1.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Syllabus
Electrical system: Electricity billing, Electrical load management and maximum demand
control, Power factor improvement and its benefit, Selection and location of capacitors,
Performance assessment of PF capacitors, Distribution and transformer losses.

1.1 Introduction to Electric Power Supply Systems

Electric power supply system in a country comprises of generating units that produce electric-
ity; high voltage transmission lines that transport electricity over long distances; distribution
lines that deliver the electricity to consumers; substations that connect the pieces to each other;
and energy control centers to coordinate the operation of the components.
The Figure 1.1 shows a simple electric supply system with transmission and distribution
network and linkages from electricity sources to end-user.

Figure 1.1 Typical Electric Power Supply Systems

Power Generation Plant

The fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, nuclear energy, and falling water (hydel) are
commonly used energy sources in the power generating plant. A wide and growing variety of
unconventional generation technologies and fuels have also been developed, including cogen-
eration, solar energy, wind generators, and waste materials.
About 70 % of power generating capacity in India is from coal based thermal power plants.
The principle of coal-fired power generation plant is shown in Figure 1.2. Energy stored in the

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coal is converted in to electricity in thermal power plant. Coal is pulverized to the consistency
of talcum powder. Then powdered coal is blown into the water wall boiler where it is burned at
temperature higher than 1300°C. The heat in the combustion gas is transferred into steam. This
high-pressure steam is used to run the steam turbine to spin. Finally turbine rotates the genera-
tor to produce electricity.

Figure 1.2 Principle of Thermal Power Generation

In India, for the coal based power plants, the overall efficiency ranges from 28% to 35%
depending upon the size, operational practices and capacity utilization. Where fuels are the
source of generation, a common term used is the “HEAT RATE” which reflects the efficiency
of generation. “HEAT RATE” is the heat input in kilo Calories or kilo Joules, for generating
‘one’ kilo Watt-hour of electrical output. One kilo Watt hour of electrical energy being equiv-
alent to 860 kilo Calories of thermal energy or 3600 kilo Joules of thermal energy. The “HEAT
RATE” expresses in inverse the efficiency of power generation.

Transmission and Distribution Lines

The power plants typically produce 50 cycle/second
(Hertz), alternating-current (AC) electricity with volt-
ages between 11kV and 33kV. At the power plant site,
the 3-phase voltage is stepped up to a higher voltage for
transmission on cables strung on cross-country towers.
High voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV)
transmission is the next stage from power plant to
transport A.C. power over long distances at voltages
like; 220 kV & 400 kV. Where transmission is over
1000 kM, high voltage direct current transmission is
also favoured to minimize the losses.
Sub-transmission network at 132 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV
or 33 kV constitutes the next link towards the end user.
Distribution at 11 kV / 6.6 kV / 3.3 kV constitutes the
last link to the consumer, who is connected directly or
through transformers depending upon the drawl level of

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service. The transmission and distribution network include sub-stations, lines and distribution
transformers. High voltage transmission is used so that smaller, more economical wire sizes can
be employed to carry the lower current and to reduce losses. Sub-stations, containing step-down
transformers, reduce the voltage for distribution to industrial users. The voltage is further
reduced for commercial facilities. Electricity must be generated, as and when it is needed since
electricity cannot be stored virtually in the system.
There is no difference between a transmission line and a distribution line except for the volt-
age level and power handling capability. Transmission lines are usually capable of transmitting
large quantities of electric energy over great distances. They operate at high voltages.
Distribution lines carry limited quantities of power over shorter distances.
Voltage drops in line are in relation to the resistance and reactance of line, length and the
current drawn. For the same quantity of power handled, lower the voltage, higher the current
drawn and higher the voltage drop. The current drawn is inversely proportional to the voltage
level for the same quantity of power handled.
The power loss in line is proportional to resistance and square of current. (i.e. PLOSS=I2R).
Higher voltage transmission and distribution thus would help to minimize line voltage drop in
the ratio of voltages, and the line power loss in the ratio of square of voltages. For instance, if
distribution of power is raised from 11 kV to 33 kV, the voltage drop would be lower by a fac-
tor 1/3 and the line loss would be lower by a factor (1/3)2 i.e., 1/9. Lower voltage transmission
and distribution also calls for bigger size conductor on account of current handling capacity
needed.

Cascade Efficiency
The primary function of transmission and distribution equipment is to transfer power econom-
ically and reliably from one location to another.
Conductors in the form of wires and cables strung on towers and poles carry the high-volt-
age, AC electric current. A large number of copper or aluminum conductors are used to form
the transmission path. The resistance of the long-distance transmission conductors is to be min-
imized. Energy loss in transmission lines is wasted in the form of I2R losses.
Capacitors are used to correct power factor by causing the current to lead the voltage. When
the AC currents are kept in phase with the voltage, operating efficiency of the system is main-
tained at a high level.
Circuit-interrupting devices are switches, relays, circuit breakers, and fuses. Each of these
devices is designed to carry and interrupt certain levels of current. Making and breaking the cur-
rent carrying conductors in the transmission path with a minimum of arcing is one of the most
important characteristics of this device. Relays sense abnormal voltages, currents, and frequen-
cy and operate to protect the system.
Transformers are placed at strategic locations throughout the system to minimize power
losses in the T&D system. They are used to change the voltage level from low-to-high in step-
up transformers and from high-to-low in step-down units.
The power source to end user energy efficiency link is a key factor, which influences the
energy input at the source of supply. If we consider the electricity flow from generation to the
user in terms of cascade energy efficiency, typical cascade efficiency profile from generation to
11 – 33 kV user industry will be as below:

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Generation Efficiency ranges 28 – 35 % with respect to size of thermal plant,

Efficiency η1 age of plant and capacity utilisation

▼
Step-up Station Step-up to 400 / 800 kV to enable EHV transmission
η2 Envisaged max. losses 0.5 % or efficiency of 99.5 %

▼
EHV
EHV transmission and substations at 400 kV / 800 kV.
Transmission &
Envisaged maximum losses 1.0 % or efficiency of 99 %
Station η3

▼
HV
HV transmission & Substations for 220 / 400 kV.
Transmission &
Envisaged maximum losses 2.5 % or efficiency of 97.5 %
Station η4

▼
Sub-transmission Sub-transmission at 66 / 132 kV
η5 Envisaged maximum losses 4 % or efficiency of 96 %

▼
Distribution Step-down to a level of 11 / 33 kV.
Station η6 Envisaged losses 0.5 % or efficiency of 99.5 %

▼
Primary Distribution is final link to end user at 11 / 33 kV.
Distribution η7 Envisaged losses maximum 5 % of efficiency of 95 %

▼
End user Cascade efficiency from Generation to end user
Premises = η1 x η2 x η3 x η4 x η5 x η6 x η7

The cascade efficiency in the T&D system from output of the power plant to the end use is
87% (i.e. 0.995 x 0.99 x 0.975 x 0.96 x 0.995 x 0.95 = 87%)

Industrial End User

At the industrial end user premises, again the plant network elements like transformers at
receiving sub-station, switchgear, lines and cables, load-break switches, capacitors cause loss-
es, which affect the input-received energy. However the losses in such systems are meager and
unavoidable.
A typical plant single line diagram of electrical distribution system is shown in Figure 1.3

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TRIVECTOR METER

ONE Unit saved = TWO Units Generated

After power generation at the plant it is transmitted and distributed over a wide network.
The standard technical losses are around 17 % in India (Efficiency = 83%). But the figures for
many of the states show T & D losses ranging from 17 – 50 %. All these may not constitute
technical losses, since un-metered and pilferage are also accounted in this loss.
When the power reaches the industry, it meets the transformer. The energy efficiency of the
transformer is generally very high. Next, it goes to the motor through internal plant distribution
network. A typical distribution network efficiency including transformer is 95% and motor effi-
ciency is about 90%. Another 30 % (Efficiency =70%)is lost in the mechanical system which
includes coupling/ drive train, a driven equipment such as pump and flow control valves/throt-
tling etc. Thus the overall energy efficiency becomes 50%. (0.83 x 0.95x 0.9 x 0.70 = 0.50, i.e.
50% efficiency)
Hence one unit saved in the end user is equivalent to two units generated in the power plant.
(1Unit / 0.5Eff = 2 Units)

1.2 Electricity Billing

The electricity billing by utilities for medium & large enterprises, in High Tension (HT) cate-
gory, is often done on two-part tariff structure, i.e. one part for capacity (or demand) drawn and
the second part for actual energy drawn during the billing cycle. Capacity or demand is in kVA
(apparent power) or kW terms. The reactive energy (i.e.) kVArh drawn by the service is also

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recorded and billed for in some utilities, because this would affect the load on the utility.
Accordingly, utility charges for maximum demand, active energy and reactive power drawn (as
reflected by the power factor) in its billing structure. In addition, other fixed and variable
expenses are also levied.
The tariff structure generally includes the following components:
a) Maximum demand Charges
These charges relate to maximum demand registered during month/billing period and
corresponding rate of utility.
b) Energy Charges
These charges relate to energy (kilowatt hours) consumed during month / billing
period and corresponding rates, often levied in slabs of use rates. Some utilities now
charge on the basis of apparent energy (kVAh), which is a vector sum of kWh and
kVArh.
c) Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are to contain reactive
power drawn from grid.
d) Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are to adjust the increasing fuel
expenses over a base reference value.
e) Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.
f) Meter rentals
g) Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied sometimes on slab
basis or on actual metering basis.
h) Time Of Day (TOD) rates like peak and non-peak hours are also prevalent in tariff
structure provisions of some utilities.
i) Penalty for exceeding contract demand
j) Surcharge if metering is at LT side in some of the utilities
Analysis of utility bill data and monitoring its trends helps energy manager to identify ways
for electricity bill reduction through available provisions in tariff framework, apart from ener-
gy budgeting.
The utility employs an electromagnetic or electronic trivector meter, for billing purposes.
The minimum outputs from the electromagnetic meters are
• Maximum demand registered during the month, which is measured in preset time inter-
vals (say of 30 minute duration) and this is reset at the end of every billing cycle.
• Active energy in kWh during billing cycle
• Reactive energy in kVArh during billing cycle and
• Apparent energy in kVAh during billing cycle
It is important to note that while maximum demand is recorded, it is not the instantaneous
demand drawn, as is often misunderstood, but the time integrated demand over the predefined
recording cycle.

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As example, in an industry, if the drawl over a recording cycle of 30 minutes is :

2500 kVA for 4 minutes
3600 kVA for 12 minutes
4100 kVA for 6 minutes
3800 kVA for 8 minutes
The MD recorder will be computing MD as:
(2500 x 4) + (3600 x 12) + (4100 x 6) + (3800 x 8) = 3606.7 kVA
30

The month’s maximum demand

will be the highest among such
demand values recorded over the
month. The meter registers only if
the value exceeds the previous
maximum demand value and thus,
even if, average maximum demand
is low, the industry / facility has to
pay for the maximum demand
charges for the highest value
registered during the month, even
if it occurs for just one recording
cycle duration i.e., 30 minutes
during whole of the month. A Figure 1.4 Demand Curve
typical demand curve is shown in
Figure 1.4.
As can be seen from the Figure 1.4 above the demand varies from time to time. The demand
is measured over predetermined time interval and averaged out for that interval as shown by the
horizontal dotted line.
Of late most electricity boards have changed over from conventional electromechanical
trivector meters to electronic meters, which have some excellent provisions that can help the
utility as well as the industry. These provisions include:
• Substantial memory for logging and recording all relevant events
• High accuracy up to 0.2 class
• Amenability to time of day tariffs
• Tamper detection /recording
• Measurement of harmonics and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
• Long service life due to absence of moving parts
• Amenability for remote data access/downloads
Trend analysis of purchased electricity and cost components can help the industry to iden-
tify key result areas for bill reduction within the utility tariff available framework along the fol-
lowing lines.

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TABLE 1.1 PURCHASED ELECTRICAL ENERGY TREND

Month MD Billing Total Energy Energy MD Energy PF PF Total Average

& Recorded Demand* Consumption Consumption Charge Charge Penalty/ Bills Cost
Year kVA kVA kWh During Peak Rs./kVA Rs./kWh Rebate Rs. Rs. Rs./kWh
Hours (kWh)

Jan.

Feb.
…….

…….

…….
Dec.

*Some utilities charge Maximum Demand on the basis of minimum billing demand, which may be between 75 to 100% of the contract demand
or actual recorded demand whichever is higher

1.3 Electrical Load Management and Maximum Demand Control

Need for Electrical Load Management
In a macro perspective, the growth in the electricity use and diversity of end use segments in
time of use has led to shortfalls in capacity to meet demand. As capacity addition is costly and
only a long time prospect, better load management at user end helps to minimize peak demands
on the utility infrastructure as well as better utilization of power plant capacities.
The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff structure to influence end user in bet-
ter load management through measures like time of use tariffs, penalties on exceeding allowed
maximum demand, night tariff concessions etc. Load management is a powerful means of effi-
ciency improvement both for end user as well as utility.
As the demand charges constitute a considerable portion of the electricity bill, from user angle
too there is a need for integrated load management to effectively control the maximum demand.
Step By Step Approach for Maximum Demand Control

1. Load Curve Generation

Presenting the load demand of a consumer
against time of the day is known as a ‘load
curve’. If it is plotted for the 24 hours of a
single day, it is known as an ‘hourly load
curve’ and if daily demands plotted over a
month, it is called daily load curves. A typi-
cal hourly load curve for an engineering
industry is shown in Figure 1.5. These types
of curves are useful in predicting patterns of
drawl, peaks and valleys and energy use
trend in a section or in an industry or in a Figure 1.5 Maximum Demand
distribution network as the case may be. (Daily Load Curve, Hourly kVA)

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2. Rescheduling of Loads
Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment operations, in different shifts can be planned
and implemented to minimize the simultaneous maximum demand. For this purpose, it is advis-
able to prepare an operation flow chart and a process chart. Analyzing these charts and with an
integrated approach, it would be possible to reschedule the operations and running equipment
in such a way as to improve the load factor which in turn reduces the maximum demand.
3. Storage of Products/in process material/ process utilities like refrigeration
It is possible to reduce the maximum demand by building up storage capacity of products/ materi-
als, water, chilled water / hot water, using electricity during off peak periods. Off peak hour oper-
ations also help to save energy due to favorable conditions such as lower ambient temperature etc.
Example: Ice bank system is used in milk & dairy industry. Ice is made in lean period and
used in peak load period and thus maximum demand is reduced.
4. Shedding of Non-Essential Loads
When the maximum demand tends to reach preset limit, shedding some of non-essential loads
temporarily can help to reduce it. It is possible to install direct demand monitoring systems,
which will switch off non-essential loads when a preset demand is reached. Simple systems give
an alarm, and the loads are shed manually. Sophisticated microprocessor controlled systems are
also available, which provide a wide variety of control options like:
■ Accurate prediction of demand
■ Graphical display of present load, available load, demand limit
■ Visual and audible alarm
■ Automatic load shedding in a predetermined sequence
■ Automatic restoration of load
■ Recording and metering
5. Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation Sets
When diesel generation sets are used to supplement the power supplied by the electric utilities,
it is advisable to connect the D.G. sets for durations when demand reaches the peak value. This
would reduce the load demand to a considerable extent and minimize the demand charges.
6. Reactive Power Compensation
The maximum demand can also be reduced at the plant level by using capacitor banks and
maintaining the optimum power factor. Capacitor banks are available with microprocessor
based control systems. These systems switch on and off the capacitor banks to maintain the
desired Power factor of system and optimize maximum demand thereby.

1.4 Power Factor Improvement and Benefits

Power factor Basics
In all industrial electrical distribution systems, the major loads are resistive and inductive.
Resistive loads are incandescent lighting and resistance heating. In case of pure resistive loads,
the voltage (V), current (I), resistance (R) relations are linearly related, i.e.
V = I x R and Power (kW) = V x I

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Typical inductive loads are A.C. Motors, induction furnaces, transformers and ballast-type
lighting. Inductive loads require two kinds of power: a) active (or working) power to perform
the work and b) reactive power to create and maintain electro-magnetic fields.
Active power is measured in kW (Kilo Watts). Reactive power is measured in kVAr (Kilo
Volt-Amperes Reactive).
The vector sum of the active power and reactive power make up the total (or apparent)
power used. This is the power generated by the SEBs for the user to perform a given amount of
work. Total Power is measured in kVA (Kilo Volts-Amperes) (See Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6 kW, kVAr and kVA Vector

The active power (shaft power required or true power required) in kW and the reactive
power required (kVAr) are 90° apart vectorically in a pure inductive circuit i.e., reactive power
kVAr lagging the active kW. The vector sum of the two is called the apparent power or kVA, as
illustrated above and the kVA reflects the actual electrical load on distribution system.
The ratio of kW to kVA is called the power factor, which is always less than or equal to
unity. Theoretically, when electric utilities supply power, if all loads have unity power factor,
maximum power can be transferred for the same distribution system capacity. However, as the
loads are inductive in nature, with the power factor ranging from 0.2 to 0.9, the electrical dis-
tribution network is stressed for capacity at low power factors.

Improving Power Factor

The solution to improve the power factor is to add power factor cor-
rection capacitors (see Figure 1.7) to the plant power distribution sys-
tem. They act as reactive power generators, and provide the needed
reactive power to accomplish kW of work. This reduces the amount
of reactive power, and thus total power, generated by the utilities.

Example:
A chemical industry had installed a 1500 kVA transformer. The ini-
tial demand of the plant was 1160 kVA with power factor of 0.70.
~ Figure 1.7 Capacitors
The % loading of transformer was about 78% (1160/1500 =
77.3%). To improve the power factor and to avoid the penalty, the
unit had added about 410 kVAr in motor load end. This improved the power factor to 0.89, and
reduced the required kVA to 913, which is the vector sum of kW and kVAr (see Figure 1.8).

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Figure 1.8 Power factor before and after Improvement

After improvement the plant had avoided penalty and the 1500 kVA transformer now loaded
only to 60% of capacity. This will allow the addition of more load in the future to be supplied
by the transformer.

The advantages of PF improvement by capacitor addition

a) Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the total current in the system
from the source end.
b) I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in current.
c) Voltage level at the load end is increased.
d) kVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers and lines upto the capac-
itors reduces giving capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilising the full capac-
ity of your electrical system.
Cost benefits of PF improvement
While costs of PF improvement are in terms of investment needs for capacitor addition the ben-
efits to be quantified for feasibility analysis are:
a) Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill
b) Reduced distribution losses (KWH) within the plant network
c) Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of motors
d) A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating with a low power
factor
e) Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables, switchgears etc for delivering
load is reduced.

Selection and location of capacitors

Direct relation for capacitor sizing.

kVAr Rating = kW [tan φ1 – tan φ2]

where kVAr rating is the size of the capacitor needed, kW is the average power drawn, tan φ1
is the trigonometric ratio for the present power factor, and tan φ2 is the trigonometric ratio for
the desired PF.
φ1 = Existing (Cos-1 PF1) and φ2 = Improved (Cos-1 PF2)

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Alternatively the Table 1.2 can be used for capacitor sizing.

The figures given in table are the multiplication factors which are to be multiplied with the input
power (kW) to give the kVAr of capacitance required to improve present power factor to a new
desired power factor.

Example:
The utility bill shows an average power factor of 0.72 with an average KW of 627. How much
kVAr is required to improve the power factor to .95 ?

Using formula
Cos Φ1 = 0.72 , tan Φ1 = 0.963
Cos Φ2 = 0.95 , tan Φ2 = 0.329
kVAr required = P ( tanφ1 - tanφ2 ) = 627 (0.964 – 0.329)
= 398 kVAr

Using table (see Table 1.2)

1) Locate 0.72 (original power factor) in column (1).
2) Read across desired power factor to 0.95 column. We find 0.635 multiplier
3) Multiply 627 (average kW) by 0.635 = 398 kVAr.
4) Install 400 kVAr to improve power factor to 95%.

Location of Capacitors
The primary purpose of capacitors is to reduce the maximum demand. Additional benefits are
derived by capacitor location. The Figure 1.9 indicates typical capacitor locations. Maximum
benefit of capacitors is derived by locating them as close as possible to the load. At this loca-
tion, its kVAr are confined to the smallest possible segment, decreasing the load current. This,
in turn, will reduce power losses of the
system substantially. Power losses are
proportional to the square of the cur-
rent. When power losses are reduced,
voltage at the motor increases; thus,
motor performance also increases.
Locations C1A, C1B and C1C of
Figure 1.9 indicate three different
arrangements at the load. Note that in
all three locations extra switches are
not required, since the capacitor is
either switched with the motor starter
or the breaker before the starter. Case
C1A is recommended for new installa-
tion, since the maximum benefit is
derived and the size of the motor ther-
mal protector is reduced. In Case C1B,
as in Case C1A, the capacitor is ener- Figure 1.9: Power Distribution Diagram Illustrating
gized only when the motor is in opera- Capacitor Locations

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TABLE 1.2 MULTIPLIERS TO DETERMINE CAPACITOR kVAr REQUIREMENTS FOR

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

tion. Case C1B is recommended in cases where the installation already exists and the thermal
protector does not need to be re-sized. In position C1C, the capacitor is permanently connected
to the circuit but does not require a separate switch, since capacitor can be disconnected by the
breaker before the starter.

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It should be noted that the rating of the capacitor should not be greater than the no-load
magnetizing kVAr of the motor. If this condition exists, damaging over voltage or transient
torques can occur. This is why most motor manufacturers specify maximum capacitor ratings
to be applied to specific motors.
The next preference for capacitor locations as illustrated by Figure 1.9 is at locations C2 and
C3. In these locations, a breaker or switch will be required. Location C4 requires a high volt-
age breaker. The advantage of locating capacitors at power centres or feeders is that they can
be grouped together. When several motors are running intermittently, the capacitors are per-
mitted to be on line all the time, reducing the total power regardless of load.
From energy efficiency point of view, capacitor location at receiving substation only helps
the utility in loss reduction. Locating capacitors at tail end will help to reduce loss reduction
within the plants distribution network as well and directly benefit the user by reduced
consumption. Reduction in the distribution loss % in kWh when tail end power factor is raised
from PF1 to a new power factor PF2, will be proportional to

Capacitors for Other Loads

The other types of load requiring capacitor application include induction furnaces, induction
heaters and arc welding transformers etc. The capacitors are normally supplied with control
gear for the application of induction furnaces and induction heating furnaces. The PF of arc fur-
naces experiences a wide variation over melting cycle as it changes from 0.7 at starting to 0.9
at the end of the cycle. Power factor for welding transformers is corrected by connecting capac-
itors across the primary winding of the transformers, as the normal PF would be in the range of
0.35.

Performance Assessment of Power Factor Capacitors

Voltage effects: Ideally capacitor voltage rating is to match the supply voltage. If the supply
voltage is lower, the reactive kVAr produced will be the ratio V12 /V22 where V1 is the actual
supply voltage, V2 is the rated voltage.
On the other hand, if the supply voltage exceeds rated voltage, the life of the capacitor is
adversely affected.
Material of capacitors: Power factor capacitors are available in various types by dielectric
material used as; paper/ polypropylene etc. The watt loss per kVAr as well as life vary with
respect to the choice of the dielectric material and hence is a factor to be considered while selec-
tion.
Connections: Shunt capacitor connections are adopted for almost all industry/ end user appli-
cations, while series capacitors are adopted for voltage boosting in distribution networks.
Operational performance of capacitors: This can be made by monitoring capacitor charging
current vis- a- vis the rated charging current. Capacity of fused elements can be replenished as
per requirements. Portable analyzers can be used for measuring kVAr delivered as well as
charging current. Capacitors consume 0.2 to 6.0 Watt per kVAr, which is negligible in compar-
ison to benefits.

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Some checks that need to be adopted in use of capacitors are :

i) Nameplates can be misleading with respect to ratings. It is good to check by charging
currents.
ii) Capacitor boxes may contain only insulated compound and insulated terminals with no
capacitor elements inside.
iii) Capacitors for single phase motor starting and those used for lighting circuits for volt-
age boost, are not power factor capacitor units and these cannot withstand power sys-
tem conditions.

1.5 Transformers
A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver
it at another voltage. This permits electrical energy to be
generated at relatively low voltages and transmitted at high
voltages and low currents, thus reducing line losses and
voltage drop (see Figure 1.10).
Transformers consist of two or more coils that are elec-
trically insulated, but magnetically linked. The primary coil
is connected to the power source and the secondary coil
connects to the load. The turn’s ratio is the ratio between the
number of turns on the secondary to the turns on the prima-
ry (See Figure 1.11).
The secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage Figure 1.10 View of a Transformer
times the turn’s ratio. Ampere-turns are calculated by multi-
plying the current in the coil times the number of turns. Primary ampere-turns are equal to sec-
ondary ampere-turns. Voltage regulation of a transformer is the percent increase in voltage from
full load to no load.

Types of Transformers
Transformers are classified as two categories: power transformers
and distribution transformers.
Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher
voltages, deployed for step-up and step down transformer applica-
tion (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV)
Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribu-
tion networks as a means to end user connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV,
3.3 kV, 440V, 230V)

Rating of Transformer
Rating of the transformer is calculated based on the connected load
and applying the diversity factor on the connected load, applicable Figure 1.11
to the particular industry and arrive at the kVA rating of the Transformer Coil
Transformer. Diversity factor is defined as the ratio of overall max-
imum demand of the plant to the sum of individual maximum demand of various equipment.
Diversity factor varies from industry to industry and depends on various factors such as

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individual loads, load factor and future expansion needs of the plant. Diversity factor will
always be less than one.

Location of Transformer
Location of the transformer is very important as far as distribution loss is concerned.
Transformer receives HT voltage from the grid and steps it down to the required voltage.
Transformers should be placed close to the load centre, considering other features like optimi-
sation needs for centralised control, operational flexibility etc. This will bring down the distri-
bution loss in cables.

Transformer Losses and Efficiency

The efficiency varies anywhere between 96 to 99 percent. The efficiency of the transformers
not only depends on the design, but also, on the effective operating load.
Transformer losses consist of two parts: No-load loss and Load loss
1. No-load loss (also called core loss) is the power consumed to sustain the magnetic field
in the transformer's steel core. Core loss occurs whenever the transformer is energized;
core loss does not vary with load. Core losses are caused by two factors: hysteresis and
eddy current losses. Hysteresis loss is that energy lost by reversing the magnetic field in
the core as the magnetizing AC rises and falls and reverses direction. Eddy current loss
is a result of induced currents circulating in the core.
2. Load loss (also called copper loss) is associated with full-load current flow in the trans-
former windings. Copper loss is power lost in the primary and secondary windings of a
transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the windings. Copper loss varies with the
square of the load current. (P = I2R).
Transformer losses as a percentage of load is given in the Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12 Transformer loss vs %Load

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 1. Electrical System

For a given transformer, the manufacturer can supply values for no-load loss, PNO-LOAD, and
load loss, PLOAD. The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any load level can then be calculated
from:
PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD + (% Load/100)2 x PLOAD
Where transformer loading is known, the actual transformers loss at given load can be com-
puted as:

Voltage Fluctuation Control

A control of voltage in a transformer is important due to frequent changes in supply voltage
level. Whenever the supply voltage is less than the optimal value, there is a chance of nuisance
tripping of voltage sensitive devices. The voltage regulation in transformers is done by altering
the voltage transformation ratio with the help of tapping.
There are two methods of tap changing facility available: Off-circuit tap changer and
On-load tap changer.

Off-circuit tap changer

It is a device fitted in the transformer, which is used to vary the voltage transformation ratio.
Here the voltage levels can be varied only after isolating the primary voltage of the transformer.

On load tap changer (OLTC)

The voltage levels can be varied without isolating the connected load to the transformer. To
minimise the magnetisation losses and to reduce the nuisance tripping of the plant, the main
transformer (the transformer that receives supply from the grid) should be provided with On
Load Tap Changing facility at design stage. The down stream distribution transformers can be
provided with off-circuit tap changer.
The On-load gear can be put in auto mode or manually depending on the requirement.
OLTC can be arranged for transformers of size 250 kVA onwards. However, the necessity of
OLTC below 1000 kVA can be considered after calculating the cost economics.

Parallel Operation of Transformers

The design of Power Control Centre (PCC) and Motor Control Centre (MCC) of any new plant
should have the provision of operating two or more transformers in parallel. Additional
switchgears and bus couplers should be provided at design stage.
Whenever two transformers are operating in parallel, both should be technically identical in
all aspects and more importantly should have the same impedance level. This will minimise the
circulating current between transformers.
Where the load is fluctuating in nature, it is preferable to have more than one transformer
running in parallel, so that the load can be optimised by sharing the load between
transformers. The transformers can be operated close to the maximum efficiency range by
this operation.

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 1. Electrical System

1.6 System Distribution Losses

In an electrical system often the constant no load losses and the variable load losses are to be
assessed alongside, over long reference duration, towards energy loss estimation.
Identifying and calculating the sum of the individual contributing loss components is a chal-
lenging one, requiring extensive experience and knowledge of all the factors impacting the
operating efficiencies of each of these components.
For example the cable losses in any industrial plant will be up to 6 percent depending on the
size and complexity of the distribution system. Note that all of these are current dependent, and
can be readily mitigated by any technique that reduces facility current load. Various losses in
distribution equipment is given in the Table1.3.
In system distribution loss optimization, the various options available include:
■ Relocating transformers and sub-stations near to load centers
■ Re-routing and re-conductoring such feeders and lines where the losses / voltage drops
are higher.
■ Power factor improvement by incorporating capacitors at load end.
■ Optimum loading of transformers in the system.
■ Opting for lower resistance All Aluminum Alloy Conductors (AAAC) in place of
conventional Aluminum Cored Steel Reinforced (ACSR) lines
■ Minimizing losses due to weak links in distribution network such as jumpers, loose
contacts, old brittle conductors.

TABLE 1.3 LOSSES IN ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT

S.No Equipment % Energy Loss at Full

Load Variations
Min Max
1. Outdoor circuit breaker (15 to 230 KV) 0.002 0.015
2. Generators 0.019 3.5
3. Medium voltage switchgears (5 to 15 KV) 0.005 0.02
4. Current limiting reactors 0.09 0.30
5. Transformers 0.40 1.90
6. Load break switches 0.003 0.0 25
7. Medium voltage starters 0.02 0.15
8. Bus ways less than 430 V 0.05 0.50
9. Low voltage switchgear 0.13 0.34
10. Motor control centers 0.01 0.40
11. Cables 1.00 4.00
12. Large rectifiers 3.0 9.0
13. Static variable speed drives 6.0 15.0
14. Capacitors (Watts / kVAr) 0.50 6.0

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1.7 Harmonics
In any alternating current network, flow of current depends upon the voltage applied and the
impedance (resistance to AC) provided by elements like resistances, reactances of inductive and
capacitive nature. As the value of impedance in above devices is constant, they are called lin-
ear whereby the voltage and current relation is of linear nature.
However in real life situation, various devices like diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers,
PWM systems, thyristors, voltage & current chopping saturated core reactors, induction & arc
furnaces are also deployed for various requirements and due to their varying impedance char-
acteristic, these NON LINEAR devices cause distortion in voltage and current waveforms
which is of increasing concern in recent times. Harmonics occurs as spikes at intervals which
are multiples of the mains (supply) frequency and these distort the pure sine wave form of the
supply voltage & current.
Harmonics are multiples of the fundamental frequency of an electrical power system. If, for
example, the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, then the 5th harmonic is five times that frequen-
cy, or 250 Hz. Likewise, the 7th harmonic is seven times the fundamental or 350 Hz, and so on
for higher order harmonics.
Harmonics can be discussed in terms of current or voltage. A 5th harmonic current is simply
a current flowing at 250 Hz on a 50 Hz system. The 5th harmonic current flowing through the
system impedance creates a 5th harmonic voltage. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) expresses
the amount of harmonics. The following is the formula for calculating the THD for current:

When harmonic currents flow in a power system, they are known as “poor power quality”
or “dirty power”. Other causes of poor power quality include transients such as voltage spikes,
surges, sags, and ringing. Because they repeat every cycle, harmonics are regarded as a steady-
state cause of poor power quality.
When expressed as a percentage of fundamental voltage THD is given by,

THDvoltage =

where V1 is the fundamental frequency voltage and Vn is nth harmonic voltage component.

Major Causes Of Harmonics

Devices that draw non-sinusoidal currents when a sinusoidal voltage is applied create harmon-
ics. Frequently these are devices that convert AC to DC. Some of these devices are listed below:

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 1. Electrical System

Electronic Switching Power Converters

• Computers, Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), Solid-state rectifiers
• Electronic process control equipment, PLC’s, etc
• Electronic lighting ballasts, including light dimmer
• Reduced voltage motor controllers
Arcing Devices
• Discharge lighting, e.g. Fluorescent, Sodium and Mercury vapor
• Arc furnaces, Welding equipment, Electrical traction system
Ferromagnetic Devices
• Transformers operating near saturation level
• Magnetic ballasts (Saturated Iron core)
• Induction heating equipment, Chokes, Motors
Appliances
• TV sets, air conditioners, washing machines, microwave ovens
• Fax machines, photocopiers, printers
These devices use power electronics like SCRs, diodes, and thyristors, which are a growing
percentage of the load in industrial power systems. The majority use a 6-pulse converter. Most
loads which produce harmonics, do so as a steady-state phenomenon. A snapshot reading of an
operating load that is suspected to be non-linear can determine if it is producing harmonics.
Normally each load would manifest a specific harmonic spectrum.
Many problems can arise from harmonic currents in a power system. Some problems are
easy to detect; others exist and persist because harmonics are not suspected. Higher RMS cur-
rent and voltage in the system are caused by harmonic currents, which can result in any of the
problems listed below:
1. Blinking of Incandescent Lights - Transformer Saturation
2. Capacitor Failure - Harmonic Resonance
3. Circuit Breakers Tripping - Inductive Heating and Overload
4. Conductor Failure - Inductive Heating
5. Electronic Equipment Shutting down - Voltage Distortion
6. Flickering of Fluorescent Lights - Transformer Saturation
7. Fuses Blowing for No Apparent Reason - Inductive Heating and Overload
8. Motor Failures (overheating) - Voltage Drop
9. Neutral Conductor and Terminal Failures - Additive Triplen Currents
10. Electromagnetic Load Failures - Inductive Heating
11. Overheating of Metal Enclosures - Inductive Heating
12. Power Interference on Voice Communication - Harmonic Noise
13. Transformer Failures - Inductive Heating

Overcoming Harmonics
Tuned Harmonic filters consisting of a capacitor bank and reactor in series are designed and
adopted for suppressing harmonics, by providing low impedance path for harmonic component.

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 1. Electrical System

The Harmonic filters connected suitably near the equipment generating harmonics help to
reduce THD to acceptable limits. In present Indian context where no Electro Magnetic
Compatibility regulations exist as a application of Harmonic filters is very relevant for indus-
tries having diesel power generation sets and co-generation units.

1.8 Analysis of Electrical Power Systems

An analysis of an electrical power system may uncover energy waste, fire hazards, and equip-
ment failure. Facility /energy managers increasingly find that reliability-centered maintenance
can save money, energy, and downtime (see Table 1.4).

TABLE 1.4 TROUBLE SHOOTING OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

System Problem Common Causes Possible Effects Solutions

Voltage imbalances Improper transformer tap Motor vibration, Balance loads among
among the three settings, single-phase loads premature motor failure phases.
phases not balanced among
phases, poor connections, A 5% imbalance causes
bad conductors, transformer a 40% increase in motor
grounds or faults. losses.
Voltage deviations Improper transformer settings, Over-voltages in motors Correct transformer
from rated voltages Incorrect selection of motors. reduce efficiency, power settings, motor ratings
( too low or high) factor and equipment life and motor input
Increased temperature voltages
Poor connections in Loose bus bar connections, Produces heat, causes Use Infra Red camera
distribution or at loose cable connections, failure at connection site, to locate hot-spots
connected loads. corroded connections, poor leads to voltage drops and and correct.
crimps, loose or worn voltage imbalances
contactors
Undersized Facilities expanding beyond Voltage drop and energy Reduce the load by
conductors. original designs, poor power waste. conservation load
factors scheduling.
Insulation leakage Degradation over time due May leak to ground or to Replace conductors,
to extreme temperatures, another phase. Variable insulators
abrasion, moisture, chemicals energy waste.
Low Power Factor Inductive loads such as Reduces current-carrying Add capacitors to
motors, transformers, and capacity of wiring, voltage counteract reactive
lighting ballasts regulation effectiveness, loads.
Non-linear loads, such as and equipment life.
most electronic loads.
Harmonics (non- Office-electronics, UPSs, Over-heating of neutral Take care with
sinusoidal voltage variable frequency drives, conductors, motors, equipment selection
and/or current wave high intensity discharge transformers, switch gear. and isolate sensitive
forms) lighting, and electronic Voltage drop, low power electronics from noisy
and core-coil ballasts. factors, reduced capacity. circuits.

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 1. Electrical System

QUESTIONS
1. Name different types of power generation sources.
2. The temperatures encountered in power plant boilers is of the order of
a) 8500C b) 3200°C c) 1300°C d) 1000°C
3. What do you understand by the term "Heat Rate"?
4. Explain why power is generated at lower voltage and transmitted at higher voltages.
5. The efficiency of steam based power plant is of the order of
a) 28-35% b) 50-60% c) 70-75% d) 90-95%
6. The technical T & D loss in India is estimated to be
a) 50% b) 25% c) 17% d) 10%
7. What are the typical billing components of the two-part tariff structure of industrial utility?
8. Define contract demand and billing demand.
9. What are the areas to be looked into for maximum demand reduction in industry?
10. A trivector-meter with half-hour cycle has the following inputs during the maximum
demand period:
MD Drawn Duration
kVA in Minutes
100 10
200 5
50 10
150 5
What is the maximum demand during the half-hour interval?
11. Power factor is the ratio of
a) kW/kVA b) kVA/kW c) kVAr/kW d) kVAr/kVA
12. A 3-phase, 415 V, 100 kW induction motor is drawing 50 kW at a 0.75 PF
Calculate the capacitor rating requirements at motor terminals for improving PF to
0.95. Also calculate the reduction in current drawn and kVA reduction, from the
point of installation back to the generated side due to the improved PF.
13. A process plant consumes of 12500 kWh per month at 0.9 Power Factor (PF). What
is the percentage reduction in distribution losses per month if PF is improved up to
0.96 at load end?
14. What is the % loss reduction, if an 11 kV supply line is converted into 33 kV supply
system for the same length and electrical load application?
15. The efficiency at various stages from power plant to end-use is given below.
Efficiency of power generation in a power plant is 30 %. The T & D losses are 23 %.
The distribution loss of the plant is 6 %. Equipment end use efficiency is 65 %.
What is the overall system efficiency from generation to end-use?

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1. Electrical System

16. A unit has a 2 identical 500 kVA transformers each with a no load loss of 840 W and
full load copper loss of 5700 watt. The plant load is 400 kVA. Compare the trans-
former losses when single transformer is operation and when both transformers are in
parallel operation.
17. Explain how fluctuations in plant voltage can be overcome.
18. What are Total Harmonic Distortion and its effects on electrical system?
19. What are the equipments / devices contributing to the harmonics?
20. Select the location of installing capacitor bank, which will provide the maximum
energy efficiency.
a) Main sub-station b) Motor terminals c) Motor control centers
d) Distribution board
21. The designed power transformers efficiency is in the range of
a) 80 to 90.5 % b) 90 to 95.5 % c) 95 to 99.5 % d) 92.5 to 93.5 %
22. The power factor indicated in the electricity bill is
a) Peak day power factor b) Power factor during night c) Average power factor
d) Instantaneous power factor

REFERENCES
1. Technology Menu on Energy Efficiency – NPC
2. NPC In-house Case Studies
3. Electrical energy conservation modules of AIP-NPC, Chennai

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 2. ELECTRIC MOTORS

Syllabus
Electric motors: Types, Losses in induction motors, Motor efficiency, Factors affecting
motor performance, Rewinding and motor replacement issues, Energy saving opportunities
with energy efficient motors.

2.1 Introduction
Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the interaction between the mag-
netic fields set up in the stator and rotor windings. Industrial electric motors can be broadly clas-
sified as induction motors, direct current motors or synchronous motors. All motor types have
the same four operating components: stator (stationary windings), rotor (rotating windings),
bearings, and frame (enclosure).

2.2 Motor Types

Induction Motors
Induction motors are the most commonly used prime mover for
various equipments in industrial applications. In induction
motors, the induced magnetic field of the stator winding induces
a current in the rotor. This induced rotor current produces a sec-
ond magnetic field, which tries to oppose the stator magnetic
field, and this causes the rotor to rotate.
The 3-phase squirrel cage motor is the workhorse of industry;
it is rugged and reliable, and is by far the most common motor
type used in industry. These motors drive pumps, blowers and
fans, compressors, conveyers and production lines. The 3-phase
induction motor has three windings each connected to a separate phase of the power supply.

Direct-Current Motors
Direct-Current motors, as the name implies, use direct-unidirectional, current. Direct current
motors are used in special applications- where high torque starting or where smooth accelera-
tion over a broad speed range is required.

Synchronous Motors
AC power is fed to the stator of the synchronous motor. The rotor is fed by DC from a separate
source. The rotor magnetic field locks onto the stator rotating magnetic field and rotates at the same
speed. The speed of the rotor is a function of the supply frequency and the number of magnetic poles
in the stator. While induction motors rotate with a slip, i.e., rpm is less than the synchronous speed,
the synchronous motor rotate with no slip, i.e., the RPM is same as the synchronous speed governed
by supply frequency and number of poles. The slip energy is provided by the D.C. excitation power

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 2. Electric Motors

2.3 Motor Characteristics

Motor Speed
The speed of a motor is the number of revolutions in a given time frame, typically revolutions
per minute (RPM). The speed of an AC motor depends on the frequency of the input power and
the number of poles for which the motor is wound. The synchronous speed in RPM is given by
the following equation, where the frequency is in hertz or cycles per second:
120 × Frequency
Synchronous Speed (RPM) =
No. of Poles
Indian motors have synchronous speeds like 3000 / 1500 / 1000 / 750 / 600 / 500 / 375 RPM
corresponding to no. of poles being 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 (always even) and given the mains
frequency of 50 cycles / sec.
The actual speed, with which the motor operates, will be less than the synchronous speed.
The difference between synchronous and full load speed is called slip and is measured in per-
cent. It is calculated using this equation:
Synchronous Speed – Full Load Rated Speed
Slip (%) = × 100
Synchronous Speed
As per relation stated above, the speed of an AC motor is determined by the number of
motor poles and by the input frequency. It can also be seen that theoretically speed of an AC
motor can be varied infinitely by changing the frequency. Manufacturer's guidelines should be
referred for practical limits to speed variation. With the addition of a Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD), the speed of the motor can be decreased as well as increased.
Power Factor
kW
The power factor of the motor is given as: Power Factor = Cos φ =
kVA
As the load on the motor comes down, the magnitude of the active current reduces.
However, there is no corresponding reduction in the magnetizing current, which is propor-
tional to supply voltage with the result that the motor power factor reduces, with a reduction in
applied load. Induction motors, especially those operating below their rated capacity, are the
main reason for low power factor in electric systems.

2.4 Motor Efficiency

Two important attributes relating to efficiency of electricity use by A.C. Induction motors are
efficiency (η), defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy delivered at the rotating shaft to
the electrical energy input at its terminals, and power factor (PF). Motors, like other inductive
loads, are characterized by power factors less than one. As a result, the total current draw need-
ed to deliver the same real power is higher than for a load characterized by a higher PF. An
important effect of operating with a PF less than one is that resistance losses in wiring upstream
of the motor will be higher, since these are proportional to the square of the current. Thus, both
a high value for η and a PF close to unity are desired for efficient overall operation in a plant.
Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors, and higher-speed
motors are normally more efficient than lower-speed motors. Efficiency is also a function of

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 2. Electric Motors

motor temperature. Totally-enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient than screen-
protected, drip-proof (SPDP) motors. Also, as with most equipment, motor efficiency increas-
es with the rated capacity.
The efficiency of a motor is determined by intrinsic losses that can be reduced only by
changes in motor design. Intrinsic losses are of two types: fixed losses - independent of motor
load, and variable losses - dependent on load.
Fixed losses consist of magnetic core losses and friction and windage losses. Magnetic core
losses (sometimes called iron losses) consist of eddy current and hysteresis losses in the stator.
They vary with the core material and geometry and with input voltage.
Friction and windage losses are caused by friction in the bearings of the motor and aerody-
namic losses associated with the ventilation fan and other rotating parts.
Variable losses consist of resistance losses in the stator and in the rotor and miscellaneous
stray losses. Resistance to current flow in the stator and rotor result in heat generation that is
proportional to the resistance of the material and the square of the current (I2R). Stray losses
arise from a variety of sources and are difficult to either measure directly or to calculate, but are
generally proportional to the square of the rotor current.
Part-load performance characteristics of a motor also depend on its design. Both η and PF
fall to very low levels at low loads. The Figures 2.1 shows the effect of load on power factor
and efficiency. It can be seen that power factor drops sharply at part loads. The Figure 2.2 shows
the effect of speed on power factor.

Field Tests for Determining Efficiency

No Load Test: The motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any shaft load. Input
power, current, frequency and voltage are noted. The no load P.F. is quite low and hence low
PF wattmeters are required. From the input power, stator I2R losses under no load are subtract-
ed to give the sum of Friction and Windage (F&W) and core losses. To separate core and F &

Figure 2.1 % Load vs. Power factor, Efficiency Figure 2.2 Speed vs. Power factor

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 2. Electric Motors

W losses, test is repeated at variable voltages. It is useful to plot no-load input kW versus
Voltage; the intercept is Friction & Windage kW loss component.
F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) - (No load current)2 × Stator resistance
Stator and Rotor I2R Losses: The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge
or volt amp method. The resistance must be corrected to the operating temperature. For mod-
ern motors, the operating temperature is likely to be in the range of 100°C to 120°C and nec-
essary correction should be made. Correction to 75°C may be inaccurate. The correction fac-
tor is given as follows :
R2 235 + t2
= , where, t1 = ambient temperature, °C & t2 = operating temperature, °C.
R1 235 +t1

The rotor resistance can be determined from locked rotor test at reduced frequency, but rotor
2
I R losses are measured from measurement of rotor slip.
Rotor I2R losses = Slip × (Stator Input – Stator I2R Losses – Core Loss)
Accurate measurement of slip is possible by stroboscope or non-contact type tachometer.
Slip also must be corrected to operating temperature.
Stray Load Losses: These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy. IEEE Standard
112 gives a complicated method, which is rarely used on shop floor. IS and IEC standards take
a fixed value as 0.5 % of input. The actual value of stray losses is likely to be more. IEEE –
112 specifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 % (see Table 2.1.)

TABLE 2.1 MOTOR RATING VS. STRAY

LOSSES - IEEE

Motor Rating Stray Losses

1 – 125 HP 1.8 %
125 – 500 HP 1.5 %
501 – 2499 HP 1.2 %
2500 and above 0.9 %

Pointers for Users:

It must be clear that accurate determination of efficiency is very difficult. The same motor test-
ed by different methods and by same methods by different manufacturers can give a difference
of 2 %. In view of this, for selecting high efficiency motors, the following can be done:
a) When purchasing large number of small motors or a large motor, ask for a detailed test cer-
tificate. If possible, try to remain present during the tests; This will add cost.
b) See that efficiency values are specified without any tolerance
c) Check the actual input current and kW, if replacement is done
d) For new motors, keep a record of no load input power and current
e) Use values of efficiency for comparison and for confirming; rely on measured inputs for all
calculations.

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 2. Electric Motors

Estimation of efficiency in the field can be done as follows:

a) Measure stator resistance and correct to operating temperature. From rated current value ,
I2R losses are calculated.
b) From rated speed and output, rotor I2R losses are calculated
c) From no load test, core and F & W losses are determined for stray loss

The method is illustrated by the following example:

Example :

Motor Specifications
Rated power = 34 kW/45 HP
Voltage = 415 Volt
Current = 57 Amps
Speed = 1475 rpm
Insulation class = F
Frame = LD 200 L
Connection = Delta

No load test Data

Voltage, V = 415 Volts
Current, I = 16.1 Amps
Frequency, F = 50 Hz
Stator phase resistance at 30°C = 0.264 Ohms
No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts

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 2. Electric Motors

2.5 Motor Selection

The primary technical consideration defining the motor choice for any particular application is
the torque required by the load, especially the relationship between the maximum torque gen-
erated by the motor (break-down torque) and the torque requirements for start-up (locked rotor
torque) and during acceleration periods.
The duty / load cycle determines the thermal loading on the motor. One consideration with
totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motors is that the cooling may be insufficient when the
motor is operated at speeds below its rated value.
Ambient operating conditions affect motor choice; special motor designs are available for
corrosive or dusty atmospheres, high temperatures, restricted physical space, etc.
An estimate of the switching frequency (usually dictated by the process), whether automat-
ic or manually controlled, can help in selecting the appropriate motor for the duty cycle.
The demand a motor will place on the balance of the plant electrical system is another con-
sideration - if the load variations are large, for example as a result of frequent starts and stops
of large components like compressors, the resulting large voltage drops could be detrimental to
other equipment.

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 2. Electric Motors

Reliability is of prime importance - in many cases, however, designers and process engi-
neers seeking reliability will grossly oversize equipment, leading to sub-optimal energy perfor-
mance. Good knowledge of process parameters and a better understanding of the plant power
system can aid in reducing oversizing with no loss of reliability.
Inventory is another consideration - Many large industries use standard equipment, which
can be easily serviced or replaced, thereby reducing the stock of spare parts that must be main-
tained and minimizing shut-down time. This practice affects the choice of motors that might
provide better energy performance in specific applications. Shorter lead times for securing
individual motors from suppliers would help reduce the need for this practice.
Price is another issue - Many users are first-cost sensitive, leading to the purchase of less
expensive motors that may be more costly on a lifecycle basis because of lower efficiency. For
example, energy efficient motors or other specially designed motors typically save within a few
years an amount of money equal to several times the incremental cost for an energy efficient
motor, over a standard-efficiency motor. Few of salient selection issues are given below:
• In the selection process, the power drawn at 75 % of loading can be a meaningful indicator
of energy efficiency.
• Reactive power drawn (kVAR) by the motor.
• Indian Standard 325 for standard motors allows 15 % tolerance on efficiency for motors
upto 50 kW rating and 10 % for motors over 50 kW rating.
• The Indian Standard IS 8789 addresses technical performance of Standard Motors while IS
12615 addresses the efficiency criteria of High Efficiency Motors. Both follow IEC 34-2
test methodology wherein, stray losses are assumed as 0.5 % of input power. By the IEC
test method, the losses are understated and if one goes by IEEE test methodology, the motor
efficiency values would be further lowered.
• It would be prudent for buyers to procure motors based on test certificates rather than
labeled values.
• The energy savings by motor replacement can be worked out by the simple relation : kW
savings = kW output × [ 1/ηold – 1/ ηnew ] where ηold and ηnew are the existing and proposed
motor efficiency values.
• The cost benefits can be worked out on the basis of premium required for high efficiency
vs. worth of annual savings.

2.6 Energy-Efficient Motors

Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are incorporated
specifically to increase operating efficiency over motors of standard design (see Figure 2.3).
Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses. Improvements include the use
of lower-loss silicon steel, a longer core (to increase active material), thicker wires (to reduce
resistance), thinner laminations, smaller air gap between stator and rotor, copper instead of alu-
minum bars in the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc.
Energy-efficient motors now available in India operate with efficiencies that are typically
3 to 4 percentage points higher than standard motors. In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS,
energy-efficient motors are designed to operate without loss in efficiency at loads between 75 %
and 100 % of rated capacity. This may result in major benefits in varying load applications. The
power factor is about the same or may be higher than for standard motors. Furthermore, energy-

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 2. Electric Motors

Figure 2.3 Standard vs High Efficiency Motors

efficient motors have lower operating temperatures and noise levels, greater ability to accelerate
higher-inertia loads, and are less affected by supply voltage fluctuations.
Measures adopted for energy efficiency address each loss specifically as under:

Stator and Rotor I2R Losses

These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the total losses. I2R loss-
es are heating losses resulting from current passing through stator and rotor conductors. I2R
losses are the function of a conductor resistance, the square of current. Resistance of conductor
is a function of conductor material, length and cross sectional area. The suitable selection of
copper conductor size will reduce the resistance. Reducing the motor current is most readily
accomplished by decreasing the magnetizing component of current. This involves lowering the
operating flux density and possible shortening of air gap. Rotor I2R losses are a function of the
rotor conductors (usually aluminium) and the rotor slip. Utilisation of copper conductors will
reduce the winding resistance. Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce
rotor I2R losses.
Core Losses
Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel and are due to hysterisis effect and
eddy current effect during 50 Hz magnetization of the core material. These losses are indepen-
dent of load and account for 20 – 25 % of the total losses.
The hysterisis losses which are a function of flux density, are be reduced by utilizing low-
loss grade of silicon steel laminations. The reduction of flux density is achieved by suitable
increase in the core length of stator and rotor. Eddy current losses are generated by circulating
current within the core steel laminations. These are reduced by using thinner laminations.

Friction and Windage Losses

Friction and windage losses results from bearing friction, windage and circulating air through
the motor and account for 8 – 12 % of total losses. These losses are independent of load. The

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reduction in heat generated by stator and rotor losses permit the use of smaller fan. The windage
losses also reduce with the diameter of fan leading to reduction in windage losses.

Stray Load-Losses
These losses vary according to square of the load current and are caused by leakage flux
induced by load currents in the laminations and account for 4 to 5 % of total losses. These loss-
es are reduced by careful selection of slot numbers, tooth/slot geometry and air gap.
Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the full load efficiencies are
higher by 3 to 7 %. The mounting dimensions are also maintained as per IS1231 to enable
easy replacement.
As a result of the modifications to improve performance, the costs of energy-efficient motors are
higher than those of standard motors. The higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved oper-
ating costs, particularly in new applications or end-of-life motor replacements. In cases where exist-
ing motors have not reached the end of their useful life, the economics will be less clearly positive.
Because the favourable economics of energy-efficient motors are based on savings in oper-
ating costs, there may be certain cases which are generally economically ill-suited to energy-
efficient motors. These include highly intermittent duty or special torque applications such as
hoists and cranes, traction drives, punch presses, machine tools, and centrifuges. In addition,
energy, efficient designs of multi-speed motors are generally not available. Furthermore, ener-
gy-efficient motors are not yet available for many special applications, e.g. for flame-proof
operation in oil-field or fire pumps or for very low speed applications (below 750 rpm). Also,
most energy-efficient motors produced today are designed only for continuous duty cycle oper-
ation.
Given the tendency of over sizing on the one hand and ground realities like ; voltage, fre-
quency variations, efficacy of rewinding in case of a burnout, on the other hand, benefits of
EEM's can be achieved only by careful selection, implementation, operation and maintenance
efforts of energy managers.
A summary of energy efficiency improvements in EEMs is given in the Table 2.2:

TABLE 2.2 ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS

Power Loss Area Efficiency Improvement

1. Iron Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current losses. Longer
core adds more steel to the design, which reduces losses due to lower operating
flux densities.
2. Stator I2R Use of more copper and larger conductors increases cross sectional area of stator
windings. This lowers resistance (R) of the windings and reduces losses due to
current flow (I).
3. Rotor I2R Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross section, lowering con-
ductor resistance (R) and losses due to current flow (I).
4. Friction & Windage Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement.
5. Stray Load Loss Use of optimized design and strict quality control procedures minimizes stray
load losses.

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 2. Electric Motors

2.7 Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency & Minimising Motor Losses in

Operation
Power Supply Quality
Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of input power, that is the actual volts
and frequency available at motor terminals vis-à-vis rated values as well as voltage and fre-
quency variations and voltage unbalance across the three phases. Motors in India must comply
with standards set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for tolerance to variations in input
power quality. The BIS standards specify that a motor should be capable of delivering its rated
output with a voltage variation of +/- 6 % and frequency variation of +/- 3 %. Fluctuations much
larger than these are quite common in utility-supplied electricity in India. Voltage fluctuations
can have detrimental impacts on motor performance. The general effects of voltage and fre-
quency variation on motor performance are presented in Table 2.3:
Voltage unbalance, the condition where the voltages in the three phases are not equal, can
be still more detrimental to motor performance and motor life. Unbalance typically occurs as a
result of supplying single-phase loads disproportionately from one of the phases. It can also
result from the use of different sizes of cables in the distribution system. An example of the
effect of voltage unbalance on motor performance is shown in Table 2.4.

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 TABLE 2.3 GENERAL EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY VARIATION ON INDUCTION MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

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36
2. Electric Motors
 2. Electric Motors

TABLE 2.4 EXAMPLE OF THE EFFECT OF VOLTAGE UNBALANCE ON

MOTOR PERFORMANCE

Percent unbalance in voltage*

Parameter
0.30 2.30 5.40
Unbalance in current (%) .................. 0.4 17.7 40.0
Increased temperature rise (°C) .................. 0 30 40
* Percent unbalance in voltage is defined as 100 (Vmax – Vavg) / Vavg, Where Vmax and Vavg are the largest and
the average of the three phase voltages, respectively.

The options that can be exercised to minimize voltage unbalance include:

i) Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases
ii) Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load balance and feed them from a sep-
arate line / transformer
Motor Loading
Measuring Load
% Loading of the motor can be estimated by the following relation:
% loading = Input power drawn by the motor (kW) at existing load x 100
(Name plate full load kW rating / name plate full load motor efficiency)
or
% loading = Input power drawn by the motor (kW) at existing load x 100
√3 x kV x I CosØ
• Never assume power factor
• Loading should not be estimated as the ratio of currents.
Reducing Under-loading
Probably the most common practice contributing to sub-optimal motor efficiency is that of
under-loading. Under-loading results in lower efficiency and power factor, and higher-than-nec-
essary first cost for the motor and related control equipment. Under-loading is common for sev-
eral reasons. Original equipment manufacturers tend to use a large safety factor in motors they
select. Under-loading of the motor may also occur from under-utilisation of the equipment. For
example, machine tool equipment manufacturers provide for a motor rated for the full capacity
load of the equipment ex. depth of cut in a lathe machine. The user may need this full capacity
rarely, resulting in under-loaded operation most of the time. Another common reason for under-
loading is selection of a larger motor to enable the output to be maintained at the desired level
even when input voltages are abnormally low. Finally, under-loading also results from select-
ing a large motor for an application requiring high starting torque where a special motor,
designed for high torque, would have been suitable.
A careful evaluation of the load would determine the capacity of the motor that should be select-
ed. Another aspect to consider is the incremental gain in efficiency achievable by changing the
motor. Larger motors have inherently higher rated efficiencies than smaller motors. Therefore, the
replacement of motors operating at 60 – 70 % of capacity or higher is generally not recommended.
However, there are no rigid rules governing motor selection; the savings potential needs to be eval-
uated on a case-to-case basis. When downsizing, it may be preferable to select an energy-efficient
motor, the efficiency of which may be higher than that of a standard motor of higher capacity.

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 2. Electric Motors

For motors, which consistently operate at loads below 40 % of rated capacity, an inexpen-
sive and effective measure might be to operate in star mode. A change from the standard delta
operation to star operation involves re-configuring the wiring of the three phases of power input
at the terminal box.
Operating in the star mode leads to a voltage reduction by a factor of '√3'. Motor is electri-
cally downsized by star mode operation, but performance characteristics as a function of load
remain unchanged. Thus, full-load operation in star mode gives higher efficiency and power fac-
tor than partial load operation in the delta mode. However, motor operation in the star mode is
possible only for applications where the torque-to-speed requirement is lower at reduced load.
As speed of the motor reduces in star mode this option may be avoided in case the motor is
connected to a production facility whose output is related to the motor speed. For applications
with high initial torque and low running torque needs, Del-Star starters are also available in
market, which help in load following de-rating of electric motors after initial start-up.
Sizing to Variable Load
Industrial motors frequently operate under varying load conditions due to process requirements.
A common practice in cases where such variable-loads are found is to select a motor based on the
highest anticipated load. In many instances, an alternative approach is typically less costly, more
efficient, and provides equally satisfactory operation. With this approach, the optimum rating for
the motor is selected on the basis of the load duration curve for the particular application. Thus,
rather than selecting a motor of high rating that would operate at full capacity for only a short peri-
od, a motor would be selected with a rating slightly lower than the peak anticipated load and
would operate at overload for a short period of time. Since operating within the thermal capacity
of the motor insulation is of greatest concern in a motor operating at higher than its rated load, the
motor rating is selected as that which would result in the same temperature rise under continuous
full-load operation as the weighted average temperature rise over the actual operating cycle.
Under extreme load changes, e.g. frequent starts / stops, or high inertial loads, this method of cal-
culating the motor rating is unsuitable since it would underestimate the heating that would occur.
Where loads vary substantially with time, in addition to proper motor sizing, the control
strategy employed can have a significant impact on motor electricity use. Traditionally,
mechanical means (e.g. throttle valves in piping systems) have been used when lower output is
required. More efficient speed control mechanisms include multi-speed motors, eddy-current
couplings, fluid couplings, and solid-state electronic variable speed drives.
Power Factor Correction
As noted earlier, induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity, leading to
lower overall efficiency (and higher overall operating cost) associated with a plant's electrical
system. Capacitors connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are typically used to improve
the power factor. The impacts of PF correction include reduced kVA demand (and hence
reduced utility demand charges), reduced I2R losses in cables upstream of the capacitor (and
hence reduced energy charges), reduced voltage drop in the cables (leading to improved volt-
age regulation), and an increase in the overall efficiency of the plant electrical system.
It should be noted that PF capacitor improves power factor from the point of installation back
to the generating side. It means that, if a PF capacitor is installed at the starter terminals of the
motor, it won't improve the operating PF of the motor, but the PF from starter terminals to the
power generating side will improve, i.e., the benefits of PF would be only on upstream side.

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 2. Electric Motors

The size of capacitor required for a particular motor depends upon the no-load reactive kVA
(kVAR) drawn by the motor, which can be determined only from no-load testing of the motor.
In general, the capacitor is then selected to not exceed 90 % of the no-load kVAR of the motor.
(Higher capacitors could result in over-voltages and motor burn-outs). Alternatively, typical
power factors of standard motors can provide the basis for conservative estimates of capacitor
ratings to use for different size motors. The capacitor rating for power connection by direct con-
nection to induction motors is shown in Table 2.5.
From the above table, it may be noted that required capacitive kVAr increases with decrease in
speed of the motor, as the magnetizing current requirement of a low speed motor is more in com-

TABLE 2.5 CAPACITOR RATINGS FOR POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

BY DIRECT CONNECTION TO INDUCTION MOTORS

Capacitor rating (kVAr) for Motor Speed

Motor Rating (HP)
3000 1500 1000 750 600 500
5 2 2 2 3 3 3
7.5 2 2 3 3 4 4
10 3 3 4 5 5 6
15 3 4 5 7 7 7
20 5 6 7 8 9 10
25 6 7 8 9 9 12
30 7 8 9 10 10 15
40 9 10 12 15 16 20
50 10 12 15 18 20 22
60 12 14 15 20 22 25
75 15 16 20 22 25 30
100 20 22 25 26 32 35
125 25 26 30 32 35 40
150 30 32 35 40 45 50
200 40 45 45 50 55 60
250 45 50 50 60 65 70

parison to the high speed motor for the same HP of the motor. Since a reduction in line current, and
associated energy efficiency gains, are reflected backwards from the point of application of the
capacitor, the maximum improvement in overall system efficiency is achieved when the capacitor
is connected across the motor terminals, as compared to somewhere further upstream in the plant's
electrical system. However, economies of scale associated with the cost of capacitors and the labor
required to install them will place an economic limit on the lowest desirable capacitor size.

Maintenance
Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase losses and lead to unreliable oper-
ation. For example, improper lubrication can cause increased friction in both the motor and

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 2. Electric Motors

associated drive transmission equipment. Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with tem-
perature, would increase. Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling ducts
clean can help dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses. The life of the insulation in the motor
would also be longer : for every 10°C increase in motor operating temperature over the recom-
mended peak, the time before rewinding would be needed is estimated to be halved
A checklist of good maintenance practices to help insure proper motor operation would include:
• Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce frictional losses)
and for dirt/dust in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper heat dissipation).
• Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded. A change in
motor load from the last test indicates a change in the driven load, the cause of which should
be understood.
• Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give recommendations for how and when
to lubricate their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems, as noted above. Over-
lubrication can also create problems, e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter
the motor and saturate the motor insulation, causing premature failure or creating a fire risk.
• Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven equipment.
Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly, resulting in damage to
both the motor and the driven equipment.
• Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed. Inspect reg-
ularly the connections at the motor and starter to be sure that they are clean and tight.
Age
Most motor cores in India are manufactured from silicon steel or de-carbonized cold-rolled steel,
the electrical properties of which do not change measurably with age. However, poor maintenance
(inadequate lubrication of bearings, insufficient cleaning of air cooling passages, etc.) can cause a
deterioration in motor efficiency over time. Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental effect
on motor performance. For example, excessively high temperatures, high dust loading, corrosive
atmosphere, and humidity can impair insulation properties; mechanical stresses due to load cycling
can lead to misalignment. However, with adequate care, motor performance can be maintained.

2.8 Rewinding Effects on Energy Efficiency

It is common practice in industry to rewind burnt-out motors. The population of rewound
motors in some industries exceed 50 % of the total population. Careful rewinding can some-
times maintain motor efficiency at previous levels, but in most cases, losses in efficiency result.
Rewinding can affect a number of factors that contribute to deteriorated motor efficiency :
winding and slot design, winding material, insulation performance, and operating temperature.
For example, a common problem occurs when heat is applied to strip old windings : the insu-
lation between laminations can be damaged, thereby increasing eddy current losses. A change
in the air gap may affect power factor and output torque.
However, if proper measures are taken, motor efficiency can be maintained, and in some
cases increased, after rewinding. Efficiency can be improved by changing the winding design,
though the power factor could be affected in the process. Using wires of greater cross section,
slot size permitting, would reduce stator losses thereby increasing efficiency. However, it is
generally recommended that the original design of the motor be preserved during the rewind,
unless there are specific, load-related reasons for redesign.

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 2. Electric Motors

The impact of rewinding on motor efficiency and power factor can be easily assessed if the
no-load losses of a motor are known before and after rewinding. Maintaining documentation
of no-load losses and no-load speed from the time of purchase of each motor can facilitate
assessing this impact.
For example, comparison of no load current and stator resistance per phase of a rewound
motor with the original no-load current and stator resistance at the same voltage can be one of
the indicators to assess the efficacy of rewinding.

2.9 Speed Control of AC Induction Motors

Traditionally, DC motors have been employed when variable speed capability was desired. By
controlling the armature (rotor) voltage and field current of a separately excited DC motor, a
wide range of output speeds can be obtained. DC motors are available in a wide range of sizes,
but their use is generally restricted to a few low speed, low-to-medium power applications like
machine tools and rolling mills because of problems with mechanical commutation at large
sizes. Also, they are restricted for use only in clean, non-hazardous areas because of the risk of
sparking at the brushes. DC motors are also expensive relative to AC motors.
Because of the limitations of DC systems, AC motors are increasingly the focus for variable
speed applications. Both AC synchronous and induction motors are suitable for variable speed
control. Induction motors are generally more popular, however, because of their ruggedness and
lower maintenance requirements. AC induction motors are inexpensive (half or less of the cost
of a DC motor) and also provide a high power to weight ratio (about twice that of a DC motor).
An induction motor is an asynchronous motor, the speed of which can be varied by chang-
ing the supply frequency. The control strategy to be adopted in any particular case will depend
on a number of factors including investment cost, load reliability and any special control require-
ments. Thus, for any particular application, a detailed review of the load characteristics, histori-
cal data on process flows, the features required of the speed control system, the electricity tariffs
and the investment costs would be a prerequisite to the selection of a speed control system.
The characteristics of the load are particularly important. Load refers essentially to the
torque output and corresponding speed required. Loads can be broadly classified as either con-
stant power or Constant torque. Constant torque loads are those for which the output power
requirement may vary with the speed of operation but the torque does not vary. Conveyors,
rotary kilns, and constant-displacement pumps are typical examples of constant torque loads.
Variable torque loads are those for which the torque required varies with the speed of operation.
Centrifugal pumps and fans are typical examples of variable torque loads (torque varies as the
square of the speed). Constant power loads are those for which the torque requirements typi-
cally change inversely with speed. Machine tools are a typical example of a constant power
load.
The largest potential for electricity savings with variable speed drives is generally in vari-
able torque applications, for example centrifugal pumps and fans, where the power requirement
changes as the cube of speed. Constant torque loads are also suitable for VSD application.

Motor Speed Control Systems

Multi-speed motors
Motors can be wound such that two speeds, in the ratio of 2:1, can be obtained. Motors can also

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 2. Electric Motors

be wound with two separate windings, each giving 2 operating speeds, for a total of four speeds.
Multi-speed motors can be designed for applications involving constant torque, variable torque,
or for constant output power. Multi-speed motors are suitable for applications, which require lim-
ited speed control (two or four fixed speeds instead of continuously variable speed), in which
cases they tend to be very economical. They have lower efficiency than single-speed motors

Adjustable Frequency AC Drives

Adjustable frequency drives are also commonly called inverters. They are available in a range
of kW rating from fractional to 750 kW. They are designed to operate standard induction
motors. This allows them to be easily added to an existing system. The inverters are often sold
separately because the motor may already be in place. If necessary, a motor can be included
with the drive or supplied separately.
The basic drive consists of the inverter itself which coverts the 50 Hz incoming power to a
variable frequency and variable voltage. The variable frequency is the actual requirement,
which will control the motor speed.
There are three major types of inverters designs available today. These are known as
Current Source Inverters (CSI), Variable Voltage Inverters (VVI), and Pulse Width Modulated
Inverters (PWM).

Direct Current Drives (DC)

The DC drive technology is the oldest form of electrical speed control. The drive system con-
sists of a DC motor and a controller. The motor is constructed with armature and field wind-
ings. Both of these windings require a DC excitation for motor operation. Usually the field
winding is excited with a constant level voltage from the controller.
Then, applying a DC voltage from the controller to the armature of the motor will operate
the motor. The armature connections are made through a brush and commutator assembly. The
speed of the motor is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
The controller is a phase controlled bridge rectifier with logic circuits to control the DC
voltage delivered to the motor armature. Speed control is achieved by regulating the armature
voltage to the motor. Often a tacho generator is included to achieve good speed regulation. The
tacho would be mounted on the motor and produces a speed feedback signal that is used with-
in the controller.

Wound Rotor AC Motor Drives (Slip Ring Induction Motors)

Wound rotor motor drives use a specially constructed motor to accomplish speed control. The
motor rotor is constructed with windings which are brought out of the motor through slip rings
on the motor shaft. These windings are connected to a controller which places variable resis-
tors in series with the windings. The torque performance of the motor can be controlled using
these variable resistors. Wound rotor motors are most common in the range of 300 HP and
above.

2.10 Motor Load Survey: Methodology

Large industries have a massive population of LT motors. Load survey of LT motors can be

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 2. Electric Motors

taken-up methodically to identify improvement options as illustrated in following case study.

i) Sampling Criteria
Towards the objective of selecting representative LT motor drives among the motor population,
for analysis, the criteria considered are:
– Utilization factor i.e., hours of operation with preference given to continuously operated
drive motors.
– Sample representative basis, where one drive motor analysis can be reasoned as representa-
tive for the population. Ex : Cooling Tower Fans, Air Washer Units, etc.
– Conservation potential basis, where drive motors with inefficient capacity controls on the
machine side, fluctuating load drive systems, etc., are looked into.

ii) Measurements
Studies on selected LT motors involve measurement of electrical load parameters namely volts,
amperes, power factor, kW drawn.
Observations on machine side parameters such as speed, load, pressure, temperature, etc.,
(as relevant) are also taken. Availability of online instruments for routine measurements, avail-
ability of tail-end capacitors for PF correction, energy meters for monitoring is also looked into
for each case.
iii) Analysis
Analysis of observations on representative LT motors and connected drives is carried out
towards following outputs:
– Motor load on kW basis and estimated energy consumption.
– Scope for improving monitoring systems to enable sustenance of a regular in-house Energy
Audit function.
– Scope areas for energy conservation with related cost benefits and source information.
The observations are to indicate:
% loading on kW, % voltage unbalance if any, voltage, current, frequency, power factor,
machine side conditions like load / unload condition, pressure, flow, temperature, damper /
throttle operation, whether it is a rewound motor, idle operations, metering provisions, etc.
The findings / recommendations may include:
• Identified motors with less than 50 % loading, 50 – 75 % loading, 75 – 100 % loading, over
100 % loading.
• Identified motors with low voltage / power factor / voltage imbalance for needed improve-
ment measures.
• Identified motors with machine side losses / inefficiencies like idle operations, throttling /
damper operations for avenues like automatic controls / interlocks, variable speed drives,
etc.
Motor load survey is aimed not only as a measure to identify motor efficiency areas but
equally importantly, as a means to check combined efficiency of the motor, driven machine
and controller if any. The margins in motor efficiency may be less than 10 % of consumption
often, but the load survey would help to bring out savings in driven machines / systems, which
can give 30 – 40 % energy savings.
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 2. Electric Motors

QUESTIONS
1. Name three types of motors in industrial practice.
2. What is the relation between RPM (speed) and frequency of an induction motor?
3. A 4-pole squirrel case induction motor operates with 5 % slip at full load. What is
the full load RPM you may expect, if frequency is changed by a V/F control to:
(a)40 c/s (b) 45 c/s (c) 35 c/s
4. List the losses in induction motors and their expected percentage out of the total losses.
5. List the factors affecting energy efficiency of electric motors?
6. The power factor of an induction motor
a) increases with load b) decreases with load c) remains constant with load d) has
no relation to load
7. List factors affecting windage and friction losses while rewinding.
8. What are the factors affecting core losses while rewinding?
9. List methods by which speed control of motor can be achieved.
10. Explain the ways by which efficiencies of energy efficient motors are increased.
11. How does efficiency loss occur in a rewound motor?
12. How do you check the efficacy of rewound motor?
13. A 50 kW induction motor with 86 % present full load efficiency is being considered
for replacement by a 89 % efficiency motor. What will be the savings in energy if
the motor works for 6000 hours per year and cost of energy is Rs. 4.50 per kWh?

REFERENCES
1. Technology Menu (NPC)
2. BEE Publications
3. PCRA Publications

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