CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

SAI AGRAWAL
Has successfully completed his Physics project titled
WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
Under the supervision and guidance of
MR SUMIT KUNDU
In the partial fulfillment of the Physics Practical Assessment
conducted during the academic year 2024-2025.

EXAMINER TEACHER

PRINCIPAL

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my physics teacher

Mr. Sumit Kundu for guiding me throughout my journey of making this

project possible. I would also like to thank my parents and school for
providing me with opportunity, all the things needed and most
importantly, a conducive and supportive environment to complete the
project. Lastly, I want to thank all who have put even the smallest of
efforts into this project.

- Sai Agrawal

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 INDEX
1. Topic……………………………………………………………………………………………05
2. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….06
3. Newton’s Corpuscular Theory……………………………………………………07
4. Origin of the wave theory…………………………………………………………..08
5. Huygen’s Principle……………………………………………………………………..09
6. Electromagnetic Wave Theory……………………………………………………13
7. Young’s Double Slit Experiment…………………………………………………15
8. Observation…………………………………………………………………………………17
9. Inference……………………………………………………………………………………..19
10. Precautions…………..……………………………………………………………………20
11. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..21
12. Bibliography…..…………………………………………………………………………..22

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 TOPIC

Physics investigatory project on Wave Nature of Light

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 INTRODUCTION
The evolution of the interpretations of the nature of light/photons
went through a long history. In 1801, Young performed a classical
double slit experiment, which demonstrated that light could behave as
waves and was consistent with the wave theory of light of Huygens
(1678). Then, Descartes (1637)/Newton’s (1704) corpuscular-particle
theory of light faded out.

During the years 1886-1902, Heinrich Hertz, Wilhelm Hallwachs and

Philipp Lenard investigated the photoelectric effect experimentally.

The interpretation of the nature of light had changed again.

Einstein (1905) proposed that light is quanta, which combined with

Young’s double slit experiment led to wave-particle duality. In 1914,
Millikan confirmed Einstein's model experimentally.

Louis de Broglie (1924) postulated that quantum particles behave as

waves, which was verified for electrons in 1927 (Davisson and Germer).
For double slit experiments, I raise a question: whether the wave nature
is the intrinsic nature for a particle? The word “intrinsic” means “should
be independent of state of motion”, namely “should not depend on
whether the particle is uniformly moving or accelerating”. Up to date, in
double slit experiments, particles move with uniform velocities. It is
obvious that accelerating particles have no wave “nature”.

Till this date the nature of photons remains a mystery, and light is
considered to be of dual nature, an electromagnetic wave, made of
incredibly small particles called photons. This can be verified by

de Broglie’s theory.

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NEWTON’S CORPUSCULAR THEORY
Newton's model of light proposes that propagation of light is caused by
the rectilinear motion of light particles which he termed light corpuscles.
These light particles travel at a finite speed and their interactions with the
external environment e.g. rigid surfaces, walls and human eye, obey
Newtonian physics.

Newton thought light cannot be a wave primarily because it did not show
diffraction characteristics like sound. He argued that if light is a wave, we
would be able to see light when a physical barrier is placed in front of the
source, analogous to how sound travels around a physical barrier to reach
our ears. He argued that light does not exhibit diffraction

‘We can hear sound from behind an obstacle, but we don’t see light’

Besides the ‘absence’ of diffraction, Newton used light’s ability to travel in

a vacuum to support his particle model. At the time, all known waves
require a medium to propagate (these are now defined as mechanical
waves)

Additionally, he explained different colors of light by proposing each color

is encoded by a light corpuscle of a particular size.

LIMITATIONS
• This theory could not explain the partial reflection and refraction of
light.

• Newton could not experimentally prove the different colors of light

are due to the different size of corpuscles.

• Could not explain interference.

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ORIGIN OF THE WAVE THEORY

The origin of the wave theory of light is a long and complex story, with
contributions from many scientists over centuries. The first recorded
mention of the wave theory of light was made by the Greek philosopher
Plato in the 4th century BC. He suggested that light traveled in waves,
but he did not have any scientific evidence to support his claim. In the
17th century, the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens proposed a more
detailed wave theory of light. He suggested that light waves were made
up of tiny pulses of energy that traveled through space at a very high
speed. Huygens' theory was able to explain many of the observed
properties of light, such as its reflection and refraction. However, his
theory was not widely accepted at the time, and many scientists
continued to believe that light was made up of particles. In the 19th
century, the wave theory of light was finally accepted after a series of
experiments by Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel. These
experiments showed that light could interfere with itself, just like waves
in water. This interference could only be explained if light was a wave.
The wave theory of light has since been confirmed by many other
experiments, and it is now the accepted explanation for how light
travels.

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 HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
Huygens principle is a method of analysis applied to wave propagation
problems both in the far-field limit and near-field diffraction and
reflection. It states that:

“Every point on a wavefront is in itself the source of spherical wavelets

which spread out in the forward direction at the speed of light. The sum
of these spherical wavelets forms the wavefront”.

However, this theory did not explain why refraction occurred in the
first place. Secondly, it could not explain how light carries energy as it
travels.

Huygens Principle, also known as the Huygens–Fresnel principle,

highlights the following wave propagation behavior:

● Secondary sources form wavelets similar to the primary source.

● At any given time, the common tangent on the wavelets in the
forward direction gives the new wavefront.
● The wavefront is the sum of the spherical wavelets.

Primary and Secondary Sources

Huygens stated that light is a wave propagating through space like

ripples in water or sound in air. Hence, light spreads out like a wave in
all directions from a source. The locus of points that traveled some
distance during a fixed time interval is called a wavefront. Thus, from a

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point source of light, the locus of points that light has traveled during a
fixed time period is a sphere (a circle if you consider a 2D source).

After the primary wavefront is created, a secondary wavefront is

created from every primary wavefront. Secondly, every point on the
wavefront acts as a secondary source of light that emits more
wavefronts. This way, a light wave propagates through space by
generating secondary sources and wavefronts. The net effect is that the
effective wavefront generated is tangential to all the secondary
wavefronts generated by the secondary sources, as shown in the figure.
The direction of the traverse is always perpendicular to the wavefronts.

Huygens’s theory explains the wave theory of light phenomena of

diffraction, interference, reflection, and refraction well, considering it

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was proposed two centuries ago. (The former two phenomena were not
even discovered until the 19th century).

Example

If a stone is thrown into the river, it will create waves around that point
in the form of ripples which are circular in nature, called a wavefront.

Huygens Principle and Diffraction

When light passes through an aperture, every point on the light wave
within the aperture can be viewed as a source creating a circular wave
that propagates outward from the aperture. The aperture thus creates
a new wave source that propagates in the form of a circular wavefront.
The center of the wavefront has greater intensity while the edges have
a lesser intensity. This explains the observed diffraction pattern and
why a perfect image of the aperture on a screen is not created. A daily
life example of this phenomenon is common. If someone in another
room calls toward you, the sound seems to be coming from the
doorway.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Huygens Principle

Advantages:

● Huygens' concept proved the reflection and refraction of light.

● The concepts like diffraction of light, as well as interference of
light, were proved by Huygens.

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Disadvantage:

● Concepts like emission of light, absorption of light and

polarization of light were not explained by Huygens principle.
● Huygens' principle failed to explain the photoelectric effect.
● A serious drawback is that the theory proposes an all-pervading
medium required to propagate light called luminiferous ether.
This was proved to be false in the 20th century.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
THEORY
Electromagnetic waves are a type of radiation composed of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields. These waves propagate through space at
the speed of light, carrying energy and momentum. They were first
theorized by James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century.

Key Points:

● Nature: Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, meaning the

oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation.
● Properties: These waves exhibit properties like reflection,
refraction, diffraction, and interference, similar to other types of
waves.
● Spectrum: Electromagnetic waves exist across a vast spectrum,
including radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. Each type has
distinct characteristics and applications.
● Generation: Electromagnetic waves are generated by accelerating
charged particles, such as electrons oscillating in an antenna or
atoms undergoing transitions between energy levels.
● Applications: Electromagnetic waves have numerous applications
in modern technology, including communication (radio, television,
mobile phones), remote sensing, medical imaging, and energy
transfer.

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Maxwell's Equations:

Maxwell's equations are a set of four fundamental equations that

describe the behavior of electric and magnetic fields. These equations
unified the fields of electricity and magnetism and predicted the
existence of electromagnetic waves. They form the foundation of
classical electrodynamics.

Significance:

The electromagnetic wave theory revolutionized our understanding of

light and radiation. It explained phenomena like the propagation of light
through a vacuum and the nature of various types of radiation. This
theory has had a profound impact on the development of modern
technology and our understanding of the universe.

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 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT
EXPERIMENT
The double-slit experiment is a famous demonstration of the wave-like
nature of light. It was first performed by Thomas Young in 1801 and
remains a fundamental experiment in physics.

THEORY

The experiment involves shining a monochromatic light source through

a barrier with two narrow slits. The light waves passing through each
slit diffract and then interfere with each other on a screen placed
behind the barrier.

Due to interference, the light waves at certain points on the screen will
constructively interfere, producing bright fringes, while at other points
they will destructively interfere, producing dark fringes. This pattern of
bright and dark bands is called an interference pattern.

The key points of the theory are:

● Coherence: The light source must be coherent, meaning the

waves must have a constant phase relationship.
● Diffraction: The slits act as diffraction gratings, causing the light
to spread out and form an interference pattern.
● Interference: The interference pattern is due to the superposition
of the light waves from the two slits.

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PROCEDURE

The steps involved in performing the Young's double-slit experiment

are as follows:

○ Obtain a monochromatic light source, such as a laser.

○ Place a barrier with two narrow slits in front of the light
source. (Instead of two slits, I have used a single hair strand
that acts as the divider/barrier)
○ Position a screen behind the barrier at a suitable distance.

SIGNIFICANCE

Young's double-slit experiment provided conclusive evidence for the

wave nature of light, settling a long-standing debate about its nature. It
has had a profound impact on our understanding of light and has
applications in various fields, including optics, telecommunications, and
quantum mechanics.

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 OBSERVATION
Young's double-slit experiment is a cornerstone of physics,
demonstrating the wave-like nature of light. When monochromatic
light is passed through two closely spaced slits, an interference pattern
emerges on a screen placed behind the slits. Key observations from this
experiment include:

Interference Pattern:

● Bright Fringes: Regions of maximum intensity where light waves

from the two slits reinforce each other.
● Dark Fringes: Regions of minimum intensity where the waves
cancel each other out.
● Fringe Spacing: The spacing between the fringes depends on the
wavelength of the light, the distance between the slits, and the
distance between the slits and the screen.

Wave-Like Behavior:

● Diffraction: The light waves spread out as they pass through the
slits, a phenomenon characteristic of waves.
● Superposition: The waves from the two slits interfere
constructively or destructively, leading to the observed
interference pattern.
● Coherence: The light source must be coherent, meaning the
waves maintain a constant phase relationship, for the interference
pattern to be observed.

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Quantum Mechanical Implications:

● Particle-Wave Duality: Even individual photons, which are

considered particles, exhibit wave-like behavior when sent
through the slits one at a time.
● Quantum Weirdness: The experiment highlights the strange
nature of quantum mechanics, where particles can behave as both
waves and particles.
● Measurement Problem: The act of observing which slit a particle
goes through can collapse the wave function and destroy the
interference pattern.

By carefully observing and analyzing these phenomena, scientists have

gained profound insights into the nature of light and the fundamental
principles of quantum mechanics. The double-slit experiment
continues to inspire curiosity and challenge our understanding of the
quantum world.

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 INFERENCE
Young's double-slit experiment provides compelling evidence for the
wave-like nature of light. By observing the interference pattern, we can
infer the following:

● Light as a Wave: The formation of bright and dark fringes is a

direct consequence of the superposition principle, a fundamental
property of waves. This indicates that light, even at the most
fundamental level, exhibits wave-like behavior.
● Wavelength and Frequency: The spacing between the fringes is
directly related to the wavelength of the light. By measuring this
spacing, we can determine the wavelength and, consequently, the
frequency of the light source.
● Quantum Mechanical Implications: When the experiment is
performed with individual photons, the interference pattern still
emerges, suggesting that even single particles can exhibit
wave-like properties. This challenges our classical understanding
of particles and waves, leading to the concept of wave-particle
duality in quantum mechanics.

The double-slit experiment remains a cornerstone of physics, providing

a fascinating glimpse into the quantum world and the fundamental
nature of light.

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 PRECAUTIONS
Here are some essential precautions to consider when performing
Young's double-slit experiment:

Laser Safety:

● Direct Exposure: Never look directly into the laser beam. It can
cause severe eye damage.
● Reflection: Avoid reflecting the laser beam onto reflective
surfaces, as it can pose a hazard to others.
● Eye Protection: Wear appropriate laser safety goggles to protect
your eyes.

Experimental Setup:

● Stability: Ensure the experimental setup is stable to minimize

vibrations that can affect the interference pattern.
● Alignment: Carefully align the laser, slits, and screen to obtain a
clear and well-defined interference pattern.
● Room Conditions: Conduct the experiment in a dark room to
reduce the impact of ambient light on the observation.
● Slit Width: The slits should be narrow and evenly spaced to
produce distinct interference patterns.
● Screen Distance: The screen should be placed at an appropriate
distance to observe clear fringes.By following these precautions,
you can perform the experiment safely and accurately, obtaining
reliable results.

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 CONCLUSION
Through this project, we have delved into the fascinating world of the
wave nature of light. By conducting experiments and analyzing the
results, we have gained valuable insights into the fundamental
properties of light.

The double-slit experiment, a cornerstone of optics, provided

compelling evidence for the wave-like behavior of light. The formation
of interference patterns, characterized by alternating bright and dark
fringes, can only be explained by the superposition principle, a concept
inherent to wave phenomena.

Furthermore, we explored the concept of diffraction, where light waves

bend around obstacles, further reinforcing the wave nature of light. By
studying the diffraction patterns produced by various obstacles, we
were able to quantify the wavelength of light and understand its
interaction with matter.

While this project has focused on the wave nature of light, it is

important to acknowledge that light also exhibits particle-like behavior,
a concept that is central to quantum mechanics. This dual nature of
light, as both a wave and a particle, is a fundamental aspect of modern
physics.

In conclusion, this project has reinforced our understanding of the

wave nature of light and its implications for various optical phenomena.
By building upon this knowledge, we can continue to explore the
intricate workings of the universe and develop innovative technologies
that harness the power of light.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
● Internet

○ gemini.google.com

○ www.youtube.com

○ Looking Glass Universe

○ Veritasium

○ docs.google.com

○ https://byjus.com

● Books

○ Concepts of Physics - HC Verma

○ The Feynman Lectures on Physics

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