OPSC-AEE piiyi) Odisha Public Service Commission Assistant Executive Engineer Civil Engineering Environmental Engineering Well Illustrated Theory with Solved Examples and Practice Questions R= [neice | MADE EASY PublicationsEnvironmental Engineering Contents UNIT TOPIC 1. Water Demand 2. Sources of Water Supply. 3, Quality Control of Water Supply ... 4, Treatment of Water... 5. Distribution System .. 6. Design of Sewerage System and Sewer Appurtenances. 7. Waste Water Characterastics. 8. Disposal of Sewage Effluents. 9, Treatmentof Sewage 10, Sewage Collection from Houses &Bulng nn 11, Solid Waste Management 12, Environmental Polition . 2000 PAGE NO. on BB 55 89 151 165 197 12238, 241 31, 323 347Design of Sewerage System and Sewer Appurtenances AmMaAVS IA 6.1 Introduction Providing an adequate sewer system for an area is an art that requires careful engineering. It should be properly and skillfully, planned and designed se as to transport the entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the houses and up to the point of disposal. The sewer must be adequate in size or they will overflow and causes property damage, danger to health and nuisance. Adequacy in size of sewer calls for correct estimation of the amount of sewage and use of hydraulics to determine proper size and grades of sewers, which will permit reasonable velocity of flow. This flow should neither be too large as to require heavy excavations and high lt pumping nor should it be too small to cause deposition of solids in sewer bottom with accompanying odours and stoppages. 6.2 Difference in the Design of Water Supply Pipes and Sewer Pipes The hydraulic design of sewers and drains, which means finding out their sections and gradients, is generally carried out on the same lines as that of the water supply pipes. There are two major differences between the characteristics of flows in sewers and water supply pipes. () Water supply pipes carry water under pressure, and hence, within certain limits, they may be carried up and down the hills and the valleys; whereas, the sewer pipes cary sewage as gravity conduits and they must, therefore, be laid at a continuous gradient in the downward direction up to the outfall point, from where it will be lifted up, treated and disposed off (i) Water supply pipes carry pure water without containing any kind of solid particles, either organic or inorganic in nature. The sewage, on the other hand, does contain such particles in suspension and the heavier of these particles may settle down at the bottom of the sewers as and when the flow velocity reduces, thus ultimately resulting in the clogging of the sewers. In order to avoid such clogging or siting of sewers, itis necessary that the sewer pipes be of such a size and laid at such gradient as to generate selt-cleansing velocities at different possible discharges. The sewer materials must also be capable of resisting the wear and tear caused due to abrasion of the solid particles present in the sewage, with the interior of the pipe, 6.3 Laying of Sewer Pipes All the sewer pipes are generally laid starting from thelr outfall ends, towards their starting ends, The advantage gained in starting from the tall end, (.¢. outfall end) is the utilisation of the tail length even during the initial period of its construction, thus ensuring that the functioning of the sewerage scheme has not to wait till the completion of the entire scheme The laying of the sewer pipes is, therefore, started from the outfall end and proceeded upward by locating the different points along the proposed alignment on the ground. tis common practice, to first locate the points where manholes are required to be constructed and then laying the sewer pipe between the two manholes.166 | Civil Engineering OPSC-AEE MADE EASY The laying of the sewer consists of the followings steps: 6.3.1 Marking of the Alignment The alignment ofthe sewers marked along the oad with atheodolte and invar tape, The centre line may be marked according to the following two methods: (@) By Reference Line (b) By Sight Rail oe (a) By Reference Line: In Reference Line method, areference line is marked along any side of the busy roads by theodolite Reference and invar tape. The points F,F,,..... are on the reference line. The starting point (P,) of the centre line is marked with a peg, Then the distance F,P, is measured Conveline =P by tape. Now the other points P,. P,, Py ete. are marked pegs by taking as FP = FgPy = FgPy vn 816. Thus, the points P,, P,P... ete. will represent the centr line of the sewer. This centve line may be checked by the theodolite. (Fig. 6.1) Fig. 64 Reference Line (b) By Sight Rail: In Sight Rallmet Vertical post ross Head hod, two vertical posts are driven jira at suitable distance apart. Then by ranging through a theodolite the centre line is marked with nail [Bering on a sight rail which is fixed on the vertical posts. The sight ral H Length should be fixedin such away so echustent thatits upper edlge just coincides heen ey with the ine of sight, The centre in ofthe seri transtredto shee the ground by plumb bob with Fig. 62 Sight rail respect to the nai The distance between the upper edge of sight rail and the invert level is determined and noted on the sight ral for finding the exact invert level by boning rod. The length of boning rod is adjusted according to the height as noted in sight ral. The crosshead is levelled with the upper edge of sight rail and the bottom edge indicates the invert level. 6.3.2 Excavation of Trench ‘+ The width of excavation of any level will depend upon the with ofthe trench at the bottom and the adcitions due to side slopes and due to timbering ete ‘+ The trench is excavated between two manholes, and the sewer is laid between them, + Further excavations are carried out for laying the pipes between the next consecutive manholes. ‘+ The process is continued from the outfall end of the sewer towards the uphill, til the entire sewer is laid out mm NailMADE EASY Environmentalengg. Design of Sewerage System and SewerAppurtenances | 467 6.3.3 Bracing of the Trench + The braces are the cross wooden pieces extending from one side of the trench to the other side and may also be called struts. * The bracing will absorb the soil pressure and prevent it from collapsing, 6.3.4 Dewatering of Trench ‘* While excavating a trench, the ground water may appear, ifthe watertable happen to be high orif the sewer happens to be laid very deep. This ground waler will create problems in further excavations, ‘© The ground water may be removed through an open jointed drain constructed below the sewer trench, which discharges into an independent water course either by gravity or pumping. 6.3.5 Laying of Pipes String line parallel to sewer line and Alter the bedding concrete has been laid Ngodle ath above the sewer Invert ate ers er ane oer =e pipes are lowered down in othe trench. (Fig. 6.3) Sit Ral Kea Boning The sewer pipe lengths are usually laid Roda! from the lowest point with their socket ends facing upstream. ‘+ The spigot of each, is inserted in the socket of the laid pipe ‘+ After fitting the socket, spigot Joining is done with lead caulking or cement mortar Sockerend us Fig. 8.3 Leying of sewer (L-section) 6.3.6 Testing of the Sewer Pipes ‘The sewers after being laid and jointed are tested for water tight joints, and also for correct straight alignment, as described below: 1. Test for Leakage called Water Test ‘The sewers are tested, so as to ensure ‘no leakage’ through their joints after giving a sulfcient time to these joints to set in, The sewer pipe sections are tested between manhole to manhole under a test pressure of about 1.5 m of water head n order to carry out this test on a sewer line between two manholes, the lower end (i.e. downstream end) of the sewer is first of all, plugged. The water is now filed in the manhole at the upper end, and is allowed to flow through the sewer line. The depth of water in the manhole is maintained to the testing head about 1.5 m. The sewer line is watched by moving along the trench, and the joints which leak or sweat are repaired 2. Test for Straightness of Alignment and Obstruction ‘The straightness of the sewer pipe can be tested by placing a mirror al one end of the sewer line and a lamp at other end. If the pipe line is straight, the full circle of light will be observed. However, if the pipe line is not straight, this would be apparent, and the mirror will also indicate any obstruction in the pipe barrel168 | Civil Engineering 3. By Air Test The Air Test is carried out for large diameter sewer. The pipe ends of both the OPSC-AEE Compressed Ar Unit Upper Manhole Pressure Gauge Lower ‘Manhole manholes are plugged. An air compressor is connected to the plug the upper manhole and pressure gauge is altached with the plug of lower manhole. The pressure exerted by the ‘compressed airs recorded in the pressure gauge. Itis left for few hours. Ifthe pressure drops below the permissible limit, then it is an indication of leakage, ‘The exact point of leakage is found out by applying soap solution which will show bubbles at the point of leakage. If leakage is detected, it should be removed immediately. rr oo Fig. 6.4 ArTost 6.4 Types of Collection System For the transport of entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the houses and upto the point of disposal, sewer should be designed not to flow full under gravity because reserve space in the sewer safeguards against fluctuations in sewage flow. ‘The three types of collection systems are: 6.4.1 Sanitary Sewer + Insanitary sewer system, lateral sewer collects discharges from houses and carry them to another branch sewer, and has no tributary sewer lines (Fig. 6.5). * Branches or sub-main lines receive waste-water from laterals and convey it to large mains. ‘+The main sewer, also known as trunk or outfall sewer, carries the discharge fram large areas to the treatment plant * Manholes are provided at intersection of sewer lines and also at regular intervals to facilitate regular inspection and cleaning * They are designed to carry domestic wastes originating from the sanitary conveniences of dwellings, business buildings, factories or institutions including industrial wastes produced in the area. Lateral Branch sewer Lateral Mey "ang tony House: hole (Note: Ourtall designed to run full) uta sewer Fig. 6.5 Atypical sanitary sewer layoutMADE EASY EnvironmentalEngg. Design of Sewerage System and Sewer Appurtenances 6.4.2 Storm Sewer 169 Storm sewers carry surface runoff developed during or following the period of rainfall over concerned area including street wash. Surface water enters a storm drainage system through inlets located in street gutters that collect natural drainage, Since no house connection is required, the storm sewers may not depend upon the individual lots, and this may permit them to be run by shorter routes than that of sanitary sewers. ‘Storm sewer pipes are set shallower as compared to sanitary sewers as far as possible. toa Major difference in design of sanitary and storm sewer: ()._ In sanitary and storm sewers the latter are assu- assumed to surcharge and overflow periodically Sanitary sewer ate designed and constructed to prevent surcharging. (i) Second difference between sanitary and storm ‘sewers the pipe size that are needed to serve a given area, Storm drains are larger than the pipe collecting domestic waste water. 6.4.3 Combined Sewer System When the drainage is taken along with sewage, its called Combined Sewer System, This system consi Domestic and Industrial Property == Pian ‘Storm Water Overtow ‘and Sewerage System Fig, of a single sewer line of large diameter through which the sewage and storm water are allowed to flow and are carried to the treatment plant rested Effuent to Watercourse Fig. 6.7 Separate Sewerage System Foul Sewage Street Main’ Treatment Suilage Water Sewer Sewer Roofs and Paved Avea ‘surface ‘Surface Surface | ate > to Watercourse The storm water dilutes the sewage and hence its strength is reduced In this way, self-cleaning velocity is easily achieved As the single sewer line serves the double function, il becomes economical. ‘Storm Sewage to Watercourse Domestic and Indust [Siar Overtow |] Property Roofs ane Paved Areas Foul Sewage = = — Treated nes Sevet wen, Tegent em, Surface Run off Wiateenurse Fig. 6.8 Combined Sewerage System170 | Civil Engineering OPSC-AEE MADE EASY ‘Types of Sewer in a Typical Collection System The types and sizes of sewer used will vary with size of the collection system and the location of the waste water- reatmentfacillies. The principal types of sewers found in most collection system are described by function in able, and ilustrated graphically. Table: 6.1 Types of sewers ina typical collection system ‘Type of Sewer| Purpose Building Building sewers, sometimes called bulding connactions, connect to the bulding plumbing and are used to convey wastewater from the building fo lateral or branch Sewers, or any other sewer except another building sewer. Bulding sewers normally begin outside the bulding foundation. The distance from the foundation wall townere the sewerbegins depends on the local building regulations Lateral or Lateral sewers form the frst element af a wastewater collection system and are usually in strets or special branch easements, They are used to collect wastewater fram ane of more building sewers and convey ato amain Main Main sewers are used to convey wastewater from one or more lateral sowers to trunk sewers orto intercepting rank | Trunk sewers are large sewers that are used to convey wastewater from main sewers to treatment or other disposal facies orto large intercepting sewers. Intercepting | Intercepting sewers are larger sewers that are used to intercept a number of main or trunk sewers and convey the wastewaterto treatment or other disposaltaciities DO YOU KNOW? Combined sewer are generally not circular because of generating non-sulficient self cleaning velocity except rainy season, They are egg shaped sewers 6.5 Assumptions in Sewer Design Following assumptions are made for the purpose of hydraulic design of Sewer . te water in sewer is steady and uniform. The unsteady and nonuniform waste water istics are accounted in the design by proper sizing of man holes. + The available head in waste water lines is utilized in overcoming surface resistance and, in small part in attaining kinetic energy for the flow. + The design of sewers are hased on peak flow discharge. Flow Formul ‘© Manning's formula is used for open channel flow ‘© William-Hazen formula is used for closed conduit or pressure flow. Manning's Formul 7 where, = velocity in meters/sec VV =—x A"? x SV? n= Manning's coefficient of roughness a R_ =Hydraulic radiusin meters S = Slope of hydraulic gradient William-Hazens Formula: \V = 0.849 C x ROP 5954 where, C= William Hazen's coefficientMADE EASY Environmentalengg. Design of Sewerage System and SewerAppurtenances | 474 Chezy's Table : 6.2 Values of C,, for William Hazen’s formula Value of C, for S.No ‘Type of pipe material Now pipes Design purposes 1 Concrete and R.C.C. pipes 140 110 2 | Castiron pipes 130 100 3.__ | Galvanised iron popes 120 100 4. _| Stee! pipes with welded joints 140 100 5.__ | Stee! pipes with riveted joints no 95 6. | Stee! pipes with welded joints lined 140 110 with cement for bituminous enamel 7.__| Asbestos coment pipes 150 120 8. | Plastic pipes 150 120 Crimp and Burge's Formul. lV=835xA%xS° This formula is comparable to Manning's formula having Formula \v = CVRS| = 83.5 0rn=0.012 re, C= Chezy's constant depends upon various factors, such as the size and the shape of the channel, roughness of the channel surface, the hydraulic characteristics of the channel. The value of C can be obtained by using either Kutter’s formula or Bazin’s formula. Kutter’s Formula 0.00185) | 1 234 200188 | Ca s where, n= Rugosity coefficient depending upon the type of the channel 001s) 14 (23+ surface. ( 8 ) VR Table : 6.3 Mannings or Kutter's Rugosity Coefficients (7) S.No. Pipe Material Values of n at full depth for ‘Good interior Fair interior surface condition | surface condition a (2) (3) (4) 1. | Salt glazed stoneware pipes 0012 014 2. | cement concrete pipes oors 001s 3. | Castiron pipes oo12 0018 4. | Brick, unglazed soworsidains oors 001s 5. | Asbestos coment oon oor 6._| Plastic (smooth) pipes oon oon172 | Civil Engineering OPSC-AEE MADE EASY (b) —Bazin’s Formula c= 1875 where, k= Bazin’s constant tai * VR Table : 6.4 Bazin’s Constant (Kk) S.No. ‘Type of the inside surface Value of K of the sewer or dr “ @) 3) 1. | Very smooth surfaces om 2. | Smooth brick and concrete surfaces. 0.29 3. | Rough brick and concrete surfaces. 0.50 4. | ‘Smooth rubble and masonry surfaces. 0.83 5. | Good earthen channels. 154 6._| _ Rough earthen channels. 347 6.6 Design Data + Sanitary sewers are design to run partially full (low under gravity) * Sewer should be designed to carry peak discharge i.e. maximum hourly discharge, and should be checked to ensure that at minimum discharge, (2. minimum hourly discharge) velocity generated should be greater than self cleansing velocity. * Self cleansing velocity is the minimum velocity at which no solids get deposited at the bottom of sewer. + Ratio of maximum discharge to average discharge is maximum in the laterals and decreases progressively from lateral to branch and to main sewer. * Unless otherwise given, the following data should be adopted for discharges through sewer. Maximum hourly discharge = 3 x average daily discharge Maximum daily discharge = 2x average daily discharge Maximum hourly discharge = 1/3 x average dally discharge Maximum daily discharge = 2/8 x average dally discharge * Ibis assumed that almost 80% of water supply reaches sewer. However sewer should be designed to minimum of 100 Lie/d of discharge. + Self cleansing velocity is the minimum velocity at which not any solids get deposited at the bottom of sewer. + Solf cleansing velocity is given by shield's formula RYE K,(G, -t)dp]” where, G, = Special gravity of particle , = particle size k, = a dimension less constant with a value of about 0.04 to start motion of granular particle and about 0.8 for adequate self cleansing of sewer. R= hydraulic radius of sewer = Manning coetticientMADE EASY Environmentalengg. Design of Sewerage System and SewerAppurtenances | 473 Ensuring self cleansing velocity at minimum flow ensures that no solid is deposited even at minimum flow. However, sometimes design is done in such a way that although solid silting may occur at minimum flow, the same should be flushed out at a peak flow. Itis assumed that almost 75%-80% of accounted water supply goes into sewage. Naa + The inorganic sand particles of diameter 1 mm and specific gravity of 2.65 can be removed with a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/sec. * Organic particle of 5 mm diameter can also be removed with same minimum velocity Maximum Velocity * The maximum velocity helps in (i) keeping the sewer size under control. (i) preventing the sewage from getting preventing evolution of foul gases. * Toavoid erosion of pipe surface maximum velocity should be limited as follows. le and decomposed by moving it faster, thereby Table : 6.5. Non-scouring Limiting Velocities in Sewers and Drains S.No, ‘Sewer Material Limiting velocity in m/sec 1. | Vitrified tiles and glazed bricks 45-55 2. | Castiron sewers 35-45 3. | Stone ware sewers 30-40 4. | Cement concrete sewers 25-30 5. | Ordinary brick - lined sewers 18-25 6. | Earthen channels 06-12 © Slope of sewer should be designed for minimum permissible velocity at minimum flow. 6.7 Hydraulic Characteristics of Circular Sections Running Partially Full or full ‘The circular section is most widely adopted for sewer pipes. They may however, sometimes be of ‘egg shape’ or ‘horse shoe shape’ or ‘rectangular shape’. The circular sewers may sometimes run full or may run partially full. When they run full, their hydraulic properties will be as given below: Area of cross section ® AaGm where Dis dia of the pipe wetted perimeter P=nD Hydraulic mean depth * A_a> BD ratescon : pita a faa When the sewer run partaly fll, at a depth, say a, as shown in figure 69, the hydraulic elements Panty Fic can be worked out as given below. {section “ys The depth at partial flow Fig.6.9 Partially filed circular sewer section174 | Civil Engineering OPSC-AEE MADE EASY Publientone ~ Peas 2 2 where ais the central angle in degrees as shown in figure. ~ Proportionate depth S=3(1-cos$) =p? 2 i) Area of cross-section while running partially ull 2D yo Degg Dain 4 ~ 360° 2 22°02 nD*[_a__ sine 4 [360° an (i) a_[a sine Proportionate area = 2 =[—% - sina i oportonatearea = 2 =[=%- ne (iy wetted perimeter, while running partially full a = p= nD 360 iv) Gr Plo Proportionate perimeter = 5 = 3555 (v) Hydraulic mean depth (H.M.D), which running partially full (vi) Proportionate HM.D = f-[- te] wiy R 2rat velocity of flow is given by Manning's formula, as v= velocity at partial flow = 1p t n V = velocity, when running ful 1 is wee [Bed slope S = S, remains constant whether pipe runs full or partially full] = S, i.e. bed slope! Proportonale velocity (wi) Assuming that roughness coetficient n does not vary with depth, wehave n=N v_ Pe 360° sin Proportionate velocity = “== = [1- 260°sina i ms Yo yo Ree Bac. © Since, discharge is given by av, therefore Discharge when pipe is running partially full =q=av (x), Discharge when pipe is running (xi) Proportionale discharge = (il)MADE EASY EnvironmentalEngg. Design of Sewerage System and Sewer Appurtenances 175 4442 13 14 10 — nvariable with depth —- neonstant Independent of n 08+ ost 04 } Ratio of depth to diameter ofD L 1 1 0 02 od 06 og 10~=«12 A Fig. 6.10 Hydraulic elements for circular sewers By knowing the conditions under which sewer runs full and by knowing two ratios by hydraulic elements under partial and full low conditions, third can be calculated analytically or by using partial flow diagram. / v * If Manning's costficient’r is assumed constant with depth then 7 + For constant ‘nl, velocity of flow is maximum when. 4. 081 and this V,,, is 125% greater than when running ful * For constant discharge is maximum when 4 = 0.95 and this q,,4,/8 7% greater than the discharge at running fll v 1 + 7 decreases less sharply than below. full depth (for constant) d * As 7 <05.thedectine in velocities is not so sharp as the decline in discharges, because the area (on which discharge depends) reduces much faster as compared to the hydraulic mean depth (on which velocity depends). a_i 1 » Fatal = cons at = full flow (n = constant) a v + it Lsosthen %>1 = "3 72! (forn= constant) ‘© Formostefficient system, design should be done for 3 times of average and solf cleaning 1 velocity should be checked for 21d of dally discharge176 | Civil Engineering OPSC-AEE MADE EASY Psloationa [EMI [7 biarne-61 Determine the size of a circular sower fora ‘second running half full, Assume = $ = 0.0001 harge of 500 litres per Solution: — d=05D When sewer running halt full Given, Q= 05 msec by Manning's furmula a= 47.5" (a) oA 05 = stex{2)” x(oc000!” xE0* oor “a 3 DAS = 4.8128 D= (4.8128)88 = 1.80m 6.7.1 Equal Degree fo Self Cleansing if in a particular sewer, drag force under partial flow and drag force under full flow is to be same then, RS = 1S, RS = 1S, Under this condition “ 7 “ zt “ 7 toa When minimum velocity requirement in a sewer is not satisfied option is to (@) increase the slope, (©) increase the diameter of sewer.MADE EASY Environmentalengg. Design of Sewerage System and SewerAppurtenances | 477 6.8 Egg Shaped Sewer + Circular sewer sections are mostly used for separate sewage system The citcular sections are generally preferred to all other shapes because of their following advantages (They can be manufactured most easily and conveniently, (i) A circular sewer provides the maximum area for a given perimeter and thus providing the maximum hydraulic mean depth when running full orhalf full, andi therefore, the most efficient section of these flow conditions (ii) Circular section utilizes the minimum quantities of materials and is therefore the cheapest and most economical (v) A circular section, being of uniform curvature alll round, offers less opportunities for deposits, + Allthese advantages of circular sections are obtained only when the sections runs at least half full. When the depth goes below half depth the velocity reduces considerably. + Ifacircular sewer is used for combined system it will be effective only during maximum rain water flow but during dry weather flow, velocity generated would be very less. Thus to take advantage of a circular sew two such circular sewer are 0) "Standart or"Metropottan” ——_() New Eog shaped section assumed tobe combined into one toform “rare oy meron (©) 'New Egg shaped an “egg shaped sewer’ in which smaller circular portion willbe effective during dry weather and full sections effective during maximum rain water flow. Fig, 6.11 Typlcal view of Egg Shaped Section ‘+ Two sewers of different shapes are said to be hydraulically equivalent when they discharge at the same rate, while flowing full, on the same grade + The egg shaped sewer of an equivalent section, whose top diameter D’ = 0.84 D, when D= diameter of circular sewer of same cross-section are obtained for passing the requisite discharge, ‘© Their disadvantage over circular sewer are: (i) They are more difficult to construct. (i) Since the smaller base has to support the weig! stable, the upper boarder section, they are less (il) They require more material and are, therefore, more costly. Tea In combined sewers, the variation in discharge could be as large as 20 to 25 times. Egg shaped sewer produces 2 to 15% higher velocity than thal provided by hydraulically equivalent circular sewer.178 | Civil Engineering OPSC-AEE MADE EASY Publleatone 6.9 Storm Water Drainage + Design of storm water drainage requires the estimation of peak runoff rate for design. + Peak runotf depends on the intensity of rainfall + The intensity of rainfall depends on recurrence interval and duration of rainfall oo Rain of larger recurrence interval will have higher intensity, Hence 5 year recurrence interval ain is chosen for design, then it may lead to flooding in every 5-year (because the rainfall has a probability of exceeding the adopted value every 5-years and drainage has not been designed for this large rainfall). If larger frequency of rainfall is adopted in design, larger sewer will be required to carry the runoff safely. 6.9.1 Computing the peak drainage discharge by the use of Rational Formula 6.9.1.1. Time of Concentration + Ifa rainfall is applied to an impervious surface at a constant rate, the resultant runoff from the surface would finally reach a tate equal to the rainfall. In the beginning, only a certain amount of water will reach the outlet, but after sometime the water will start reaching the outlet from the entire area, and in this case, the runott rate would become equal to the rate of rainfall. "The period after which the entire area will start contributing to the runoff is called the Time of concentration +The time of concentration for a given storm water drain generally consist of two parts, 1. The inlet ime or overiand flow time or time of equilibrium (7). The time taken by the water to fiow overland from the ertical point upto the point when it enters the drain mouth — r (0 asst] H Inlet time in hours length of overland flow in km from the etitical point to the mouth of the drain. H = Total fall of level from the critical point to the mouth of the drain in meters, 2. The channel flow time or gutter flow time (T,) Le. the time taken by the water to flow in the drain channel from the mouth to the considered point. This may be obtained by dividing the length of the drain by the flow velocity in the drain Length of the orain 10 T Velocity in the drain ‘al The total time of concentration (T,) = T,+ T, 0 6.9.1.2 Rain Fall Intensity z = 40) The intensity of rainfall during this much of time (forthe E given design frequency) can be easily obtained from the © ao standard intensity duration curves or DAD curves. g The value of intensity so obtained is stil the rainfall = 2 inionsty atthe ain gauge stan andiscalledtho "pontraintall ag intensity’. Inorder to make iteffective over the entire catchment area, itis necessary to multiply it by a factor called dispersion of factor or areal distribution factor. (Fig. 6.12) Duration (minutes) ——e Fig. 612 Typical Intensity Duration CurvesMADE EASY Environmentalengg. Design of Sewerage System and Sewer Appurtenances | 479 Thus design rainfall intensity = (point rainfall intensity) x (area dispersion factor) + Inabsence of standard intensity duration curves, the value of design rainfall intensity (p,) r= v4 2) y= (point rainfall intensity ofa particular frequency) x (area dispersion factors) This point rainfall intensity is obtained from contour map or maximum rainfall ofa particular frequency. pais in ominr isin emir T,ln hr = Time of concentration +The design rainfall can also be oblained from the formula. p= —8 where p= Rainintensity in omihr 748 T= Time in minutes aand b = Constants = 1355 (for Tvarying between § to 20 minute) and = — 120 (for Tvarying between 2010 100 minutes) T+20 vying 6.9.2 Rational Formula Q=Cpa where, Q= Peakrrate of runoff (m*/s) runott p= Runott coeticient i = intensity of rainfall (ms) A= drainage basin area-catchment area (m?) The coefficient of Runoff (C) is infact, the impervious factor of runoff, representing the ratio of precipitation to runoff, Runoff coefficient value increase as imperiousness of catchment increases. When several different typos of surfaces comprise the catchment than weighted average value of runoff coefficient is adopted. C= CA ahh + Cary + A, area has runoff coefficient = C, 8 Ae Ap Ay te A, area has runott coefficient = C, ‘A,area has tunott costticient = C, ete. toa 1. Rainfall intensity depends on the storm recurrence interval and the storm duration, 2, In intensity duration curves, if 15 hr recurrence interval rain is to be adopted and time of concentration is 25 minutes then rain fall intensity to be adopted will be 25 mmn/hr. mas [7 Example-6.2 The surface water from airport road side is drained to the longitudinal side drain from across one half of a bituminous pavement surface of total width 7.0 m, shoulder and adjoining land of width 8.0 m on one side of the drain. On other side of the drain, water flows acros: from reserve land with average turf and 2% cross slope towards the side drain, the width of the strip of land being 25 m. The inlet time may be assumed to be 10 min for these conditions. The runoff180 | Civil Engineering OPSC-AEE MADE EASY coefficients of the pavement, shoulder and reserve land with turf are 0.8, 0.25 and 0.35 respectively. The length of the stretch of land parallel to the road from where the water is expected to flow to the side drain is 400 m. Estimate the quantity of runoff flowing in the drain assuming 10 year frequency. The side drain will pass through clayey soil with allowable velocity of flow as 1.33 m/s. Intensity duration chart for 10 year frequency is. Duration(minutes) | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 30 Intensity(mm/ne) | 160 | 150 | 125 | 110 | 95 Solution: Average runof! factor K for the entire area contributing discharge KyAp+KoAy +KyAy _ 0.8%(7% 400) + 0.28 x (8 x 400) + 0.35 x (25> 400) A=AtA (7 400) + (8x 400) + (25% 400) 6540 2800 +3200 + 10000 Totalarea = 16000m? = 1.6 ha ‘Time of concentration K= = 0.40875 Tos Teh 400 T, = channel fiow time in drain = “T° = 800 sec = 5 min Tg = 10+5= 15min 133 Cortesponding of T., rainfall intensity = 125 mmihr = P= 12.5¢minr 1 Peak cdacharge @,= eK RA = x04007Sx128%1 6 0227 mil [EINE [71 txampie-63 Find the relation between the side of a square section of one sewer and the diameter ofa circualr section of another sewer when both are hydraulically equipment Solution: Let D be the diameter of the circular sewer and be the side of the equivalent square sower, The discharging capacity of circular sewer while running full at a gradiont of 1 in S, 1(m p22)” (gyv2 a= G\(Z) © 0 The discharging capacity of the square section while running ful, at a gradient of 1 in 218 1 (2) 12 Aor i Q; wi | a) (ii) For hydraulically equivalent section Q,= 2 *(e0°\(2)" vs = to(2)" A(Zo7](2) vs = te°(2) vs AEE) 8 nD ppl 4252 ~ 252 DR = 4.272 HA D= (1272/85 D= 1.094