Research Methods (MPC-005)

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)

Course Code: MPC-005
Assignment Code: MPC-005/AST/TMA/2023-24
Marks: 100
Note: All Questions Are Compulsory
Section A
Answer the following question in about 1000 words each. 15x3=45Marks
1. Define sampling. Discuss the different methods of sampling.
Sampling: Definition and Methods
Definition of Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals, items, or observations from a
larger population to make statistical inferences about that population. In research, it is often
impractical or impossible to study an entire population due to constraints of time, cost, and
accessibility. Therefore, a sample, which is a representative segment of the population, is
used to gather data and draw conclusions about the whole population. The goal is to select a
sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population, minimizing bias and
error.
Methods of Sampling
Sampling methods can be broadly categorized into probability sampling and non-probability
sampling.
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling methods rely on random selection, ensuring that every member of the
population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected. This approach allows for the
calculation of sampling errors and generalization of results to the entire population.
1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS):
 Definition: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
 Process: This can be achieved using random number tables or computer-
generated random numbers.
 Advantages: Easy to understand and implement; unbiased.
 Disadvantages: Not practical for large populations without a complete list of
members.
2. Systematic Sampling:
 Definition: Selecting every k-th member from a list after a random start.
 Process: For example, if you want a sample of 100 from a population of
1,000, you might select every 10th person.
 Advantages: Easier to implement than SRS; ensures evenly distributed
sample across the population.
 Disadvantages: Can introduce bias if there is a hidden pattern in the
population list.
3. Stratified Sampling:
 Definition: Dividing the population into homogeneous subgroups (strata) and
taking a random sample from each.
 Process: Strata could be based on characteristics like age, gender, or income.
 Advantages: Increases precision by ensuring representation across key
subgroups.
 Disadvantages: More complex and time-consuming to organize.
4. Cluster Sampling:
  Definition: Dividing the population into clusters (often geographically), then
randomly selecting clusters, and sampling all members within them or a
random sample from each.
 Process: Useful for large populations spread over wide areas.
 Advantages: Reduces travel and administrative costs; easier to manage.
 Disadvantages: Higher sampling error compared to SRS and stratified
sampling.
5. Multistage Sampling:
 Definition: Combining several sampling methods, typically used in large-
scale surveys.
 Process: For example, you might use cluster sampling to select regions, then
use SRS within those regions.
 Advantages: Flexible and efficient for large, complex populations.
 Disadvantages: Complex and potentially introduces multiple sources of error.
Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection, and not every member of the
population has a chance of being included. This method is often used when probability
sampling is not feasible.
1. Convenience Sampling:
 Definition: Selecting samples that are easiest to access.
 Process: Examples include interviewing people in a shopping mall or using
students in a classroom.
 Advantages: Quick, easy, and inexpensive.
 Disadvantages: Highly biased and unrepresentative of the population.
2. Judgmental (Purposive) Sampling:
 Definition: Samples are chosen based on the researcher’s judgment about
which ones will be most useful or representative.
 Process: Used in qualitative research where expert opinion is required.
 Advantages: Targeted and focused on specific traits or characteristics.
 Disadvantages: Subjective and prone to researcher bias.
3. Quota Sampling:
 Definition: Ensuring the sample represents certain characteristics in
proportion to their prevalence in the population.
 Process: For example, if 40% of a population is female, the sample will have
40% females.
 Advantages: More representative than convenience sampling.
 Disadvantages: Still not random, and the selection within quotas can be
biased.
4. Snowball Sampling:
 Definition: Existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their
acquaintances.
 Process: Often used in studies of hard-to-reach populations (e.g., drug users).
 Advantages: Useful for finding hidden populations.
 Disadvantages: Can lead to biased samples, as the network of acquaintances
may not be representative.
Conclusion
Choosing the appropriate sampling method depends on the research objectives, the nature of
the population, and resource constraints. Probability sampling methods are preferred for their
ability to produce generalizable results, while non-probability methods are useful in
exploratory research or when probability sampling is not practical. Properly executed
sampling ensures that the study results are valid, reliable, and applicable to the larger
population.

2. Discuss the steps involved in research process.

Steps in the Research Process
The research process is a systematic series of steps that researchers follow to gather, analyze,
and interpret information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. The process
ensures that the research is conducted in a structured, rigorous, and ethical manner. Here are
the key steps involved:
1. Identifying the Research Problem
The first step in the research process is to identify and clearly define the research problem.
This involves:
 Choosing a broad topic of interest: Based on curiosity, gaps in existing research, or
practical needs.
 Conducting preliminary research: Reviewing literature to understand what has
already been done and identifying gaps.
 Formulating the problem: Narrowing down the broad topic to a specific,
manageable research question or hypothesis.
2. Reviewing the Literature
A comprehensive literature review is essential to understand the current state of knowledge
on the topic. This involves:
 Searching for relevant studies: Using academic databases, journals, books, and
other sources.
 Analyzing and synthesizing findings: Summarizing key theories, methods, and
findings related to the research problem.
 Identifying gaps and opportunities: Highlighting areas that require further
investigation.
3. Formulating Hypotheses or Research Questions
Based on the literature review, researchers formulate hypotheses or specific research
questions. This step includes:
 Hypotheses: Predictive statements that can be tested empirically.
 Research questions: Open-ended questions that guide the investigation, particularly
in exploratory or qualitative research.
4. Designing the Research
This step involves planning how the research will be conducted. Key components include:
 Choosing a research design: Deciding on the type of study (e.g., experimental,
correlational, descriptive, qualitative).
 Selecting a sample: Determining the population, sampling frame, and sampling
method.
 Developing instruments: Creating or selecting tools for data collection, such as
surveys, interviews, or observation checklists.
 Planning data collection procedures: Outlining how, when, and where data will be
collected.
5. Collecting Data
Data collection is the execution phase where researchers gather the information needed to
answer the research questions or test hypotheses. This step includes:
 Administering instruments: Conducting surveys, interviews, experiments, or
observations as planned.
 Ensuring ethical standards: Obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality,
and minimizing harm to participants.
  Monitoring data quality: Checking for completeness and accuracy of the collected
data.
6. Analyzing Data
Once data is collected, it must be analyzed to draw meaningful conclusions. This involves:
 Preparing data for analysis: Cleaning and organizing data, coding qualitative data if
applicable.
 Choosing appropriate analysis methods: Depending on the type of data and
research questions, this could include statistical analysis for quantitative data or
thematic analysis for qualitative data.
 Interpreting results: Relating findings back to the research questions or hypotheses
and considering their implications.
7. Drawing Conclusions
Based on the data analysis, researchers draw conclusions about their research questions or
hypotheses. This step includes:
 Summarizing findings: Highlighting key results and their significance.
 Comparing with existing literature: Discussing how the findings align with or differ
from previous research.
 Acknowledging limitations: Recognizing any constraints or potential biases in the
study.
8. Reporting and Disseminating Results
The final step is to communicate the research findings to a broader audience. This involves:
 Writing a research report or paper: Presenting the research process, findings, and
conclusions in a structured format.
 Publishing in academic journals: Submitting the report to peer-reviewed journals
for dissemination.
 Presenting at conferences: Sharing results with the academic community through
oral or poster presentations.
 Sharing with stakeholders: Communicating findings to practitioners, policymakers,
or the public as appropriate.
Conclusion
The research process is a methodical journey from identifying a problem to disseminating
findings. Each step is crucial for ensuring that the research is valid, reliable, and ethically
conducted. Following these steps rigorously allows researchers to contribute valuable insights
to their field, advance knowledge, and inform practice and policy. The iterative nature of
research often means that findings from one study can lead to new questions and further
investigations, perpetuating the cycle of inquiry and discovery.

3. Discuss the meaning, types and relevance of qualitative research. Explain

the ethical guidelines in qualitative research.
Meaning, Types, and Relevance of Qualitative Research
Meaning of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in various academic disciplines,
traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. It is
designed to understand human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Unlike
quantitative research, which seeks to quantify the data and typically applies some form of
statistical analysis, qualitative research focuses on exploring ideas, experiences, and concepts
in-depth. The primary aim is to gain insights into underlying reasons, opinions, and
motivations.
Qualitative research is characterized by its emphasis on processes and meanings that are not
rigorously examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency.
Methods typically include interviews, focus groups, and observations, among others.
Types of Qualitative Research
There are several types of qualitative research, each with unique characteristics and suited to
different research questions:
1. Ethnography:
 Definition: The systematic study of people and cultures from the insider's
viewpoint.
 Methods: Participant observation, field notes, and interviews.
 Purpose: To understand the social meanings and activities of people within
their natural context.
2. Phenomenology:
 Definition: Focuses on the study of an individual's lived experiences within
the world.
 Methods: In-depth interviews, diaries, and personal narratives.
 Purpose: To describe the essence of experiences about a phenomenon.
3. Grounded Theory:
 Definition: A systematic methodology involving the construction of theories
through the analysis of data.
 Methods: Iterative data collection and analysis, usually through interviews.
 Purpose: To develop a theory grounded in data from the field.
4. Case Study:
 Definition: An in-depth exploration of a single instance, event, or individual.
 Methods: Multiple sources of data including interviews, observations, and
document analysis.
 Purpose: To provide a detailed understanding of a complex issue in its real-
life context.
5. Narrative Research:
 Definition: Examines the stories or personal accounts of individuals.
 Methods: Storytelling, life histories, and biographical studies.
 Purpose: To explore the personal and human dimension of experiences over
time.
6. Content Analysis:
 Definition: Systematic analysis of textual information.
 Methods: Coding and interpreting patterns in text data.
 Purpose: To identify themes, patterns, and meanings within qualitative data.
Relevance of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is particularly relevant in the following contexts:
1. Exploratory Research: Ideal for exploring new areas where little is known or when
the issue is not well-defined.
2. Complex Phenomena: Helps understand complex phenomena that cannot be
captured through quantitative measures alone.
3. Contextual Understanding: Provides deep insights into the context and setting of the
phenomena.
4. Participant Perspectives: Captures the perspectives, experiences, and meanings that
participants attach to their experiences.
5. Development of Theories: Useful for developing new theories and conceptual
frameworks.
Ethical Guidelines in Qualitative Research
Ethical considerations are paramount in qualitative research due to its interactive nature and
the often-sensitive topics it explores. Key ethical guidelines include:
1. Informed Consent:
 Definition: Participants must be fully informed about the nature, purpose,
procedures, and potential impacts of the research before agreeing to
participate.
 Process: Researchers should provide detailed information in a comprehensible
manner and obtain written consent.
2. Confidentiality:
 Definition: Ensuring that information provided by participants is kept private
and used only for the purposes agreed upon.
 Measures: Using pseudonyms, secure data storage, and restricting data access
to authorized personnel only.
3. Anonymity:
 Definition: Protecting the identities of participants so that they cannot be
linked to their data.
 Methods: Removing or disguising personal identifiers in the data.
4. Avoiding Harm:
 Definition: Researchers must take steps to ensure that participants are not
exposed to any physical, psychological, or social harm as a result of their
participation.
 Strategies: Providing support, being sensitive to distressing topics, and
ensuring participants can withdraw at any time.
5. Respect for Persons:
 Definition: Treating participants with dignity and respect throughout the
research process.
 Practices: Being honest, respectful, and responsive to participants’ needs and
concerns.
6. Integrity and Transparency:
 Definition: Conducting research honestly and openly.
 Commitment: Reporting findings truthfully, acknowledging limitations, and
avoiding deceptive practices.
7. Beneficence and Non-Maleficence:
 Definition: Ensuring that the research benefits outweigh any potential risks or
harms.
 Approach: Designing studies that have the potential to contribute positively to
knowledge, policy, or practice.
Conclusion
Qualitative research plays a crucial role in providing rich, contextual, and detailed insights
into human behavior and social phenomena. Its various methods allow for the exploration of
complex issues from multiple perspectives, making it invaluable in many fields. However,
conducting ethical qualitative research requires a commitment to respecting and protecting
participants throughout the research process, ensuring that their rights and well-being are
prioritized.

Section B
Answer the following questions in about 400 words each. 5x5=25Marks
4. Criteria and misconceptions of case studies.
Criteria and Misconceptions of Case Studies
Criteria for Case Studies
 1. Clear Research Question or Objective:
 A well-defined research question or objective is crucial. This guides the focus
of the case study and ensures relevance and direction.
2. Case Selection:
 Selecting cases that are representative, unique, or critical to the research
question. The choice should provide rich, in-depth insights into the
phenomenon under study.
3. Data Collection:
 Utilizing multiple sources of evidence, such as interviews, observations,
documents, and archival records, to enhance the robustness and validity of
findings.
4. Contextual Analysis:
 Understanding and analyzing the context within which the case exists. This
includes considering historical, social, economic, and political factors that may
influence the case.
5. Theoretical Framework:
 Applying a relevant theoretical framework to guide the analysis and
interpretation of data. This helps in situating the findings within the broader
academic discourse.
6. Triangulation:
 Employing triangulation by cross-verifying data from different sources or
methods to increase the credibility and validity of the findings.
7. Transparency and Rigor:
 Maintaining transparency in data collection and analysis processes. Providing
a clear and detailed account of the research methodology ensures rigor and
reproducibility.
Misconceptions of Case Studies
1. Lack of Generalizability:
 A common misconception is that case studies cannot provide generalizable
findings. While they do focus on a single instance or a small number of cases,
the insights can offer valuable theoretical propositions and contribute to
broader understanding.
2. Anecdotal Evidence:
 Case studies are often dismissed as mere anecdotal evidence. However, when
conducted rigorously, they provide systematic and robust insights into
complex phenomena that quantitative methods may overlook.
3. Subjectivity:
 There is a belief that case studies are inherently subjective. While researcher
bias can be an issue, employing rigorous methods such as triangulation and
transparency can mitigate this and ensure objectivity.
4. Overemphasis on Description:
 Critics argue that case studies are overly descriptive and lack analytical depth.
However, a well-conducted case study provides both detailed descriptions and
deep analytical insights into the underlying processes and mechanisms.
5. Limited to Exploratory Research:
 Another misconception is that case studies are only suitable for exploratory
research. In reality, they can be used for explanatory and descriptive research,
offering rich insights into causal relationships and detailed contextual
understanding.
6. Time-Consuming and Impractical:
  While case studies can be time-consuming, the depth of understanding they
provide often justifies the investment. Their practical application can yield
significant benefits, especially in complex and real-world scenarios.
In summary, while case studies have their limitations and are often misunderstood, when
executed with rigor and clear objectives, they can provide invaluable insights and contribute
significantly to academic and practical knowledge.

5. Types of variables.
Types of Variables
In research, variables are elements, features, or factors that can be measured, manipulated, or
controlled. They are essential components of any study as they help in understanding
relationships and effects within the data. Here are the primary types of variables used in
research:
1. Independent Variables (IV)
 Definition: These are the variables that researchers manipulate to observe their effect
on other variables.
 Role: They are considered the cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Example: In an experiment studying the effect of a drug on blood pressure, the drug
dosage is the independent variable.
2. Dependent Variables (DV)
 Definition: These are the variables that are measured or observed in response to
changes in the independent variable.
 Role: They are considered the effect or outcome in a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Example: In the same drug study, the blood pressure readings are the dependent
variables.
3. Control Variables
 Definition: These are variables that are kept constant to prevent them from
influencing the outcome of the experiment.
 Role: They help isolate the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
 Example: Factors such as age, diet, and physical activity level might be controlled in
the drug study to ensure they don't affect blood pressure readings.
4. Extraneous Variables
 Definition: These are unwanted variables that could influence the dependent variable,
potentially confounding the results.
 Role: Researchers try to identify and control extraneous variables to maintain the
study’s internal validity.
 Example: In the drug study, extraneous variables could include participants' stress
levels or environmental factors like room temperature.
5. Confounding Variables
 Definition: These are extraneous variables that vary systematically with the
independent variable and potentially provide an alternative explanation for the
observed effect.
 Role: Confounding variables threaten the internal validity of an experiment by
creating a false association between the IV and DV.
 Example: If participants' diet (a confounding variable) changes along with the drug
dosage, it may affect blood pressure, making it difficult to attribute changes solely to
the drug.
6. Moderator Variables
  Definition: These variables affect the strength or direction of the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables.
 Role: They help researchers understand under what conditions an effect occurs.
 Example: In the drug study, gender could be a moderator variable if the drug's effect
on blood pressure differs between males and females.
7. Mediator Variables
 Definition: These variables explain the process through which the independent
variable influences the dependent variable.
 Role: They help clarify the mechanism or pathway of the observed relationship.
 Example: In the drug study, a mediator variable could be the drug’s impact on heart
rate, which in turn affects blood pressure.
8. Intervening Variables
 Definition: Similar to mediator variables, intervening variables mediate the
relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable, often
implying an intermediate step.
 Role: They help in understanding the indirect effects within the causal pathway.
 Example: If the drug influences stress levels, which then affect blood pressure, stress
levels are an intervening variable.
9. Categorical Variables
 Definition: These variables represent categories or groups.
 Role: They are used to classify data into distinct categories.
 Subtypes:
 Nominal Variables: Categories without a specific order (e.g., gender, race).
 Ordinal Variables: Categories with a meaningful order but without equal
intervals (e.g., education level, customer satisfaction ratings).
10. Continuous Variables
 Definition: These variables can take on an infinite number of values within a given
range.
 Role: They are used for precise measurements.
 Example: Height, weight, and temperature are continuous variables.
Understanding these types of variables is crucial for designing experiments, analyzing data,
and interpreting results accurately in research. Each type plays a specific role in the structure
and outcome of a study, contributing to the overall validity and reliability of the findings.

6. Advantages and disadvantages of quasi experimental design.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Quasi-Experimental Design
Quasi-experimental design is a type of research design that aims to evaluate interventions but
does not employ random assignment to treatment and control groups. While it shares
similarities with true experimental designs, the lack of randomization introduces unique
advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of Quasi-Experimental Design
1. Practicality and Feasibility:
 Advantage: Quasi-experimental designs are often more feasible to implement
in real-world settings where random assignment is not possible due to ethical,
logistical, or practical constraints.
 Example: In educational research, it may be impractical to randomly assign
students to different teaching methods, so naturally occurring groups (e.g.,
classes) are used instead.
2. Ethical Considerations:
  Advantage: These designs are particularly useful in situations where random
assignment would be unethical. For instance, it would be unethical to withhold
a potentially beneficial treatment from a control group in a medical study.
 Example: Evaluating the impact of a new drug on patients who have chosen
to take it versus those who have not.
3. Real-World Application:
 Advantage: Quasi-experiments often take place in natural settings, which
enhances the ecological validity of the findings. This means the results are
more likely to be generalizable to real-world contexts.
 Example: Studying the effects of a policy change in a community as opposed
to a controlled laboratory setting.
4. Flexibility:
 Advantage: These designs are flexible and can be adapted to a variety of
research questions and settings without the strict requirements of
randomization.
 Example: Implementing an educational intervention in different schools and
measuring outcomes without needing to randomize students.
Disadvantages of Quasi-Experimental Design
1. Internal Validity Threats:
 Disadvantage: The primary drawback is the reduced internal validity due to
the lack of randomization, which can lead to selection bias. Differences
between groups may be due to pre-existing differences rather than the
intervention.
 Example: If more motivated students are more likely to participate in an extra
tutoring program, improvements in test scores might be attributed to
motivation rather than the program itself.
2. Confounding Variables:
 Disadvantage: Without randomization, it is harder to control for confounding
variables that might influence the dependent variable, leading to ambiguous
results.
 Example: In a study comparing two teaching methods, differences in teacher
effectiveness or classroom resources might confound the results.
3. Causal Inference Limitations:
 Disadvantage: Making strong causal inferences is more challenging compared
to true experiments. While quasi-experiments can suggest associations,
proving causality is less straightforward.
 Example: Observing a correlation between a new public health campaign and
reduced smoking rates does not definitively prove the campaign caused the
reduction.
4. Statistical Complexity:
 Disadvantage: Quasi-experimental designs often require more complex
statistical techniques to account for the lack of randomization and control for
potential confounders.
 Example: Propensity score matching or regression discontinuity designs are
sophisticated methods used to mitigate selection bias, but they require
advanced statistical knowledge.
5. Generalizability Issues:
 Disadvantage: While quasi-experiments can have high ecological validity, the
lack of control over extraneous variables might limit the generalizability of the
findings to broader populations.
  Example: Results from a quasi-experiment conducted in a specific cultural or
socioeconomic context might not apply to different settings.
Conclusion
Quasi-experimental designs offer practical and ethical advantages, making them suitable for
many real-world applications where randomization is not feasible. However, they come with
significant challenges, particularly concerning internal validity and causal inference.
Researchers must carefully design quasi-experiments and employ appropriate statistical
techniques to address these limitations and draw meaningful conclusions from their studies.

7. Types of questions that can be used in a survey research.

Types of Questions Used in Survey Research
Survey research is a common method used to collect data from a predefined group of
respondents to gain information and insights on various topics. The types of questions
included in a survey can significantly impact the quality and type of data collected. Here are
the primary types of questions used in survey research:
1. Open-Ended Questions
 Definition: Questions that allow respondents to answer in their own words without
any predefined options.
 Purpose: To gather detailed, qualitative data and gain deeper insights into
respondents' thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
 Example: "What do you think are the biggest challenges facing our community?"
2. Closed-Ended Questions
 Definition: Questions that provide respondents with a set of predefined answers to
choose from.
 Purpose: To gather quantitative data that is easy to analyze and compare.
 Types:
 Multiple-Choice Questions:
 Definition: Respondents select one or more options from a list of
possible answers.
 Example: "Which of the following products have you purchased in the
last month? (Select all that apply)"
 Dichotomous Questions:
 Definition: Respondents choose between two options, often yes/no or
true/false.
 Example: "Do you own a car? Yes/No"
 Rating Scale Questions:
 Definition: Respondents rate an item on a scale, such as 1 to 5 or 1 to
10.
 Example: "On a scale of 1 to 5, how satisfied are you with our
service?"
 Likert Scale Questions:
 Definition: Respondents indicate their level of agreement or
disagreement with a statement on a multi-point scale.
 Example: "Strongly agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly
disagree"
 Rank Order Questions:
 Definition: Respondents rank a list of items in order of preference or
importance.
 Example: "Please rank the following features in order of importance
when choosing a smartphone."
3. Matrix Questions
 Definition: A series of similar questions presented in a grid format, where
respondents use the same scale for each question.
 Purpose: To efficiently gather responses on multiple related items.
 Example: "Please rate the following aspects of our service: (Very satisfied, Satisfied,
Neutral, Dissatisfied, Very dissatisfied)"
4. Demographic Questions
 Definition: Questions that gather information about respondents' background and
personal characteristics.
 Purpose: To segment the data and analyze differences across various demographic
groups.
 Example: "What is your age?", "What is your highest level of education?"
5. Filter or Contingency Questions
 Definition: Questions that direct respondents to different follow-up questions based
on their initial response.
 Purpose: To ensure that respondents only answer questions relevant to them.
 Example: "Do you own a pet? (Yes/No)" Followed by "If yes, what type of pet do
you own?"
6. Checklist Questions
 Definition: Questions that allow respondents to select multiple answers from a list.
 Purpose: To gather information about multiple items or options simultaneously.
 Example: "Which of the following activities do you participate in regularly? (Check
all that apply)"
7. Constant Sum Questions
 Definition: Respondents allocate a fixed number of points among various options to
indicate their preferences or importance.
 Purpose: To measure the relative importance or preference among different
attributes.
 Example: "Allocate 100 points to the following features based on their importance to
you when buying a car."
8. Semantic Differential Questions
 Definition: Respondents rate an item on a scale between two bipolar adjectives.
 Purpose: To measure the connotative meaning of objects, events, and concepts.
 Example: "Please rate our customer service on the following scale: (Friendly -
Unfriendly, Helpful - Unhelpful)"
Conclusion
Choosing the right type of question for a survey depends on the research objectives and the
kind of data needed. Open-ended questions provide depth and qualitative insights, while
closed-ended questions offer structure and ease of analysis. Using a mix of these question
types can enhance the comprehensiveness and reliability of the survey data, leading to more
robust and actionable findings.

8. Types of correlational research design.

Types of Correlational Research Design
Correlational research designs are used to study relationships between two or more variables
without manipulating them. These designs help identify whether there is an association
between variables and the strength and direction of these relationships. Here are the primary
types of correlational research designs:
1. Cross-Sectional Design
  Definition: This design involves observing a sample or population at one specific
point in time.
 Purpose: To identify and measure the relationships between variables at a single
moment.
 Example: A study examining the relationship between exercise frequency and stress
levels among university students during a particular semester.
 Advantages:
 Quick and cost-effective.
 Useful for identifying associations that may warrant further investigation.
 Disadvantages:
 Cannot determine causality.
 Susceptible to cohort effects if different age groups are compared.
2. Longitudinal Design
 Definition: This design involves repeated observations of the same variables over an
extended period.
 Purpose: To assess how relationships between variables change over time.
 Example: A study tracking the relationship between children's reading habits and
their academic performance from elementary through high school.
 Advantages:
 Can identify changes over time.
 Helps in understanding the directionality of relationships.
 Disadvantages:
 Time-consuming and expensive.
 Subject to attrition, where participants may drop out over time.
3. Prospective Design
 Definition: A type of longitudinal study where researchers follow participants
forward in time to observe outcomes.
 Purpose: To examine how certain factors or variables may influence future outcomes.
 Example: Following a cohort of individuals who have been exposed to a potential
risk factor (e.g., smoking) to see if they develop a health condition (e.g., lung cancer).
 Advantages:
 Can provide stronger evidence of temporal relationships.
 Useful for studying the development of outcomes over time.
 Disadvantages:
 Requires a long-term commitment and resources.
 Risk of participant drop-out, which can affect the results.
4. Retrospective Design
 Definition: This design involves looking backward in time, often using existing
records or recollections, to examine how past exposures relate to current outcomes.
 Purpose: To investigate potential relationships by comparing individuals with a
certain outcome to those without.
 Example: Studying patients with a particular disease and looking back at their
medical histories to identify common risk factors.
 Advantages:
 Can be quicker and less expensive than prospective studies.
 Useful when it is unethical or impractical to study variables prospectively.
 Disadvantages:
 Potential for recall bias and inaccuracies in historical data.
 Difficult to establish temporal relationships definitively.
5. Explanatory Design
  Definition: This design aims to explain the relationship between variables, often
incorporating elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
 Purpose: To understand the underlying mechanisms or reasons behind observed
relationships.
 Example: Investigating how socioeconomic status influences educational outcomes
and what factors mediate this relationship.
 Advantages:
 Provides a deeper understanding of the relationships.
 Can incorporate complex models to explain the associations.
 Disadvantages:
 More complex and requires advanced statistical techniques.
 May still struggle with issues of causality.
6. Predictive Design
 Definition: This design focuses on identifying variables that can predict future
outcomes.
 Purpose: To develop models that can forecast future behaviors or events based on
current data.
 Example: Using high school grades and standardized test scores to predict college
success.
 Advantages:
 Practical applications in various fields such as education, psychology, and
health.
 Can be used to inform policy and intervention strategies.
 Disadvantages:
 Predictive models may not account for all variables, leading to potential
inaccuracies.
 Future changes in external factors can affect the validity of predictions.
Conclusion
Correlational research designs are valuable for identifying and understanding relationships
between variables. Each type of design offers unique advantages and is suited to different
research questions and contexts. While these designs cannot establish causality, they provide
essential insights that can guide further experimental research and inform practical
applications. By choosing the appropriate design and acknowledging its limitations,
researchers can effectively explore complex relationships within their data.

Section C
Answer the following in about 50 words each. 10x3=30Marks
9. Difference between causal-comparative and experimental research design:
 Causal-comparative compares existing groups to identify causality indirectly, while
experimental design manipulates variables to establish causality directly.
10. Types of hypotheses:
 Hypotheses can be directional (predicting specific direction of effect), nondirectional
(predicting an effect without specifying direction), or null (predicting no effect).
11. Types of Validity:
 Validity includes internal (extent to which results reflect true causal relationships),
external (generalizability of findings), construct (accuracy of measurement), and
statistical conclusion validity (appropriateness of statistical analysis).
12. Reliability:
 Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of measurement over time or across
different conditions.
13. Types of survey research:
 Survey research can be cross-sectional (snapshot at one point in time), longitudinal
(follows subjects over time), descriptive (describes characteristics), or analytical (tests
relationships).
14. Quantitative research design:
 Quantitative research uses numerical data and statistical analysis to examine
relationships and make predictions.
15. Factorial Design:
 Factorial design involves manipulating multiple independent variables to study their
main effects and interactions.
16. Definition of research design:
 Research design is a plan or framework for conducting research, outlining procedures
for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
17. Field experiment:
 Field experiments are conducted in real-world settings rather than controlled
laboratory environments, enhancing ecological validity.
18. Research Biases:
 Biases in research include selection bias (non-representative sample), confirmation
bias (seeking evidence to confirm beliefs), and experimenter bias (influencing
participants' responses).