rom suchaf indist hatmoder nreptil
es
andbi rdsar osef r
om acommonancest or
.

2.Anat
omi
calRecor
d

Si
mil
ari
ti
esofEmbr
yos
18
Si
mil
ari
ti
esAmongLi
vi
ngOr
gani
sms
Thecompar i
son ofsimilar
it
iesbetween organi
smsoft hei
rf orm orappear anceofpar t
s,
call
ed t
hei
rmor phol
ogy,hasl ong been awayt o cl
assi
f yli
fei nt
o closel
yr el
ated groups.
Thiscan be done bycompar i
ng t
he struct
ure ofadultor ganismsi n dif
fer
entspeci esor
by compari
ng t he patt
erns of how cells gr
ow,di vi
de and ev en mi gr
ate during an
organi
sm'sdevelopment.

a) Homol ogous or gans:St r

ong ev i
dence f or ev oluti
on comes f rom t he anal y
sis of
homol ogousstructures:structur es in dif
ferentspeci es t hatno l ongerper form t he same
task butwhi ch shar e a similarst r
ucturear eallder
ivedf rom t hes ameancest ralt etrapod
structure. Exampl e:The f or el
imbs ofa human,cat ,whal e,and batal lhav e stri
kingly
simil
ar bone st ructures.Howev er
,each of t hese f our speci es'f orel
imbs per forms a
diff
erenttask.The same bones t hatconstructa bat '
s wi ngs,whi ch ar e used f orf l
ight
,
also constr
ucta whal e'sflipper s,which ar e used forswi mmi ng.Such a " design"makes
l
ittl
e sense iftheyar e unrelated and uni quelyconst ruct ed fort heirpar t
iculart asks.The
theory of evolution explains t hese homol ogous st ructures:al lf our ani mals shar eda
common ancest or ,and each has under gone change ov er many gener at
ions. These
changesi nstructurehav epr oducedf orel
imbsadapt edf ordif f
erentt asks.

b)Anal ogous or gans:Anal ogous or gans ar et hose whi ch appearsi mi l

ardue t ot heir
adaptati
on f orsi mi l
ar functi
ons but ar ev er
y di ff
erent in basic structural plan and
embr yol
ogicaldev elopment.Exampl e:Wi ngs ofi nsectsl ook like t
he wings ofbi r
ds and
batsast heirwor ki ssamebutt hebasi cal
l
ydi ff
erenthav ing no bones.Thust hei nsect
wings ar e analogous t ov er
tebrate wi ngs and gi ves ev i
denceofconv ergentev ol
ution.
Sti
ngsofhoneybeeandscor pionper form similarfunct i
onandl ookali
ke: Sti
ngsofhoney
beeandscor pionar eanalogousst ructures.Thest i
ngofhoneybeei samodi ficat
ionofi ts
oviposit
or(structur ethathel
psi neggl aying)whilethatofscor pionismodifiedlastabdomi nal
segment .Sti
ngsofbot hart
hropodsper f
or m si
milarfunction

c)Vest igialst ructures:Homol ogyi ncludesauni quegroup ofshar ed struct

uresr ef
erred
to asv estigialstructures.Vest i
gialr ef
erst o anat
omicalpartst hatar e ofmi ni
malorno
use tot he or ganism t hatpossesses t hem.These appar entl
yi l
logi
calst r
uctures are
remnantsofor ganst hatpl ayedani mpor tantrol
einancest r
alf or
ms.Suchi sthecasei n
whales,whi chhav esmal lv esti
gialbonest hatappeart ober emnant soft hel egbonesof
thei
rancest ors whi ch wal ked on l and.Humans al so havev est
igialstr
uctur
es,i ncl
uding
the earmuscl es,t he wi sdom t eeth,the appendi x,the t
ailbone ( coccyx),bodyhai rand
thesemilunarf oldint hecor neroft heey e.

3.Mol
ecul
arr
ecor
d

Ev
eryl
i
vingor
gani
sm (
wit
hthepossi
bleexcept
ionofRNA v
iruses)cont
ainsmol
ecul
esof

19
DNA,whi ch carri
es geneti
ci nf or
mation.Genes ar et he pieces ofDNA t hatcar ryt hi
s
i
nf or
mat ion,and t heyi
nfl
uence t he properti
es of an or ganism.Genes det ermine an
i
ndi v
idual's gener
alappearance and t osome ext enttheirbehav i
or.Ift wo organisms are
closelyr el
ated,theirDNA wi llbe verysimilarSimil
arit
ies i
n DNA ar e used to det
ermine
the relati
onships between species i
n much t he same manneras t heyar e used to show
relat
ionships between indi
viduals.Forexampl e,compar ing chi
mpanzees wi thgor i
ll
as and
humans shows t hatthereis as much as a 96 per centsi mil
ari
tybet ween the DNA of
humans and chi mps.Compar isons ofDNA i ndi
cat
et hathumans and chi mpanzees are
mor ecl oselyrel
atedt oeachot herthaneitherspeciesi stogor il
las.

PATTERNSOFEVOLUTI
ON
Evol
uti
onov
ertimecanfol
low sev
eraldi
ffer
entpat
ter
ns.Fact
orssuchasenv i
ronmentand
pr
edati
onpr
essur
escanhav
ediffer
enteff
ectsonthewaysinwhichspeci
esexposedtothem
ev
olve.

Rememberexampl
esofGi
raf
feevol
uti
on,
But
ter
fl
yevol
uti
onandSnakeevol
uti
on!

Pat
ter
nsofev
olut
ion;
a)di
ver
gent
,b)
conv
ergent
,andc)
par
all
el.

Di
ver
gentEv
olut
ion(
Closel
yrel
ated/Samespp.
)

Whenpeopl ehearthewor d"evoluti

on,"theymostcommonl ythinkofdivergentev olut
ion,the
evol
utionarypatt
erninwhicht wospeci esgraduall
ybecomei ncreasi
nglydif
ferent.Thist y
peof
evol
utionoftenoccurswhencl oselyrel
atedspecies/samespeci esdiversi
fytonewhabi tats.On
alargescale,di
vergentev
oluti
oni sresponsibl
eforthecr eat
ionoft hecurr
entdiversityoflifeon
eart
hf rom thefi
rstl
ivi
ngcell
s.Onasmal l
erscal
e, i
tisresponsiblefortheevoluti
onofhumans
andapesf rom acommonpr i
mat eancestor.

Conver
gentEv
olut
ion(
Twodi
ff
erent
/cl
osel
yrel
atedspp.
)……E.
g.Humans&dogsdr
oppedi
n
water
!!
!!
!!

Convergentev olut i
on causesdi f
fi
cul
ti
esi nfiel
dsofst udysuch ascompar at
iveanatomy .
Convergentev olutiont akesplacewhenspeciesofdiffer
entancestr
ybegintoshareanalogous
tr
ait
s(Similartraits)becauseofashar edenv i
ronmentorotherselecti
onpressur
e.Forexample,
whalesandf ish( dr agonf l
y&bi r
ds)havesomesi mil
archaract
eri
sticssi
ncebothhadtoev ol
ve
methodsofmov ingt hroughthesamemedi um: water
.

20
Par
all
elEv
olut
ion(
Twot
otal
lyun-
rel
atedspp.&non-
simi
larenv
ironmet
alcondi
ti
on)

Paral
lelevolut
ionoccur
swhent wospeciesevol
vei
ndependent
lyofeachother
,maint
aini
ngthe
samel evelofsimi
lar
it
y.Paral
l
elevol
uti
onusuall
yoccursbet
weenunrelat
edspeci
esthatdonot
occupyt hesameorsi mil
arnichesi
nagi venhabi
t .Ex
at amplearet heplacent
almammal s
(NorthAmer i
ca)andt hemarsupi
al(
inAust
ral
i
a)mammal s.Aust
rali
a'
sfly
ingphal anger
i
sr emar kabl
ysimilartotheNor t
hAmeri
canfl
yingsquir
rel,t
heplacent
alsabre-
toot hed
cats ( Machai r
odontinae) and t he South Amer ican mar supi
al sabr e-tooth
(Thylacosmil
us);theTasmani anwolfandtheEuropeanwol f;l
i
kewisemar supialand
placentalmoles,fl
yingsqui
rr
els.

Whentwospeciesar esi
milari
naparti
cul
archar
acter
,evol
uti
oni
sdefi
nedasparal
l
eli
f
t
heancestorssharedthatsi
mil
ari
ty;
ift
heydidnot,
theevol
uti
onoft
hatchar
act
erin
t
hosespeciesisdefi
nedasconvergent
.

Adapt
ati
on
Justasi ti
stemptingt ot akenatur
alselect
iontoextr
emes,i
tist
emptingtolookf
orthe
evoluti
onaryadv
ant ageofanyt r
aitofanorganism —inot
herwords,t
oseeadaptati
ons
everywhere.Anadapt ati
oni saf eat
urethatiscommoni napopulati
onbecauseit
providessomeimpr ovedf unct
ion.Adaptat
ionsarewellf
it
tedtothei
rfunct
ionandare
producedbynatural selecti
on.

Adapt
ati
onscant
akemanyf
orms:abehav
iort
hatal
l
owsbet
terev
asi
onofpr
edat
ors
(t
hebutt
erf
ly)
,

apr
otei
nthatf
unct
ionsbet
teratbodyt
emperatur
e,orananatomi
calfeat
uret
hatal
lows
t
heorgani
sm t
oaccessavaluabl
enewresour
ce—al loft
hesemightbeadapt
ati
ons.

Mi
micr
yofl
eav
esbyi
nsect
sisanadapt
ati
onf
orev
adi
ngpr
edat
ors.

Thecreosot
ebushisadesert-
dwell
ingpl
antthatproducestoxi
nsthatpr
eventot
her
pl
ant
sf r
om growi
ngnear
by,
thusreduci
ngcompeti
ti
onf ornut
ri
ent
sandwater.

Echol
ocat
ioni
nbat
sisanadapt
ati
onf
orcat
chi
ngi
nsect
s.

Ofcourse,thenat
uralworl
disful
lofadapt
ations—butiti
sal
soful
loft
rai
tst
hatar
enot
adapt
ations,andrecogni
zi
ngthisi
simportant.Howev
er,i
twi
llbeusef
ult
ospecif
ical
ly
def
inehowwecandet
ermi
newhet
herornotat
rai
tqual
if
iesasanadapt
ati
on.

21
Asanexample,we'
l
lconsiderthehy
pot
hesi
s:feat
hersareanadapt
ati
onforbir
df l
i
ght
.
Istheevi
denceconsi
stentwi t
hthi
shypot
hesis?Therearesever
alrel
evantli
nesof
evi
dencet
hatmustbeexami ned:

 Isither itabl e?
Ifat raithasbeenshapedbynat uralsel ecti
on,i t
mustbe genet i
call
y encoded — si nce nat ur al
select ioncannotactont raitsthatdon' tgetpassed
ont oof fspr ing.Ar efeathersher it
able?Yes.Baby
birdsgr ow upt ohav efeathersl i
ket hoseoft hei r
par ents.
 Isitf unct ional ?
Ifat raithasbeenshapedbynat uralsel ectionf ora
par ti
cul art ask,i tmustact uall
yper formt hattask.
Dof eat her sf unctiontoenabl ef l
ight?I nt hecase
ofbi rdf light ,t heansweri sf air
lyobv ious.Bi rds
wi t
hf eat her sar e ablet of lyand bi rdswi thout
feat herswoul dnotbeabl et o.
 Do esi ti ncr easef i
tness?
Ifat raithasbeenshapedbynat uralsel ecti
on,i t
musti ncr easet hefit
nessoft heor gani smst hat
hav ei t—si ncenat ur
alselecti
ononl yi ncr easest he
frequencyoft r
aitsthati
ncr easef it
ness.Ar ebi rds
mor ef i
twi thf eathersthanwi t
hout?Yes.Bi rds
wi t
houtf eat hersar en'
tgoi ng t oleav easmany
offspr ingast hosewi t
hfeathers.

Sofarsogood—t hisfeaturecoul
dhavebeenshapedbynat
uralselecti
on.Butwealso
havetol
ookathist
oricalquesti
onsaboutwhatwasgoi
ngonwheni tarose.Di
dfeat
hers
ari
seint
hecontextofnaturalsel
ect
ionforf
li
ght
?

 Howdi ditfi
rstevolv
e?
Didthetrai
tarisewhenthecurr
entfuncti
onar ose?
Didfeather
sar isewhenfly
ingarose?Theanswer
tothisisprobablyno.Theclosestfossi
lrelati
ves
ofbirds,two-leggeddi
nosaurscalledtheropods,
appeartohav esport
edfeat
hersbutcouldnotf l
y.

Thislastquestionemphasi zestheimportanceofunder st
andingorgani
sms'history
thr
oughfossil
ssuchasAr chaeopter
yxandreconstr
uctedphylogeni
es.I
tisnotenough
toknowt hatthefeatur
eisfuncti
onalri
ghtnow.Wewantt oknowwhatwashappeni ng
when itf i
rstev ol
ved,which often i
nvol
ves reconstr
ucti
ng the phyl
ogeny oft he
22
organismsinwhi
chwear
eint
erest
edanddet
ermi
ningt
hel
i
kel
yancest
ralst
atesoft
he
character
s.

Feathersmeett hr
eeofthenecessar
yrequi
rement st
obeconsi
deredanadaptat
ionfor
fl
ight,butf
ailoneofthem.Sothebasicfor
m offeather
sispr
obablynotanadaptat
ion
forfl
ighteventhoughi
tcert
ainl
yserv
esthatfunct
ionnow.

Notanadapt
ati
on

I
t'
st emptingtolookforadapti
veexpl
anati
onsforever
ythi
ng,
from theshapeofafl
ower
petal,
tothewayy ourdogturnsinacir
clebefor
eitl
iesdowntosleep,butther
ear
e
otherexplanat
ionstoconsider
.Thetr
aitmightbeanyoneofthefoll
owingnon-
adaptati
ons:

1.Achancer esultofhi story.

Whydoest hebasesequenceGGCcodef ort heami noaci dglyci
neinapr otei
n,
asopposedt osomeot heraminoaci d?Becauset hat'
st hewayi thappenedt o
star
tout—andt hat'
sthewaywei nher i
teditf r
om ourcommonancest or.There
i
snot hingspeci alaboutt herel
ationshi pbet weenGGCandgl yci
ne.I
t'sjusta
hi
storical accidentt hatstuckaround.
2.Aby -
pr oductofanot hercharacteristic.
Whyi sbl oodr ed?Wel l
, i
t'
snotbecausemammal swi thredbl oodmanaget o
survi
vebet terthanmammal swi t
hy ell
owbl ood.Bl ood'sr ednessisaby -product
ofit
schemi str
y ,whichcausesi ttor eflectredlight.Thechemi st
ryofbloodmay
beanadapt ati
on, butitsrednessisnoti tsel
fanadapt ation.
3.Anout dat edadapt ati
on.
Somet rait
swer eadapt ati
onsforpastenv ir
onment sbutnott hecurrentone.For

23
 exampl e,scienti
stshavehypothesizedthatthelarge,hard-shel
ledfrui
tofthe
calabasht ree(anativeofCentral
andSout hAmer i
caandt heCar ibbean)was
actuall
yanadapt ati
onforseeddistri
butionbylargemammal s,suchasthe
gomphot here.Unfort
unatel
y,gomphot hereswentextinctov er10,000yearsago!
Ift
hehy pothesisiscorr
ect,
thesefruitcharact
eri
sticswer eonceadapt ati
onsfor
seeddist ri
butionbutarenolonger.

Anar t
ist
'sr
epresent
ati
on Amoder
n-daycal
abash
ofagomphot here f
rui
t.
(ex
tinct)
.

4.Anexapt ation.
Anexapt ationisafeaturethatperformsaf unct
ionbutthatwasnotpr oducedby
naturalselecti
onforitscurrentuse.Perhapsthefeatur
ewaspr oducedbynat ur
al
selecti
onf orafuncti
onot herthantheonei tcur
rentl
yperformsandwast henco-
optedfori t
scur r
entfuncti
on.Forexampl e,feat
hersmighthav eorigi
nall
yar isen
i
nt hecont extofsel
ect i
onforinsulati
on,andonlylat
erwer etheyco-optedf or
fl
ight.I
nt hiscase,t
hegener alform offeat
hersisanadapt at
ionforinsulati
on
andanexapt ati
onforfli
ght.

5.Ther esultofgeneticdr if
t.
Somegenet icvari
ationpr esentinpopulati
onsdoesnotaf fectfi
tnessonewayor
anot her.Forexampl e, somehumansmi ghthavethebase" A"atapar t
icularpoint
i
nt hegenome, butot herhumansmi ghthavethebase" G"atthatpoi nt
.I fthis
diff
er encedoesnotaf f
ecttheirsurviv
alandreproducti
ononewayort heot her,
thent hev ari
antsar enotadapt ations;t
heyaresimplyneutralvari
ationt hati s
mai ntainedbymut ationandgenet i
cdrif
t.Thesuggestionthatmuchgenet ic
vari
at ionmi ghtactuallybeneut r
al andnon-adapti
veinspir
edthei deaknownas
theneut r
altheory.

24
Fishspeciesthatli
vei ncompletel
ydarkcav eshavev esti
gial
,non-f
unct i
onaley
es.When
theirsightedancest orsendedupl i
vi
ngi ncav es,t her
ewasno l ongeranynatural
select
iont hatmaintainedthefuncti
onoft hef i
shes'eyes.So,fishwi t
hbettersi
ghtno
l
ongerout -competedf ishwit
hwor sesight.Today,thesefishstil
lhav eeyes—butthey
arenotf uncti
onalandar enotanadapt at
ion;theyarejusttheby -
productsofthefi
shes'
evolut
ionaryhist
ory.

Ont
heOr
igi
nofLi
fe
Manytheor
ieshav
ebeenputforwar
dtoexpl
aint
heor
igi
nofl
i
fe,t
hef
oll
owi
nganci
ent
t
heor
iesareimpor
tantt
oment
ion.

1.Theor yofSpeci alCreat i

on:
Thegr eatestsuppor t
eroft histheor ywasFat herSuarez.Accor di
ngt ot histheorylife
wascr eatedbysuper naturalpower.Accor di
ngt otheBiblethewor ldwascr eat
edwi thin
sixdays.Ont hef ir
stdayGodmadet heheav enandt heear t
h,ont hesecondday ,He
separatedt heskyf rom thewat er,ont het hi
rdday .Hemadet hedr ylandandpl ants,on
thefourthday .Hef ormedt hesun, themoonandt hestars,ont hefif
thday .
Hemadet hefishesandt hebirdsandont hesixthday,Hef ormedt hel andanimalsand
humanbei ngs.Thef ir
stman,Adam andt hef i
rstwoman,Ev ewer ecr eatedbyGod.
According t o Hindumy thologythewor l
d wascr eat
ed byGod Br ahma.Br ahmai s
consideredt heGodofcr eati
on.
Hecr eatedt hewhol euniversewi thhi sdesire.Thef i
rstmanwasManuandt hef i
rst
womanwasShr adha.Speci alcreationt heorylacksscienti
ficev i
dences,onaccountof
whichitisnotaccept ed.

2.TheoryofSpont aneousGener ation( Abiogenesi sorAut ogenesi

s):
Thistheorystatesthatlif
eor i
ginatedf rom nonl iv
ingthingsinaspont aneousmanner .
This conceptwas hel d by ear ly Gr eek phi l
osopher sl i
ke Thales,Anaxi mander,
Xanophanes, Empedocles,Plato,Aristotl
e,etc.InancientEgy pt,i
twasbel i
evedthatthe
mudoft heNilecouldgiverisetof rogs,toads,snakes,mi ceandev encr ocodil
eswhen
war medbyt hesun.
VanHel mont( 1577-1644)heldt hathumansweatandwheatgr ainscoul dgiveri
set o
organisms.Hepl acedadi r
tyshirtinar ecept aclecontaini
ngwheatbr anandf oundthat
after21day sthegasesf r
om theshi r
tandwheathadf ormedlivi
ngmi ce.Thesebel i
efs
hav enoscienti
fi
cgroundsandhencear edi scarded.

Evi
dencesagai
nstt
heTheoryofSpontaneousGenerat
ion:
Thetheor
yofspont
a¬neousgener
ati
onwasdi spr
ovedbymanysci
ent
ist
sof17t
h,18t
h
25
and19t hcent
uri
es.Theypr ovedthatnew or
ganismscanbef or
medf r
om pre-
exist
ing
ones,i.e.
,omnisv iv
um ex ov o orviv
o( ‘
Biogenesis’ofHar v
ey—1651 and Т.H.
Huxley—1870).Noted scienti
sts who experi
ment al
l
y challenged t
he theor
y wer e
FrancescoRedi(
1626-1697),Lazzar
oSpall
anzani(1729-1799)andLouisPast
eur(1822-
1895).

3.TheoryofPanspermiaorCosmozoi cTheoryorSporebr othTheory:

Thistheorywaspr oposedbyRi chter(1865)
.Accordingt ot hi
st heory,‘
prot
oplasm’
reachedtheeart
hint heform ofsporesorgermsorot hersimplepar t
icl
esfrom some
unknownpar toftheuni ver
sewi t
ht hecosmicdust,andsubsequent l
yevolvedi nt
o
vari
ousf or
msofl ife.Helmholz(1884)speculat
edt hat‘ prot
oplasm’i nsomef orm
reachedtheear
thwithfal
li
ngmet eori
tes.

Arrhenius (1908,NobelPr ize Wi nnerof1903 i n Chemistr

y)postul
ated the (=
Pansper miaTheor y)andstat edthator gani
smsexist
edthroughouttheuniv
erseand
theirsporesetc.,coul
dfreelyt r
avelthroughspacef
rom onestartotheot
hers.Infact
,
pansper miatheoryist
healternativ
enameofcosmozoi ctheory
.

EvidencesagainstCosmozoicTheory
:
Liv
ingmat t
ercannotsurvi
vetheextr
emecold,dr
ynessandul
tr
a-v
iol
etr
adi
ati
onf
rom
thesunr equir
edtobecrossedforr
eachi
ngt
heearth.

4.Theor
yofEter
nityofLif
e:
Thi
stheorywasproposedbyPr ey
eri
n1880.Accor
dingtothist
heor
y,dif
fer
enttypesof
l
ivi
ngbeingshav
eal waysexi
stedonear
thandshallcont
inuetoexi
stfor
ever,changi
ng
onl
yinform.

Evi
denceagainstTheoryofEt
erni
tyofLi
fe:
I
tisacceptedthatear
thhadnotal
waysexist
ed.I
fli
fei
set
ernal
,wher
edi
ditexi
stbef
ore
thi
splanetwasformed.

5.TheoryofCatastr
ophi
sm:
GeorgesCuv i
er(1769-
1832),Fatherof“ModernPalaeontol
ogy”andOr bigney(1802-
1837)wer ethechiefadvocat
esoft hi
st heory
.Accordi
ngt othistheorycat acl
ysms
(gr
eatdestruct
ion)orcatastr
ophic(concerni
ng di
sastr
ousev ent)revoluti
onoccur s
uponearthfr
om timetoti
mewhi chcompletel
ydestr
oysallor
ganisms( l
i
vingbeings).

Ont
heOr
igi
noft
heEar
th
(AY-
bee-oh-
JEN-ə-
siss)
,biopoiesi
s,ori
nformal
l
y,t
heori
ginofli
fe,i
sthenatur
alpr
ocess
bywhichli
fear
isesfrom non-l
i
v i
ngmatter,
suchassi
mpleorganiccompounds.
26
Thest
udyofabiogenesisinv
olv
esgeophy
sical
,chemical
,andbiol
ogi
calconsi
der
ati
ons,
wit
hmorerecentapproachesat
tempt
ingasynt
hesisofallt
hree.

TheBi
gBangTheor
y
TheBi gBangt heoryi
sanef f
ortt
oexplai
nwhathappenedatt heverybeginni
ngofour
univer
se.Discoveri
esinastronomyandphysicshaveshownbey ondareasonabl
edoubt
thatouruniversedidinfacthaveabeginni
ng.Priortothatmomenttherewasnot hi
ng;
duri
ngandaf terthatmomentt her
ewassomet hi
ng:ouruniver
se.Thebigbangtheoryis
anef f
ortt
oexpl ai
nwhathappenedduringandafterthatmoment.

Accordingtot hest andardt heory,ouruni versespr angintoexi st

enceas" si
ngular
ity"
around13.7billi
ony earsago.Whati sa" singulari
ty"andwher edoesi tcomef r
om?Wel l
,
tobehonest ,wedon' tknow f orsure.Si ngular
iti
esar ezoneswhi chdef yourcur r
ent
understandi
ngofphy sics.Theyar ethoughtt oexi statthecor eof" blackhol es.
"Black
holesar eareasofi ntensegr avi
tat
ionalpr essure.Thepr essureist houghtt obeso
i
ntenset hatfinit
emat t
erisact uall
ysqui shedi ntoi nfi
nitedensi ty( amat hematical
conceptwhi cht rulyboggl est hemi nd).Thesezonesofi nf
init
edensi t
yar ecalled
"si
ngulari
ti
es."Ouruni verse i
st houghtt o have begun as an i nfinitesi
mal l
ysmal l
,
i
nfinit
elyhot,infi
nitel
ydense,somet hing-asi ngulari
ty.Wher edidi tcomef r
om?We
don'tknow.Whydi ditappear?Wedon' tknow.

Afteritsini
ti
alappearance,itapparentl
yinfl
ated(the"BigBang" ),
expandedandcool ed,
goingf rom very
,verysmallandv ery,
veryhot,tothesizeandt emperat ur
eofourcur r
ent
universe.Itconti
nuestoexpandandcoolt othisdayandwear einsideofit:incredi
ble
creatureslivi
ngonauni quepl anet,circl
i
ngabeaut if
ulst arclusteredtoget herwith
severalhundr edbil
l
ionotherstarsinagal axysoaringthrought hecosmos,al lofwhi ch
i
si nsideofanexpandi nguni verset hatbeganasani nfi
nitesi
malsi ngul
aritywhi ch
appear edoutofnowher eforreasonsunknown.Thi sistheBi gBangt heory.

BigBangTheory-CommonMi sconceptions
Therear
emanymi sconcepti
onssurroundingt heBigBangtheor
y.Forexample,
wet end
toimagi
neagiantexpl
osion.Exper
tshowev ersaythatt
her
ewasnoexpl osi
on;ther
e
was(andconti
nuestobe)anexpansi on.Ratherthanimagi
ningaball
oonpoppingand
rel
easi
ngit
scontents,
imagineaballoonexpandi ng:ani
nfi
nit
esi
mallysmall
ball
oon
expandi
ngtothesi
zeofourcur r
entuniverse.

Anot hermi sconcept i

onisthatwet endt oimaget hesingulari
tyasal i
ttl
efireball
appear ingsomewher einspace.Accor dingt othemanyexper tshowev er,spacedi dn' t
existpr i
ortotheBi gBang.Backi nt helate'60sandear ly'
70s,whenmenf ir
stwal ked
upont hemoon, "t
hreeBrit
ishastrophysici
sts,StevenHawki ng,GeorgeEl l
is,andRoger
Penroset ur
nedt heiratt
entiontotheTheor yofRel at
ivi
tyandi t
si mpli
cati
onsr egar ding
ournot ionsoft i
me.I n1968and1970, theypubl i
shedpaper sinwhicht heyext ended
1,
2
Einstein'sTheor yofGeneral Rel
ati
vityt
oi ncludemeasur ement softi
meandspace.
Accor dingtot heircal
culat
ions,ti
meandspacehadaf init
ebegi nni
ngthatcor responded
27
 3
totheori
ginofmat t
erandenergy.
" Thesingul
aritydidn'tappearinspace; rather
,space
beganinsideofthesi
ngular
it
y.Pri
ortothesingulari
ty,nothingexisted,notspace,ti
me,
matter
,orenergy-nothi
ng.Sowher eandinwhatdi dt hesingular
ityappeari fnoti
n
space?Wedon' tknow.Wedon'tknowwher eitcamef rom,whyi t
'sher e,orevenwhere
i
tis.Al
lwer eal
lyknowisthatweareinsideofitandatonet i
meitdi dn'
texistand
nei
therdidwe.

28