Chapter 7

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

◼ Selecting a Sample
◼ Point Estimation
◼ Introduction to Sampling Distributions
◼ Sampling Distribution of x
◼ Sampling Distribution of p
◼ Other Sampling Methods

Slide 1
 Introduction

An element is the entity on which data are collected.

A population is a collection of all the elements of

interest.

A sample is a subset of the population.

The sampled population is the population from

which the sample is drawn.

A frame is a list of the elements that the sample will

be selected from.

Slide 2
 Introduction

The reason we select a sample is to collect data to

answer a research question about a population.

The sample results provide only estimates of the

values of the population characteristics.

The reason is simply that the sample contains only a

portion of the population.

With proper sampling methods, the sample results

can provide “good” estimates of the population
characteristics.

Slide 3
 Selecting a Sample

Sampling from a Finite Population

Sampling from an Infinite Population

Slide 4
 Sampling from a Finite Population

Finite populations are often defined by lists such as:

• Organization membership roster
• Credit card account numbers
• Inventory product numbers
A simple random sample of size n from a finite
population of size N is a sample selected such that
each possible sample of size n has the same probability
of being selected.

Slide 5
 Sampling from a Finite Population

◼ Replacing each sampled element before selecting

subsequent elements is called sampling with
replacement.
◼ Sampling without replacement is the procedure
used most often.
◼ In large sampling projects, computer-generated
random numbers are often used to automate the
sample selection process.

Slide 6
 Sampling from a Finite Population

Example: St. Stephen’s College

St. Stephen’s College received 900 applications for
admission in the upcoming year from prospective
students. The applicants were numbered, from 1 to
900, as their applications arrived. The Director of
Admissions would like to select a simple random
sample of 30 applicants.

Slide 7
 Sampling from a Finite Population

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Step 1: Assign a random number to each of the 900
applicants.

The random numbers generated by Excel’s

RAND function follow a uniform probability
distribution between 0 and 1.

Step 2: Select the 30 applicants corresponding to the

30 random numbers.

Slide 8
 Sampling from an Infinite Population

◼ Sometimes we want to select a sample, but find it is

not possible to obtain a list of all elements in the
population.
◼ As a result, we cannot construct a frame for the
population.
◼ Hence, we cannot use the random number selection
procedure.
◼ Most often this situation occurs in infinite population
cases.

Slide 9
 Sampling from an Infinite Population

Populations are often generated by an ongoing process

where there is no upper limit on the number of units
that can be generated.
◼ Some examples of on-going processes, with infinite
populations, are:
• parts being manufactured on a production line
• transactions occurring at a bank
• telephone calls arriving at a technical help desk
• customers entering a store

Slide 10
 Sampling from an Infinite Population

◼ In the case of an infinite population, we must select

a random sample in order to make valid statistical
inferences about the population from which the
sample is taken.
A random sample from an infinite population is a
sample selected such that the following conditions
are satisfied.
• Each element selected comes from the population
of interest.
• Each element is selected independently.

Slide 11
 Point Estimation

Point estimation is a form of statistical inference.

In point estimation we use the data from the sample

to compute a value of a sample statistic that serves
as an estimate of a population parameter.

We refer to x as the point estimator of the population

mean .

s is the point estimator of the population standard

deviation .

p is the point estimator of the population proportion p.

Slide 12
 Point Estimation

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Recall that St. Stephen’s College received 900
applications from prospective students. The
application form contains a variety of information
including the individual’s Scholastic Aptitude Test
(SAT) score and whether or not the individual desires
on-campus housing.
At a meeting in a few hours, the Director of
Admissions would like to announce the average SAT
score and the proportion of applicants that want to
live on campus, for the population of 900 applicants.

Slide 13
 Point Estimation

Example: St. Stephen’s College

However, the necessary data on the applicants have
not yet been entered in the college’s computerized
database. So, the Director decides to estimate the
values of the population parameters of interest based
on sample statistics. The sample of 30 applicants is
selected using computer-generated random numbers.

Slide 14
 Point Estimation

x as Point Estimator of 
x=
 x
=
i32,910
= 1097
30 30
s as Point Estimator of 

s=
 i
( x − x ) 2

=
163, 996
= 75.2
29 29
p as Point Estimator of p
𝑝ҧ =20/30=0.67
Note: Different random numbers would have
identified a different sample which would have
resulted in different point estimates.
Slide 15
 Point Estimation

Once all the data for the 900 applicants were entered
in the college’s database, the values of the population
parameters of interest could be calculated.
Population Mean SAT Score
=
 x i
= 1090
900
Population Standard Deviation for SAT Score

=
 i
( x −  ) 2

= 80
900
Population Proportion Wanting On-Campus Housing
648
p= = .72
900
Slide 16
 Summary of Point Estimates
Obtained from a Simple Random Sample

Population Parameter Point Point

Parameter Value Estimator Estimate
 = Population mean 1090 x = Sample mean 1097
SAT score SAT score

 = Population std. 80 s = Sample std. 75.2

deviation for deviation for
SAT score SAT score

p = Population pro- .72 p = Sample pro- .67

portion wanting portion wanting
campus housing campus housing

Slide 17
 Practical Advice

The target population is the population we want to

make inferences about.

The sampled population is the population from

which the sample is actually taken.

Whenever a sample is used to make inferences about

a population, we should make sure that the targeted
population and the sampled population are in close
agreement.

Slide 18
 Sampling Distribution of x

Process of Statistical Inference

Population A simple random sample

with mean of n elements is selected
=? from the population.

The value of x is used to The sample data

make inferences about provide a value for
the value of . the sample mean x .

Slide 19
 Sampling Distribution of x

The sampling distribution of x is the probability

distribution of all possible values of the sample
mean x.
• Expected Value of x
E( x ) = 

where:  = the population mean

When the expected value of the point estimator
equals the population parameter, we say the point
estimator is unbiased.

Slide 20
 Sampling Distribution of x

• Standard Deviation of x
We will use the following notation to define the
standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x.

x = the standard deviation of x

 = the standard deviation of the population
n = the sample size
N = the population size

Slide 21
 Sampling Distribution of x

• Standard Deviation of x
Finite Population Infinite Population

N −n  
x = ( ) x =
N −1 n n
• A finite population is treated as being
infinite if n/N < .05.
• is the finite population
( N − n ) / ( N − 1)
correction factor.
•  x is referred to as the standard error of the
sample means.

Slide 22
 Sampling Distribution of x

When the population has a normal distribution, the

sampling distribution of x is normally distributed
for any sample size.

In most applications, the sampling distribution of x

can be approximated by a normal distribution
whenever the sample is size 30 or more.

In cases where the population is highly skewed or

outliers are present, samples of size 50 may be
needed.

Slide 23
 Sampling Distribution of x

The sampling distribution of x can be used to

provide probability information about how close
the sample mean x is to the population mean  .

Slide 24
 Central Limit Theorem

When the population from which we are selecting

a random sample does not have a normal distribution,
the central limit theorem is helpful in identifying the
shape of the sampling distribution of x .

CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

In selecting random samples of size n from a
population, the sampling distribution of the sample
mean x can be approximated by a normal
distribution as the sample size becomes large.

Slide 25
 Sampling Distribution of x

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling
Distribution
 80
of x x = = = 14.6
n 30
for SAT
Scores

x
E( x ) = 1090

Slide 26
 Sampling Distribution of x

Example: St. Stephen’s College

What is the probability that a simple random
sample of 30 applicants will provide an estimate of
the population mean SAT score that is within +/−10
of the actual population mean  ?
In other words, what is the probability that x will
be between 1080 and 1100?

Slide 27
 Sampling Distribution of x

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Step 1: Calculate the z-value at the upper endpoint of
the interval.
z = (1100 1090)/14.6= .68
Step 2: Find the area under the curve to the left of the
upper endpoint.
P(z < .68) = .7517

Slide 28
 Sampling Distribution of x

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Cumulative Probabilities for

the Standard Normal Distribution
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
. . . . . . . . . . .
.5 .6915 .6950 .6985 .7019 .7054 .7088 .7123 .7157 .7190 .7224
.6 .7257 .7291 .7324 .7357 .7389 .7422 .7454 .7486 .7517 .7549
.7 .7580 .7611 .7642 .7673 .7704 .7734 .7764 .7794 .7823 .7852
.8 .7881 .7910 .7939 .7967 .7995 .8023 .8051 .8078 .8106 .8133
.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
. . . . . . . . . . .

Slide 29
 Sampling Distribution of x

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling
Distribution  x = 14.6
of x
for SAT
Scores

Area = .7517

x
1090 1100

Slide 30
 Sampling Distribution of x

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Step 3: Calculate the z-value at the lower endpoint of
the interval.
z = (1080 1090)/14.6= - .68
Step 4: Find the area under the curve to the left of the
lower endpoint.
P(z < -.68) = .2483

Slide 31
Sampling Distribution of x for SAT Scores

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling
Distribution  x = 14.6
of x
for SAT
Scores

Area = .2483

x
1080 1090

Slide 32
Sampling Distribution of x for SAT Scores

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Step 5: Calculate the area under the curve between
the lower and upper endpoints of the interval.
P(-.68 < z < .68) = P(z < .68) P(z < -.68)
= .7517 .2483
= .5034
The probability that the sample mean SAT score will
be between 1080 and 1100 is:

P(1080 < x < 1100) = .5034

Slide 33
Sampling Distribution of x for SAT Scores

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling
Distribution  x = 14.6
of x
for SAT
Scores
Area = .5034

x
1080 1090 1100

Slide 34
 Relationship Between the Sample Size
and the Sampling Distribution of x
Example: St. Stephen’s College
• Suppose we select a simple random sample of 100
applicants with replacement instead of the
30 originally considered.
• E( x) =  regardless of the sample size. In our
example, E( x) remains at 1090.
• Whenever the sample size is increased, the standard
error of the mean  x is decreased. With the increase
in the sample size to n = 100, the standard error of
the mean is decreased from 14.6 to:
 80
x = = = 8.0
n 100
Slide 35
 Relationship Between the Sample Size
and the Sampling Distribution of x
Example: St. Stephen’s College

With n = 100,
x = 8

With n = 30,
 x = 14.6

x
E( x ) = 1090

Slide 36
 Relationship Between the Sample Size
and the Sampling Distribution of x
Example: St. Stephen’s College
• Recall that when n = 30, P(1080 < x < 1100) = .5034.
• We follow the same steps to solve for P(1080 < x
< 1100) when n = 100 as we showed earlier when
n = 30.
• Now, with n = 100, P(1080 < x < 1100) = .7888.
• Because the sampling distribution with n = 100 has a
smaller standard error, the values of x have less
variability and tend to be closer to the population
mean than the values of x with n = 30.

Slide 37
 Relationship Between the Sample Size
and the Sampling Distribution of x
Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling x = 8
Distribution
of x
for SAT
Scores
Area = .7888

x
1080 1090 1100
Slide 38
 Sampling Distribution of p

Making Inferences about a Population Proportion

Population A simple random sample

with proportion of n elements is selected
p=? from the population.

The value of p is used The sample data

to make inferences provide a value for the
about the value of p. sample proportion p.

Slide 39
 Sampling Distribution of p

The sampling distribution of p is the probability

distribution of all possible values of the sample
proportion p .

• Expected Value of p

E ( p) = p

where:
p = the population proportion

Slide 40
 Sampling Distribution of p

• Standard Deviation of p
Finite Population Infinite Population

N −n p(1 − p) p (1 − p )
p = p =
N −1 n n

•  p is referred to as the standard error of

the sample proportion.
• ( N − n) / ( N − 1) is the finite population
correction factor.

Slide 41
 Form of the Sampling Distribution of p

The sampling distribution of p can be approximated

by a normal distribution whenever the sample size
is large enough to satisfy the two conditions:

np > 5 and n(1 – p) > 5

. . . because when these conditions are satisfied, the

probability distribution of x in the sample proportion,
p = x/n, can be approximated by normal distribution
(and because n is a constant).

Slide 42
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Recall that 72% of the prospective students applying
to St. Stephen’s College desire on-campus housing.
What is the probability that a simple random sample
of 30 applicants will provide an estimate of the
population proportion of applicant desiring on-campus
housing that is within plus or minus .05 of the actual
population proportion?

Slide 43
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

For our example, with n = 30 and p = .72, the
normal distribution is an acceptable approximation
because:

np = 30(.72) = 21.6 > 5

and
n(1 - p) = 30(.28) = 8.4 > 5

Slide 44
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling .72(1 − .72)

Distribution p = = .082
30
of p

p
E( p ) = .72

Slide 45
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Step 1: Calculate the z-value at the upper endpoint
of the interval.
z = (.77 .72)/.082 = .61
Step 2: Find the area under the curve to the left of
the upper endpoint.
P(z < .61) = .7291

Slide 46
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Cumulative Probabilities for
the Standard Normal Distribution
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
. . . . . . . . . . .
.5 .6915 .6950 .6985 .7019 .7054 .7088 .7123 .7157 .7190 .7224
.6 .7257 .7291 .7324 .7357 .7389 .7422 .7454 .7486 .7517 .7549
.7 .7580 .7611 .7642 .7673 .7704 .7734 .7764 .7794 .7823 .7852
.8 .7881 .7910 .7939 .7967 .7995 .8023 .8051 .8078 .8106 .8133
.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
. . . . . . . . . . .

Slide 47
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling  p = .082
Distribution
of p

Area = .7291

p
.72 .77

Slide 48
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Step 3: Calculate the z-value at the lower endpoint of
the interval.
z = (.67 .72)/.082 = - .61
Step 4: Find the area under the curve to the left of the
lower endpoint.
P(z < -.61) = .2709

Slide 49
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling  p = .082
Distribution
of p

Area = .2709

p
.67 .72

Slide 50
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Step 5: Calculate the area under the curve between
the lower and upper endpoints of the interval.
P(-.61 < z < .61) = P(z < .61) P(z < -.61)
= .7291 .2709
= .4582
The probability that the sample proportion of applicants
wanting on-campus housing will be within +/-.05 of the
actual population proportion :

P(.67 < p < .77) = .4582

Slide 51
 Sampling Distribution of p

Example: St. Stephen’s College

Sampling  p = .082
Distribution
of p

Area = .4582

p
.67 .72 .77

Slide 52
 Other Sampling Methods

Stratified Random Sampling

Cluster Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Judgment Sampling

Slide 53
 Stratified Random Sampling

The population is first divided into groups of

elements called strata.

Each element in the population belongs to one and

only one stratum.

Best results are obtained when the elements within

each stratum are as much alike as possible
(i.e. a homogeneous group).

Slide 54
 Stratified Random Sampling

A simple random sample is taken from each stratum.

Formulas are available for combining the stratum

sample results into one population parameter
estimate.

Advantage: If strata are homogeneous, this method

is as “precise” as simple random sampling but with
a smaller total sample size.

Example: The basis for forming the strata might be

department, location, age, industry type, and so on.

Slide 55
 Cluster Sampling

The population is first divided into separate groups

of elements called clusters.

Ideally, each cluster is a representative small-scale

version of the population (i.e. heterogeneous group).

A simple random sample of the clusters is then taken.

All elements within each sampled (chosen) cluster

form the sample.

Slide 56
 Cluster Sampling

Example: A primary application is area sampling,

where clusters are city blocks or other well-defined
areas.

Advantage: The close proximity of elements can be

cost effective (i.e. many sample observations can be
obtained in a short time).

Disadvantage: This method generally requires a

larger total sample size than simple or stratified
random sampling.

Slide 57
 Systematic Sampling

If a sample size of n is desired from a population

containing N elements, we might sample one
element for every N/n elements in the population.

We randomly select one of the first N/n elements

from the population list.

We then select every N/nth element that follows in

the population list.

Slide 58
 Systematic Sampling

This method has the properties of a simple random

sample, especially if the list of the population
elements is a random ordering.

Advantage: The sample usually will be easier to

identify than it would be if simple random sampling
were used.

Example: Selecting every 100th listing in a telephone

book after the first randomly selected listing

Slide 59
 Convenience Sampling

It is a nonprobability sampling technique. Items are

included in the sample without known probabilities
of being selected.

The sample is identified primarily by convenience.

Example: A professor conducting research might use

student volunteers to constitute a sample.

Slide 60
 Convenience Sampling

Advantage: Sample selection and data collection are

relatively easy.

Disadvantage: It is impossible to determine how

representative of the population the sample is.

Slide 61
 Judgment Sampling

The person most knowledgeable on the subject of the

study selects elements of the population that he or
she feels are most representative of the population.

It is a nonprobability sampling technique.

Example: A reporter might sample three or four

senators, judging them as reflecting the general
opinion of the senate.

Slide 62
 Judgment Sampling

Advantage: It is a relatively easy way of selecting a

sample.

Disadvantage: The quality of the sample results

depends on the judgment of the person selecting the
sample.

Slide 63
 Recommendation

It is recommended that probability sampling methods

(simple random, stratified, cluster, or systematic) be
used.

For these methods, formulas are available for

evaluating the “goodness” of the sample results in
terms of the closeness of the results to the population
parameters being estimated.

An evaluation of the goodness cannot be made with

non-probability (convenience or judgment) sampling
methods.

Slide 64
 Test Your Understanding

Suppose we have a population (continuous) that is NOT normally

distributed but uniformly distributed between 100 and 1,000. We
draw a random sample of size equal to 30, and find the sample
mean is 600.
What is the probability that a simple random sample of size 30 will
provide a point estimate of the population mean not less than 600?

a) 0.091
b) 0.146
c) 0.246
d) 0.854
e) 0.909

Slide 65