Memory and Cognition

in its Social Context

Robert S. Wyer, Jr.

Thomas K. Srull
University of Illinois OF
at Urbana-Champaign

OF Psychology Press
M- Taylor & Francis Group

NEW YORK AND LONDON

First published 1989 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Published 2014 by P sychology Press

711 Third Avenue, N ew York, NY 10017

and by P sychology Press

27 Church Road, H ove, East Sussex, BN3 2FA

Psychology Press is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group,

an informa business

Copyright © 1989 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

All rights reserved. N o part of this book m ay be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other m eans, now know n or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any inform ation
storage or retrieval system , w ithout perm ission in w riting from
the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate nam es m ay be

trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation w ithout intent to infringe.

L ibrary of C ongress C ataloging in Publication D ata

Wyer, Robert S.
M emory and cognition in its social context / Robert S. Wyer, Jr.,
Thomas K. Srull.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. M emory—Social aspects. 2. Human information processing—
-Social aspects. 3. Social perception. I. Srull, Thomas K.
II. Title.
BF378.S65W94 1989
153.1'2—dc20
89-36227
CIP

ISBN 13: 978-0-805-80599-4 (hbk)

Publisher’s Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality
of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the
original may be apparent.
Dedicated to the Memory of
Darlene Goodhart
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Preface

1. Introduction 1

Social Cognition and Social Psychology 1

Social Cognition and Cognitive Psychology 5
An Overview of Social Cognition Research 6
The Objectives of this Book 9

2. A General M odel of Social Information Processing 13

Processing Units 18
General Systems Operation 23
Conscious vs. Subconscious Information Processing 29
Summary 32

3. The Structure and Function of the Work Space 33

Theoretical and Empirical Implications 37

Concluding Remarks 46

4. The Organization of Information in Permanent Memory 47

The Semantic Bin 49

Referent Bins 59
Organization and Storage of Information in Referent Bins 63
Headers 67
Empirical Evidence 69
Concluding Remarks 78

v
vi CONTENTS

5. R etrieval P rocesses 81

Theoretical Considerations 81
Recency and Frequency Effects on the Influence of New and Old Information 92
Spontaneous and Goal-Directed Reminding 103
Concluding Remarks 113

6. E ncoding an d O rganization: I. T he Effects of

C oncept A ccessibility on the In terp retatio n of In fo rm atio n 115

General Considerations 116

Effects of Trait Category Accessibility on Person Impression Formation 118
Individual Differences in Concept Accessibility 135
Effects of Immediate Goals and Needs on the Interpretation of Information 138
Selective Encoding of Information 140
Postinformation Effects of Concept Accessibility 142
A Theoretical Controversy: Are Trait Encodings Spontaneous? 145
Effects of Concept Accessibility on Overt Behavior 147
Methodological Implications: Diagnosing the Cognitive Mediators of Judgments
and Behavior 151
Concluding Remarks 154

7. E ncoding an d O rganization:
II.T he C ognitive R ep re sen tatio n of P ersons 157

General Considerations 159

The Cognitive Representation of Person Information 161
The Recall of Trait and Behavior Information About a Person 172
Priorities in Impression-Directed Information Processing 192
Applications and Extentions 196
Concluding Remarks 203

8. E ncoding an d O rganization:
III. T he C ognitive R ep re sen tatio n of Social Events 205

The Representation of Events in General Semantic Knowledge 206

The Representation of Specific Event Sequences: General Considerations 210
Representations of Verbally Described Prototypic Events 214
The Representation of Nonprototypic Event Sequences 223
The Representation of Personal Experiences 229
 CONTENTS vii

The Representation of Observed Event Sequences 232

The Role of Representations in Comprehension and Inference 240
The Role of Event Representations in Higher Order Goal-Directed Information
Processing 244
Concluding Remarks 254

9. Inference Making: I. General Processes 255

Inferences of Category Membership 256

Belief Formation and Change: Inferences of the Validity of Propositions Based on
General World Knowledge 268
Heuristic Principles of Social Inference 279

10. Inference Making: II. Judgments of Persons 285

General Considerations 286

Primary vs. Recency Effects in Recall and Judgment 289
Effects of Predicting a Person’s Behavior on Subsequent Trait Judgments 290
Effects of Instructions to Disregard Information on the Later Recall and Use of this
Information 291
The Role of Stereotypes in Person Concept Formation and Judgments 299
Dual Processing Approaches to Person Inferences 305
Summary and Conclusions 315

11. Response Generation 317

General Principles of Interpersonal Communication: Politeness, Informativeness,

and Accuracy 318
The Use of Category Response Scales 321
Mapping of Stimulus Values onto the Response Scale 324
Assimilation vs. Contrast Effects of Context Stimuli 324
Effects of Overt Responses on Later Behavior and Judgments 335
Direct Estimation of Subjective Stimulus Values 340
Methodological Implications 343
Concluding Remarks 349
viii CONTENTS

12. The Role of Affect and Emotion in Information Processing 351

The Cognitive Representation of Affect and Emotion 352

Cognitive Determinants of Affect and Emotion 358
Cognitive Consequences of Affect and Emotion 371
Indirect Influences of Affect and Emotion on Information Processing 399
Concluding Remarks 407

13. The Self 409

The Cognitive Representation of Self 410

The Retrieval of Self-Relevant Information 418
The Effects of Self-Knowledge on Information Processing 431
Situational and Individual Differences in Self-Referential Processing 440

Appendix: Summary of Postulates 445

References 451

Author Index 477

Subject Index 485

 Preface

During the late 1970s, a small group of social psychologists began to meet in
order to discuss their theoretical and empirical work in the largely uncharted waters
of “person memory”. One result was the preparation of a monograph, the objective
of which was to report current research and provide a conceptual framework that
would guide future efforts, not only in person memory but in social cognition more
generally. The two authors of this volume were assigned the task of writing a
capstone chapter that would bring together the ideas and research findings that
emerged from the individual research programs of the other contributors.
We expected our task to be a simple one. In the time-honored tradition of
information processing theory, we needed only to sketch out a flow diagram
indicating the various stages of processing, identify where “memory” played a role,
and our task would be complete. It did not take long for our naivete to become
apparent.
In order to construct a flow diagram that would be compatible with the various
phenomena our colleagues had uncovered, multiple memory and processing units
were required. It also became clear that the information flowing through the system,
even if it was just a skeleton system, had to be heavily cross-indexed. Moreover,
provision had to be made for the different cognitive processes that were likely to
occur when people processed information for different purposes. This led us to a
very early recognition of the importance of information processing “goals” or
“objectives.” We were further surprised by the mounting evidence that, whereas
some memory-based phenomena became less apparent over time, others actually
increased in strength. In short, the social mind appeared to be much more complex
than work from our cognitive colleagues had suggested.
Although our early objective was to integrate different streams of research, the
model we developed had many empirical implications that were quite novel.
Several of these were pursued and, much to our surprise, empirical support for the
model began to accumulate steadily. We also found research from other
laboratories that was quite consistent with implications of the model. In some cases,
of course, modifications in the model were required to accomodate new data.
However, these modifications had additional empirical implications, and these
implications stood up quite well in the face of further study. We then began to
X PREFACE

monitor the journals more and more closely for findings that fell within the purview
of the model.
The present book is the result of our efforts over the past seven years. It presents
a substantially refined and elaborated conceptualization of social information
processing that should be considered a new model rather than a simple extension
of our initial effort (Wyer & Srull, 1980). Encoding, organizational, storage,
retrieval, and inference processes are all specified in more detail. We also offer
new conceptualizations of the representations that are formed from person and
event information, and the way in which these representations are used to make
judgments. The role of affect in information processing, and the content and
structure of self knowledge, are also treated in some detail. Although the model is
not without deficiencies, it nonetheless accounts for a wide range of phenomena
and generates many nonobvious predictions that have been supported empirically.
Thus, the model is both integrative and heuristic.
This book is genuinely collaborative. However, the collaboration extends far
beyond the two coauthors. The University of Illinois Social Cognition Group, an
exceptionally active consortium of faculty, postdoctoral fellows and graduate
students from various social science disciplines, has met for many years to
exchange ideas. Members of this group, both individually and collectively, have
contributed in uncountable ways to nearly every aspect of our work. Their research
is highlighted throughout this volume and their theoretical ideas (not always
adequately acknowledged) are reflected in many aspects of the conceptualization
we propose. In short, the entire book is largely a result of their effort and we are
heavily in their debt.
Several people deserve special mention. Galen Bodenhausen, Bob Fuhrman,
and Meryl Lichtenstein have been invaluable collaborators. In addition, Norbert
Schwarz and Fritz Strack, colleagues with whom we have collaborated both at
Illinois and in Germany, have had an enormous influence, as have Stan Klein and
Leonard Martin who worked with us as postdoctoral fellows. Among the many
individuals who have worked with us during their tenure as graduate students at
Illinois, we are particularly indebted to Lee Budesheim, Gail Futoran, Lisa Gaelick,
Sallie Gordon, Jon Hartwick, Janice Kelly, Alan Lambert, Steve Levine, and Victor
Ottati. They are a terrific group of people and we were fortunate to have worked
with them.
More senior colleagues have also influenced our theorizing. Don Carlston,
Dave Hamilton, Reid Hastie, and Tom Ostrom were all members of the original
“person memory” group and have continued to provide inspiration through both
their own research and theorizing and their constructive criticism of our own.
Equally valuable have been our interactions with John Bargh, Tory Higgins, and
Jim Sherman. Although their influence may not always be readily apparent, it is
broader and deeper than we sometimes admit.
 PREFACE xi

The theoretical and empirical work that is represented in this volume was
supported most recently by die National Institute of Mental Health (MH 3-8585,
BSR) and, previously, by numerous grants from the National Science Foundation.
Their continuing interest and support of our research is deeply appreciated. Much
of the actual writing was done while the first author was an Associate of the Center
for Advanced Study at the University of Illinois, with facilities provided by the
University of Mannheim, Germany. Appreciation is extended to both.
We are also deeply indebted to Lawrence Erlbaum for his encouragement and
for his patience in the delays that have occurred in submission of the manuscript.
Larry’s support, not only of our work but of cognitive and social psychology more
generally, has been a major force in the development of social cognition. Like the
rest of the field, we are greatly in his debt. There simply is no better publisher in
the business.
Finally, we want to acknowledge the impact that Darlene Goodhart had on
both our lives. In addition to making important contributions to social cognition,
and serving as a uniquely competent and trusted critic of our ideas, Darlene was a
valuable friend. Her support, tolerance, and love had a value that is impossible to
express in words. She was married to one of us and an inspiration to both. Darlene’s
premature death was tragic, both for us and for the field. Our consolation is that we
are much better people for having known her. We miss Darlene deeply, and it is to
her that this volume is dedicated.
Robert S. Wyer, Jr.
Thomas K. Srull
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Introduction

This is a book about social cognition. Theory and research that fall under this
rubric have captured the imagination and energies of many social and cognitive
psychologists since the mid-1970s. Several other books on the topic have appeared
(Fiske & Taylor, 1984; Hastie, Ostrom, Ebbesen, Wyer, Hamilton, & Carlston,
1980; Higgins, Herman, & Zanna, 1981; Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1981; Nisbett &
Ross, 1980; Wyer & Carlston, 1979) and, more recently, two handbooks have
emerged (Sorrentino & Higgins, 1986; Wyer & Srull, 1984). Moreover, a series of
“advances” in the area has been established and several journals devote all or many
of their pages to the topic. Given this flurry of activity, one might assume that the
domain of inquiry is well defined and can easily be differentiated from others. Yet,
“What is social cognition?” continues to be one of the most frequently asked
questions we receive at colloquia and other speaking engagements. The question
is frustrating, as there has never, to our knowledge, been a universally accepted
answer. To convey both the objectives and limitations of this book, however, an
answer must be provided.
The question actually has two more specific versions. First, what distinguishes
social cognition from social psychology more generally? Second, what distin­
guishes social cognition from cognitive psychology? The answers to these two
more specific questions are different. In combination, however, they not only
provide a perspective on social cognition, but on what the present volume hopes
to accomplish.

Social Cognition and Social Psychology

It can easily be argued that social psychology is the parent (or at least one of
them) of contemporary cognitive psychology. The current focus of cognitive
psychology on the processing of complex stimulus arrays, and the role that general
world knowledge plays, was considered revolutionary when it occurred in the
1970s, replacing the more traditional concern with learning nonsense syllables and

1
2 CHAPTER 1

unrelated word lists. In social psychology, however, a concern with knowledge

representation, and the influence it has on cognitive and social behavior, predates
this “revolution” by more than a quarter of a century. A recognition that individual
pieces of information are often represented as configural wholes, the meaning of
which cannot be captured by examining the constituent elements, dates back to
Soloman Asch’s (1946) classic work on impression formation. An analysis of the
memory organization of specific subsets of cognitions is reflected in the work of
Fritz Heider (1946, 1958/1982), and was a major thrust of social psychological
research for many years (cf. Abelson, Aronson, McGuire, Newcomb, Rosenberg,
& Tannenbaum, 1968). More general characteristics of cognitive structure such as
the differentiation and interrelatedness of the concepts that people have formed in
different knowledge domains has its roots in the work of O.J. Harvey (e.g., Harvey,
Hunt, & Schroder, 1961), William Scott (1963), and Milton Rokeach (1960). The
research on communication and persuasion that was stimulated by Hovland and
others in the 1950s (e.g., Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953) was obviously concerned
with the manner in which the information one receives affects judgments and
decisions, as was research on attitude and belief change more generally (for
summaries of the early theories and research, see Insko, 1967; Wyer, 1974). More
recent work on impression formation (e.g., Anderson, 1971) and attribution (e.g.,
Kelley, 1967; Jones, Kanouse, Kelley, Nisbett, Valins, & Weiner, 1971/1987) was
also concerned with the cognitive bases of social judgment.
In short, much of social psychology has been oriented around cognitive issues
and questions. What, then, is new about social cognition? The answer, we believe,
lies simply in the emphasis that social cognition theory places on process or, more
accurately, processes. That is, social cognition, unlike cognitive social psychology
of the type described above, takes as its objective a specification of the component
cognitive operations that underlie the acquisition of social information and, along
with preexisting knowledge, its use in making a judgment or decision.
To imply that the earlier research on impression formation, communication
and persuasion, and attitude and belief change was not concerned with these matters
may seem curious, if not contradictory. Any viable conceptualization of the manner
in which information influences beliefs, attitudes, and behavior must make some
assumptions about the cognitive processes that underlie these effects. In fact,
however, the research that was performed seldom evaluated these assumptions
directly, nor did it attempt to identify the particular point in the overall sequence
of cognitive operations at which the observed effects were localized.
In contrast, the focus of social cognition is precisely on the cognitive
mechanisms that mediate judgments and behavior. The sequence of these opera­
tions is usually assumed to be divisible into several component processing stages.
These include:
 INTRODUCTION 3

1. the interpretation of individual pieces of information in terms of previously

formed concepts or knowledge;
2. the organization of information in terms of a more general body of social
knowledge, and the construction of a cognitive representation of the person,
object, or event to which the information pertains;
3. the storage of this cognitive representation in memory;
4. the retrieval of the representation, along with other judgment- relevant
knowledge, at the time a judgment is anticipated;
5. the combining of the implications of various features of the representation to
arrive at a subjective inference; and
6. the transformation of the subjective inference into a response (e.g., judgment or
behavioral decision).

The effect of a situational variable on an overt response could be localized in

any one of these stages (or several of them for that matter). Moreover, the specific
cognitive operations that are performed may differ in the type and amount of
information that is acquired. They may also depend on the processing objectives
of the individual and the time at which a response is required.
Although early social psychological research was often concerned with
phenomena at one stage or another, the processing of information at this stage was
seldom isolated, either theoretically or empirically, from the effects of processing
at other stages. Nor was was an analysis provided for how the various processes
operate in concert to generate a judgment or decision. For example, several
principles of cognitive consistency (Abelson & Rosenberg, 1958; Festinger, 1957;
Heider, 1958/1982; McGuire, 1960; Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955) were postu­
lated to govern the organization of beliefs and attitudes and the consequences of
information bearing on one cognition on others that were related to it. However, it
was never clear from the research whether the observed effects were the result of
changes in the representation of interrelated beliefs and attitudes (which would
presumably occur at the encoding and/or organizational stages) or the result of
inferences that were made at the time of judgment.
Similarly, research on communication and persuasion was often concerned
with the effects of the order in which arguments were presented (Miller &
Campbell, 1959), the relative influence of emotional versus factual content (Janis
& Feshbach, 1953), and the relative impact of informational variables versus source
characteristics (Tannenbaum, 1967). However, whether these variables had their
impact because they influenced the interpretation of information at the time it was
first received, because they induced selective attention and encoding of the infor­
mation, or because they affected the way that different pieces of information were
combined to make a judgment was never established—or even pursued. Indeed,
only William McGuire’s (1964, 1968, 1972) work reflected a systematic attempt
to understand the component processes that underlie responses to persuasive
4 CHAPTER 1

messages, to isolate the situational and informational factors that influence each
process, and to specify how these processes act together to produce judgments.
Research in person impression formation has always been concerned with the
manner in which different pieces of information combine to affect liking for the
person. A conceptualization of these processes requires assumptions about the
evaluative implications that are attached to each component piece of information
and the relative importance (weight) that is given to each. Historically, however,
the data used to evaluate these processes consisted only of liking judgments. These
judgments were in turn based on factorially organized sets of stimulus adjectives,
the weights and scale values of which (as well as the process for combining them)
were inferred post hoc from the pattern of judgments that emerged (Anderson,
1965,1970,1981). Thus, no direct evidence was obtained for any of the processes
that were postulated.1
In contrast to each of these traditions, social cognition theorists often design
experiments that are intended to tap directly into one of the various stages of
processing that underlie judgmental phenomena. In doing so, they recognize that
a process cannot usually be isolated solely on the basis of judgment data. Just as
the cognitive psychologist recognizes that behavior is only one link in a long chain
of responses, the social cognition theorist recognizes that judgments (or behavioral
decisions) are only the final link in a long psychological chain.
It is often important to understand the factors that affect the initial interpreta­
tion of information. To do this, one might obtain information about the types of
concepts that subjects use to encode the stimuli into memory, as reflected in
think-aloud protocols or open-ended descriptions of the objects. Alternatively, one
might examine the time required to make concept-related judgments, or differences
between the original information and later reports when subjects are asked to recall
it.
Similarly, theorists are often concerned with the nature of the cognitive
representations that are formed and the way they are stored in memory. Thus, they
may examine the amount and type of information that is later recalled, as well as
the order in which items are produced and the latencies between responses. Under
some circumstances, it is likely to require an assessment of the cognitions (elabora­
tions, counterarguments, etc.) that subjects generate in response to the information
and are likely to include in its representation.

1. Alternative information integration processes are often evaluated on the basis of the accuracy
with which algebraic models can describe the relation between stimulus input characteristics and the
reported judgments. As we point out in Chapter 9, however, the same algebraic equation can be
consistent with several different assumptions about the underlying integration process that subjects
employ. Thus, these assumptions are impossible to distinguish on the basis of the quantitative of the
equation alone.
 INTRODUCTION 5

Finally, an understanding of the factors that underlie the transformation of

subjective inferences into overt responses may require not only knowledge of the
response that is made to the particular stimulus, but also responses that are made
to other, objectively irrelevant stimuli. These latter responses can provide evidence
of the rules that subjects are using to transform their subjective judgments into overt
responses.
It is sad but true: cut into a long chain of responses and the chain is destroyed.
To put it another way, not all of the processes we have enumerated can be
investigated in a single experiment. Thus, a research strategy must by developed
that permits the processes at each stage to be identified and isolated. At the same
time, however, a general conceptualization must be developed that will permit each
of the component processes to be fit together into a functioning system. Such a
conceptualization must specify, in general information processing terms, how the
various processes interact. This is the ultimate objective of social cognition theory
and research.

Social Cognition and Cognitive Psychology

The second issue to be raised is what distinguishes social cognition from

cognitive psychology. At one level, both are concerned with the various stages of
information processing we have outlined above. At another level, however, there
are important differences.
One difference is that some cognitive processes are more important (i.e.,
capture more variance) than others in social interaction. While a cognitive
psychologist may be very concerned about whether two meanings of a homophone
can be activated simultaneously, or whether the stimulus suffix effect is due to a
separate auditory store, or whether the time required to do mental rotation decreases
with practice, social cognition theorists are relatively unconcerned with such
matters (cf. Hamilton, in press). To the degree they shed light on how the cognitive
system operates, they are, at some level, relevant. At the same time, however, their
relevance is indirect and sometimes difficult to understand given our current
knowledge.
Another difference is that cognitive psychologists are often concerned with
the capacity of the cognitive system (cf. Holyoak & Gordon, 1984). How fast, how
accurate, how far can the system be pushed before performance is destroyed? These
are questions that are often pursued by cognitive psychologists, and some of the
historical reasons for this have been outlined elsewhere (Lachman, Lachman, &
Butterfield, 1979). The important point is that social cognition theorists are much
more concerned with how the system actually operates within a given ecological
context. To a much greater extent, we are concerned with what does happen rather
than what can happen. Another difference between the two disciplines is that they
6 CHAPTER 1

focus on different end states. Although this is not an all-or-none issue, cognitive
psychology gives much more emphasis to comprehension and learning. There is a
much greater concern with sensory information, how it is picked up from the
environment, encoded, comprehended, and ultimately represented within the cog­
nitive system. In contrast, social cognition theorists give more weight to under­
standing how people make various judgments and behavioral decisions. Because
of this, they are more concerned with specifying which aspects of the information
that people receive are actually used, as well as how they are used.
These differences are important because they often produce differences in the
task objectives that subjects are given in the research that is performed. This, in
turn, produces differences in the results that emerge and the theories that are used
to account for them. If there is one thing that we have learned from the past decade
of social cognition research, it is that on-line processing objectives have an
important impact on the interpretation that is given to information, the repre­
sentations that are formed from it, and the features of the information that are most
likely to be recalled (for a review of this literature, see Srull & Wyer, 1986).
Because of this, there will often be differences in the paradigms used, the results
obtained, and the theories developed by cognitive psychologists and social cogni­
tion researchers.

An Overview of Social Cognition Research

Many differences in task objectives occur at the input stages of processing.

They are reflected in the initial interpretation of information, the subset of pre­
viously acquired knowledge that is used for organizing it and construing its
implications, and the representation of it that is ultimately stored in memory. To
the degree that theories in cognitive psychology fail to account for these effects,
their relevance to social cognition is limited. While we believe that many of these
factors have been ignored or deemphasized in cognitive psychology, we also
believe that theories of information retrieval have highlighted many of the proces­
ses that occur in social settings. Thus, existing theories of retrieval processes (e.g.,
Raaijmakers & Shiffrin, 1980,1981; Gillund & Shiffrin, 1984) may actually be of
greater relevance to contemporary social cognition.
Some of these considerations are summarized in Figure 1.1. The figure
indicates the relations among independent and dependent variables of concern in
both cognitive and social psychology, as well as the hypothetical constructs that
mediate their relation. Independent and dependent variables are enclosed in solid
lines, and the hypothetical mediators in dashed-lines. Each pathway connecting
two variables reflects a relation that must be specified by any theory of cognitive
functioning. The diagram is obviously incomplete. As just one example, it does not
 INTRODUCTION 7

Input P r o c e s s Request for Judgment Process

Judgment

Processing
Objective "I / Retrieve \ ' - . - - >
/ and \ /
^Process \
Information^"
Cognitive
Representations
Search OF
OF
l _ / « W
OF
1
Representations/ \ ™ y
Stimulus J
Informa tion
V / '

Recall P r o c e s s — ^ .
/ Retrieve \ I
Request ' and \ I
to —rt Search ' I
Recall \ RepresentationsJ I

Recalled
Information

Figure 1.1 Relations among various components of social judgment. Ob-

servable (independent and dependent) variables are enclosed by solid
lines, and mediating variables by dashed lines. Rectangles denote "states"
and ovals denote "processes."

include the influence of general world knowledge. Several observations can be

made with reference to the diagram:
1. The processing that occurs, and the mental representation that results from
it, is a function of both the information presented and the goals of the person at the
time the information is acquired. Moreover, the processes that occur may be
idiosyncratic to a particular configuration of these variables. For example, subjects
may encode and organize a set of traits and behavior descriptions differently if their
goal is to form an impression of the person than if their goal is to learn and
remember the information (Hamilton, Katz, & Leirer, 1980a, 1980b; Srull, 1983;
Wyer & Gordon, 1982; Wyer, Bodenhausen, & Srull, 1984). By the same token,
subjects with an impression formation objective may form a different type of
cognitive representation from this sort of information than they would from an
episodic sequence of observed behaviors (Allen & Ebbesen, 1981; Cohen &
Ebbesen, 1979; Newtson, 1976; Wyer & Bodenhausen, 1985).
8 CHAPTER 1

2. The mediator denoted “cognitive representation” is free floating. That is,

it is bounded on all sides by other mediating variables. In one sense, it is simply a
convenient metaphor for describing the results of information processing in a way
that facilitates theoretical statements about the consequences of this processing for
memory and judgment. There may, in fact, be several functionally equivalent
metaphors for conceptualizing the cognitive representation of information.
Whatever metaphor is chosen, however, must be tied explicitly to the other
mediating variables to which it is theoretically linked (Wyer & Srull, 1988).
3. There is a clear parallel between the generation of “recall” responses and
the generation of “judgment” responses.2 In both cases, subjects presumably
retrieve and use some aspects of the cognitive representation they have formed in
order to generate an output. However, the particular aspects of the representation
that they retrieve, and how they use these aspects, may depend on which type of
output is requested. There is, therefore, no a priori reason to believe that the
cognitive material that is extracted from a representation and used to make a
judgment, or the way it is operated on in order to arrive at this judgment, are in any
way similar to the material retrieved and the operations that are performed when
someone is asked to recall as much of the information as possible. In short, there
is no necessary direct relation between the implications of recalled information and
judgments, despite the fact that the cognitive representation that mediates these
different responses is the same.

More generally, Figure 1.1 divides the issues of social information processing
into three general areas. These pertain to:
1. input—the way that information is encoded, organized, and stored in memory
under different task objective conditions.
2. recall—the way in which the cognitive representation is accessed and used
to recall past information when people are explicitly asked to do so.
3. judgment—the manner in which cognitive representations are retrieved and
used to make different types of judgments.

The goal of the social cognition theorist is to articulate the relations among
these components and to explicate the specific processes that are involved in each.
As noted earlier, the theories that have been developed in cognitive psychology are
most likely to be useful in conceptualizing retrieval processes. One strategy that is
often productive is to apply these theories to patterns of recall data in order to infer
the content and structure of the cognitive representations that are formed under
different task objective conditions. Once the nature of these representations have

2. It is worth noting that it is important to distinguish between “recall” processes and the processes
tapped by other memory indices. Recognition memory measures, for example, are often based on
inferences about whether a stimulus item was or was not previously presented. Thus, under this scheme,
they are more appropriately considered to be governed by “judgment” processes, as denoted in Fig. 1.1.
 INTRODUCTION 9

been established, the way in which they are used to make judgments can be
conceptualized and empirically investigated.

The Objectives of this Book

General Objectives

We have noted several different stages of information processing that are

involved in the acquisition and use of social information. A complete theory of
social information processing must specify the cognitive mechanisms that operate
at each stage. In addition, it must articulate how these processes function in concert
to affect judgments and decisions. The objective of this volume is to outline a model
of social information processing that may ultimately develop into such a complete
theory.
The model we propose was guided by three interrelated sets of objectives
referred to by Smith (1978) as generality, extendability, and sufficiency.
Generality. The theoretical vocabulary, the representational system, and the
psychological mechanisms postulated in a model should not be specific to any
single domain. The model should, for example, apply to the processing and
representation of information about both individuals and groups. Similarly, it
should apply to the processing of information about oneself as well as other people.
The model should also be capable of accounting not only for controlled laboratory
phenomena but also for more complex and naturalistic memory phenomena that
are known to occur. Our intention is to demonstrate that the present model stands
up quite well to all of these criteria.
Although several implications of the model are unique, others can (and should)
be accounted for by other formulations as well. In most cases, however, these
formulations apply to only a rather circumscribed set of phenomena, often involv­
ing only a single dependent variable. The proposed formulation purports to account
for a much broader range of empirical findings than that to which other existing
formulations are applicable. Moreover, it postulates a single set of cognitive
mechanisms that govern the processing of information at several different stages.
Extendability. A model should be extendable in two ways. First, the processes
it specifies should potentially subsume, be components of, or interface with those
implied by other theoretical frameworks. Similarly, it should be able to account for
the empirical phenomena investigated within these frameworks. The proposed
model meets this criterion. That is, rather than being limited to a single aspect of
information processing, it deals with encoding, storage, retrieval, judgment, and
decision mechanisms. Moreover, it is sufficiently abstract that it can incorporate
more articulated theories of specific processes. Its purpose is not to provide a final
10 CHAPTER 1

solution to all of the conceptual issues that have arisen in past work. However, the
model specifies how one set of processes interfaces with another, and suggests
when each set may be activated in natural social settings.
A second aspect of the extendability criterion is that a model must link the
various processes to one another. Social cognition researchers are not only inter­
ested in social memory and judgment as independent entities, but also the relation­
ship between them. No existing conceptual model attempts to analyze the nature
of this relationship. Our attention to this aspect of the extendability criterion
recognizes that any viable model must be able to be expanded, modified, and
articulated at a more precise level as the relevant data base grows and becomes
more diagnostic. The proposed model includes this feature of useful theory
development.
Sufficiency. A model should obviously be logically coherent, internally
consistent, and heuristically useful. We demonstrate the proposed model’s ability
to meet these criteria in several ways. First, we point out the model’s consistency
with past findings in the literature. Second we demonstrate its ability to generate
several new predictions, some of which are quite counterintuitive and yet have
received considerable empirical support. Third, we demonstrate how the model can
be used to identify the psychological mechanisms that are responsible for complex
social phenomena (e.g., affective reactions). Finally, we demonstrate how the
model can be used to integrate what have often been considered “inconsistent”
empirical findings.
There are, of course, inherent trade-offs among the three objectives noted
above, and these have also influenced the development of the proposed formula­
tion. The more general a model is, the less precise it can be. The more precise it is
in accounting for any given phenomenon, the less extendable it will be into other
domains. This is also a recognition of the fact that the model is only a tentative
explanatory scheme for our current knowledge base. Nevertheless, integrating the
current literature in social cognition into a single, unifying conceptual framework
is a difficult and important challenge. But it is one we hope to meet in the present
volume.

A Preview

Our discussion of the model and its implications for social information
processing is organized as follows:
In Chapter 2, we provide a general overview of the model, describing briefly
the functions of its various components and how they are theoretically interrelated.
Chapters 3 and 4 describe in more detail our assumptions about the content and
structure of memory. Then, in Chapter 5, we focus on the process of retrieving
information from memory.
 INTRODUCTION 11

The next several chapters deal with specific processing components of the
model. They concern the initial interpretation and encoding of information (Chap­
ter 6), the more complex representations that are formed from this information
(Chapters 7 and 8), the use of new and previously acquired information to make
subjective inferences (Chapters 9 and 10), and the transformation of these subjec­
tive inferences into overt responses (Chapter 11).
The last two chapters of the volume focus on factors that enter into information
processing at all stages, and therefore deserve consideration in their own right.
Chapter 12 considers both the cognitive determinants and consequences of affect
and emotion. Chapter 13 is concerned with the representation of self knowledge
and its role in cognitive functioning.
We attempt in our discussion to be as explicit as possible about the cognitive
mechanisms that operate at each stage of information processing, and in the way
these processes interact. Formal postulates are often proposed and their empirical
implications are explored. Throughout the volume we not only provide empirical
support for unique predictions of the model, but also indicate the model’s ability
to account for a wide range of phenomena that have been identified. The model is
admittedly incomplete. Readers will undoubtedly identify phenomena that have
been neglected and processes that are not analyzed with a sufficient degree of
precision. On the other hand, the conceptual integration that the model provides is
substantial, as we hope to document in the remaining chapters.
References
Abelson, R. P. (1976). Script processing in attitude formation and decision-making. In J. S. Carroll & J. W.
Payne (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Abelson, R. P. (1981). The psychological status of the script concept. American Psychologist, 36,
715–729.
Abelson, R. P. (1983). Whatever became of consistency theory? Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 9, 37–54.
Abelson, R. P. , Aronson, E. , McGuire, W. J. , Newcomb, T. N. , Rosenberg, M. J. , & Tannenbaum, P.
(Eds.). (1968). Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook. Chicago: Rand-McNally.
Abelson, R. P. , & Reich, C. M. (1969). Implicational molecules: A method for extracting meaning from
input sentences. In D. E. Walker & L. M. Norton (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Joint Conference
on Artificial Intelligence.
Abelson, R. P. , & Rosenberg, M. J. (1958). Symbolic psycho-logic: A model of attitudinal cognition.
Behavioral Science, 3, 1–13.
Allen, R. B. , & Ebbesen, E. B. (1981). Cognitive processes in person perception: Retrieval of personality
trait and behavioral information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 17, 119–141.
Alloy, L. B. , & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed
students: Sadder but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 441–485.
Allport, G.W. (1955). Becoming. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Anderson, J. R. (1976). Language, memory and thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anderson, J. R. (1980). Cognitive psychology and its implications. San Francisco: Freeman.
Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Anderson, J. R. , & Bower, G. H. (1979). Human associative memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates. (Originally published 1973)
Anderson, J. R. , & Hastie, R. (1974). Individuation and reference in memory: Proper names and definite
descriptions. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 495–514.
Anderson, N. H. (1965). Averaging versus adding as a stimulus-combination rule in impression formation.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70, 394–400.
Anderson, N. H. (1970). Functional measurement and psychological judgment. Psychological Review, 77,
153–170.
Anderson, N. H. (1971). Integration theory and attitude change. Psychological Review, 78, 171–206.
Anderson, N. H. (1974). Cognitive algebra: Integration theory applied to social attribution. In L. Berkowitz
(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 7). New York: Academic Press.
Anderson, N. H. (1981). Foundations of information integration theory. New York: Academic Press.
Anderson, N. H. , & Hubert, S. (1963). Effects of concomitant verbal recall on order effects in personality
impression formation. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 379–391.
Anderson, R. C. , & Pichert, J. W. (1978). Recall of previously unrecallable information following a shift in
perspective. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 1–12.
Anderson, R. C. , Reynolds, R. E. , Schallert, D. L. , & Goetz, E. T. (1976). Frameworks for
comprehending discourse (Tech. Rep. No. 12). Urbana, IL: Laboratory for Cognitive studies in Education,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Arkin, R. M. , Gleason, J. M. , & Johnston, S. (1976). Effect of perceived choice, expected outcome, and
observed outcome of an action on the causal attributions of actors. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 12, 151–158.
Asch, S. E. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41,
258–290.
Atkinson, R. C. , & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes.
In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2). New York:
Academic Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1976). The psychology of memory. New York: Basic Books.
Baddeley, A. D. , Cuccaro, W. J. , Egstrom, G. , & Willis, M. A. (1975). Cognitive efficiency of divers
working in cold water. Human Factors, 17, 446–454.
Baddeley, A. D. , & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of
learning and motivation (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.
Baddeley, A. D. , & Hitch, G. J. (1977). Recency reexamined. In S. Dornie (Ed.), Attention and
performance (Vol. 6). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bahrick, H. P. (1984). Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish
learned in school. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 1–29.
Baker, L. (1978). Processing temporal relationships in simple stories: Effects of input sequence. Journal
of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 559–572.
Banks, W. P. (1977). Encoding and processing of symbolic information in comparative judgments. In G.
H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 11). New York: Academic Press.
Barclay, J. R. , Bransford, J. D. , Franks, J. J. , McCarrell, N. S. , & Nitsch, K. (1974). Comprehension and
semantic flexibility. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 471–481.
Bargh, J. A. (1982). Attention and automaticity in the processing of self-relevant information. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 425–436.
Bargh, J. A. (1984). Automatic and conscious processing of social information. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull
(Eds)., Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bargh, J. A. , Bond, R. N. , Lombardi, W. , & Tota, M. E. (1986). The additive nature of chronic and
temporary sources of construct accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 869–878.
Bargh, J. A. , & Pietromonaco, P. (1982). Automatic information processing and social perception: The
influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 437–449.
Bargh, J. A. , & Thein, R. D. (1985). Individual construct accessibility, person memory, and the recall-
judgment link: The case of information overload. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49,
1129–1146.
Barsalou, L. W. , & Sewell, D. R. (1985). Contrasting the representation of scripts and categories. Journal
of Memory and Language, 24, 646–665.
Bear, G. , & Hodun, A. (1975). Implicational principles and the cognition of confirmatory, contradictory,
incomplete, and irrelevant information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 594–604.
Bellezza, F. S. , & Bower, G. H. (1981). Person stereotypes and memory for people. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 856–865.
Bem, D. J. (1965). An experimental analysis of self-persuasion. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 1, 199–218.
Bem, D. J. (1967). Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena.
Psychological Review, 74, 183–200.
Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
psychology (Vol. 6). New York: Academic Press.
Bem, D. J. , & McConnell, H. K. (1970). Testing the self-perception explanation of dissonance
phenomena: On the salience of premanipulation attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
14, 23–31.
Berkowitz, L. , & Lepage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 7, 202–207.
Berlyne, D. E. (1967). Arousal and reinforcement. In W. J. Arnold (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on
motivation (Vol. 15). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Berlyne, D. E. (1971). Aesthetics and psychology. New York: Appleton.
Birnbaum, M. H. (1974). The nonadditivity of personality impressions. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 102, 543–561.
Birnbaum, M. H. (1981). Thinking and feeling: A skeptical review. American Psychologist, 36, 99–101.
Birnbaum, M. H. , & Mellers, B. A. (1979a). One-mediator model of exposure effects is still viable. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 1090–1096.
Birnbaum, M. H. , & Mellers, B. A. (1979b). Stimulus recognition may mediate exposure effects. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 391–394.
Bjork, R. A. , & Whitten, W. B. (1974). Recency-sensitive retrieval processes in long-term free recall.
Cognitive Psychology, 6, 173–189.
Black, J. B. , Galambos, J. A. , & Read, S. (1984). Comprehending stories and social situations. In R. S.
Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Blaney, P. H. (1986). Affect and memory: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 229–246.
Bleda, P. R. , Bell, P. A. , & Byrne, D. (1973). Prior induced affect and sex differences in attraction.
Memory and Cognition, 1, 435–438.
Bless, H. , Bohner, G. , Schwarz, N. , & Strack, F. (1987). Happy and mindless? Moods and the
processing of persuasive communications. Unpublished manuscript, University of Mannheim, Germany.
Bobrow, D. G. , & Norman, D. A. (1975). Some principles of memory schemata. In D. G. Bobrow & A.
Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic
Press.
Bodenhausen, G. V. (1987). Effects of social stereotypes on evidence processing: The cognitive basis of
discrimination in juridic decision making. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-
Champaign.
Bodenhausen, G. V. , & Lichtenstein, M. (1987). Social stereotypes and information processing
strategies: The impact of task complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 871–880.
Bodenhausen, G. V. , & Wyer, R. S. (1985). Effects of stereotypes on decision-making and information-
processing strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 267–282.
Bower, G. H. (1975). Cognitive psychology: An introduction. In W. K. Estes (Ed.), Handbook of learning
and cognitive processes (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148.
Bower, G. H. , Black, J. B. , & Turner, T. J. (1979). Scripts in memory for text. Cognitive Psychology, 11,
177–220.
Bower, G. H. , & Gilligan, S. G. (1979). Remembering information related to one’s self. Journal of
Research in Personality, 13, 420–432.
Bower, G. H. , Gilligan, S. G. , & Monteiro, K. P. (1981). Selectivity of learning caused by affective states.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 451–483.
Bower, G. H. , Monteiro, K. P. , & Gilligan, S. G. (1978). Emotional mood as a context for learning and
recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 573–585.
Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago: Aldine.
Bransford, J. D. , & Stein, B. S. (1984). The ideal problem solver: A guide to improving thinking, learning,
and creativity. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Brewer, M. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.),
Advances in social cognition, Volume I: A dual-process model of impression formation. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brewer, W. B. , & Dupree, D. A. (1983). Use of plan schemata in the recall and recognition of goal-
directed actions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 9, 117–129.
Brown, D. R. (1953). Stimulus-similarity and the anchoring of subjective scales. American Journal of
Psychology, 66, 99–214.
Brown, N. R. , Rips, L. J. , & Shevell, S. K. (1985). The subjective dates of natural events in very-long-
term memory. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 139–177.
Bruner, J. S. (1951). Personality dynamics and the process of perceiving. In R. Blake & G. Ramsey
(Eds.), Perception: An approach to personality. New York: Ronald.
Bruner, J. S. (1957). On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64, 123–152.
Burnstein, E. , & Schul, Y. (1983). The informational basis of social judgments: Memory for integrated and
nonintegrated trait descriptions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 49–57.
Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.
Cantor, J. , Zillmann, D. , & Bryant, J. (1974). Enhancement of experienced sexual arousal in response to
erotic stimuli through misattribution of unrelated residual excitation. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 32, 69–75.
Cantor, N. , & Kihlstrom, J. (Eds.). (1981). Personality, cognition and social interaction. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cantor, N. , & Mischel, W. (1977). Traits as prototypes: Effects on recognition memory. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 38–48.
Carlston, D. E. (1980a). Events, inferences and impression formation. In R. Hastie , T. Ostrom , E.
Ebbesen , R. Wyer , D. Hamilton , & D. Carlston (Eds.), Person memory: The cognitive basis of social
perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Carlston, D. E. (1980b). The recall and use of traits and events in social inference processes. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 16, 303–328.
Carlston, D. E. , & Skowronski, J. J. (1986). Trait memory and behavior memory: The effects of
alternative pathways on impression judgment response times. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 50, 5–13.
Carver, C. S. , Ganellen, R. J. , Froming, W. J. , & Chambers, W. (1983). Modelling: An analysis in terms
of category accessibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16, 779–804.
Chew, B. R. (1983). Selective recall of self- and other-referenced information. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge.
Clark, D. M. , & Teasdale, J. D. (1985). Constraints on the effects of mood on memory. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1595–1608.
Clark, H. (1985). Language use and language users. In G. Lindsey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of
social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 179–232). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Clore, G. L. (1975). Interpersonal attraction: An overview. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Cohen, C. E. , & Ebbesen, E. B. (1979). Observational goals and schema activation: A theoretical
framework for behavior perception. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 305–339.
Collins, A. M. , & Loftus, E. G. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing.
Psychological Review, 83, 407–428.
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York: Scribner’s.
Cooper, J. , & Fazio, R. H. (1984). A new look at dissonance theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in
experimental social psychology (Vol. 17). New York: Academic Press.
Craik, F. I. M. , & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671–684.
Crocker, J. , Hannah, D. B. , & Weber, R. (1983). Person memory and causal attribution. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 55–66.
Crowder, R. B. (1976). Principles of learning and memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Croyle, R. T. , & Cooper, J. (1983). Dissonance arousal: Physiological evidence. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 46, 782–791.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. , & Bennet, S. (1971). An exploratory model of play. American Anthropologist, 73,
45–58.
Davis, F. M. , Baddeley, A. D. , & Hancock, T. R. (1975). Diver performance: The effect of cold. Undersea
Biometical Research, 2, 195–213.
Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.
Diener, E. (1980). Deindividuation: The absence of self-awareness and self-regulation in group members.
In P. Paulus (Ed.), The psychology of group influence. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Diener, E. , & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independences of positive and negative affect. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1105–1117.
Diener, E. , Fraser, S. C. , Beaman, A. L. , & Kelem, R. T. (1976). Effects of deindividuation variables on
stealing among Halloween trick-or-treaters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 178–183.
Diener, E. , & Srull, T. K. (1979). Self-awareness, psychological perspective, and self-reinforcement in
relation to personal and social standards. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 413–423.
Dooling, D. J. , & Christiaansen, R. E. (1977). Episodic and semantic aspects of memory for prose.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: HumanLearning and Memory, 3, 428–436.
Dreben, E. K. , Fiske, S. T. , Hastie, R. (1979). The independence of item and evaluative information:
Impression and recall order effects in behavior-based impression formation. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 37, 1758–1768.
Duval, S. , & Wicklund, R. A. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.
Dweck, C. S. , & Gilliard, D. (1975). Expectancy statements as determinants of reactions to failure: Sex
differences in persistence and expectancy change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32,
1077–1084.
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959). The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior.
Psychological Review, 66, 183–201.
Ebbesen, E. B. (1980). Cognitive processes in understanding ongoing behavior. In R. Hastie , T. Ostrom ,
E. Ebbesen , R. Wyer , D. Hamilton , & D. Carlston (Eds.), Person memory: Cognitive basis of social
perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ebbesen, E. B. , & Allen, R. B. (1979). Cognitive processes in implicit personality trait inferences. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 471–488.
Edwards, A. L. (1957). Techniques of attitude scale construction. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.
Erdelyi, M. H. , & Appelbaum, G. A. (1973). Cognitive masking: The disruptive effects of an emotional
stimulus upon the perception of contiguous neutral items. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1, 56–61.
Erdley, C. , & D'Agostino, P. R. (1988). Cognitive and affective components of automatic priming effects.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 741–747.
Ericsson, K. A. , & Simon, H. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87, 215–251.
Fazio, R. H. , Sherman, S. J. , & Herr, P. M. (1982). The feature-positive effect in the self-perception
process: Does not doing matter as much as doing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42,
404–411.
Fenigstein, A. , Scheier, M. F. , & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment
and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527.
Ferguson, T. J. , Rule, B. G. , & Carlson, D. (1983). Memory for personally relevant information. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 251–261.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Festinger, L. , & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210.
Festinger, L. , & Maccoby, E. (1964). On resistance to persuasive communications. Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 68, 359–366.
Fishbein, M. , & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and
research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Fishbein, M. , & Hunter, R. (1964). Summation versus balance in attitude organization and change.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69, 505–510.
Fiske, D. W. , & Maddi, S. R. (1961). Functions of varied experience. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.
Fiske, S. T. (1988). Compare and contrast: Brewer’s dual process model and Fiske et al.’s continuum
model. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in social cognition, Volume I: A dual-process model
of impression formation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Fiske, S. T. , & Pavelchak, M. A. (1986). Category-based vs. piecemeal-based affective responses:
Developments in schema-triggered affect. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of
motivation and cognition. New York: Guilford Press.
Fiske, S. T. , & Taylor, S. E. (1984). Social cognition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Fiske, S. T. , Taylor, S. E. , Etcoff, N. L. , & Laufer, J. K. (1979). Imaging, empathy, and causal attribution.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 356–377.
Forgas, J. P. , & Bower, G. H. (1987). Mood effects of person-perception judgments. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 53–60.
Friedman, A. , & Pollybank, J. (1982). Remembering information about oneself and others. Paper
presented at Psychonomic Society, Minneapolis, MN.
Fuhrman, R. W. , & Wyer, R. S. (1988). Event memory: Temporal-order judgments of personal life
experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 365–384.
Fuhrman, R. W. , & Wyer, R. S. (1989). Event memory: The role of scripts in the mental representation of
context-specific information. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Futoran, G. C. , & Wyer, R. S. (1986). Effects of traits and gender stereotypes on occupational suitability
judgments and the recall of judgment-relevant information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
22, 475–503.
Gaelick, L. , Bodenhausen, G. V. , & Wyer, R. S. (1985). Emotional communication in close relationships.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1246–1265.
Galambos, J. A. , & Rips, L. J. (1982). Memory for routines. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior, 21, 260–281.
Gick, M. L. , & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 306–355.
Gick, M. L. , & Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology,
14, 1–38.
Gillund, G. , & Shiffrin, R. M. (1984). A retrieval model for both recognition and recall. Psychological
Review, 91, 1–67.
Goethals, G. R. , & Darley, J. M. (1977). Social comparison theory: An attributional approach. In J. Suls &
R. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. Washington, DC:
Hemisphere-Halsted.
Goodhart, D. E. (1985). Some psychological effects associated with positive and negative thinking about
stressful life events: Was Pollyanna right? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 216–232.
Goodhart, D. E. (1986). The effects of positive and negative thinking on performance in an achievement
situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 117–124.
Gordon, S. E. , & Wyer, R. S. (1987). Person memory: Category-set-size effects on the recall of a
person’s behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 648–662.
Graesser, A. C. (1981). Prose comprehesion beyond the word. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Graesser, A. C. , & Clark, L. F. (1985). The structures and procedures of implicit knowledge. Norwood,
NJ: Ablex.
Graesser, A. C. , Gordon, S. E. , & Sawyer, J. D. (1979). Memory for typical and atypical actions in
scripted activities: Test of a script pointer + tag hypothesis. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior, 18, 319–332.
Graesser, A. C. , & Nakamura, G. V. (1982). The impact of a schema on comprehension and memory. In
G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 16).
New York: Academic Press.
Graesser, A. C. , Woll, S. B. , Kowalski, D. J. , & Smith, D. A. (1980). Memory for typical and atypical
actions in scripted activities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6,
503–513.
Greenwald, A. G. (1968). Cognitive learning, cognitive responses to persuasion and attitude change. In
A. G. Greenwald , T. C. Brock , & T. M. Ostrom (Eds.), Psychological foundations of attitudes. New York:
Academic Press.
Greenwald, A. G. (1981). Self and memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and
motivation (Vol. 15). New York: Academic Press.
Greenwald, A. G. , & Pratkanis, A. R. (1984). The self. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of
social cognition (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Grice, H. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics, Vol. 3:
Speech acts (pp. 68–134). New York: Academic Press.
Griffitt, W. , & Veitch, R. (1971). Hot and crowded: Influences of population density and temperature on
interpersonal affective behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 92–98.
Hamilton, D. L. (Ed.). (1981). Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hamilton, D. L. , Katz, L. B. , & Leirer, V. O. (1980a). Cognitive representation of personality impressions:
Organizational processes in first impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39,
1050–1063.
Hamilton, D. L. , Katz, L. B. , & Leirer, V. O. (1980b). Organizational processes in impression formation.
In R. Hastie , T. Ostrom , E. Ebbesen , R. Wyer , D. Hamilton , & D. Carlston (Eds.), Person memory: The
cognitive basis of social perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hartwick, J. (1979). Memory for trait information: A signal detection analysis. Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology, 15, 533–552.
Harvey, J. , Ickes, W. , & Kidd, R. (Eds.). (1976). New directions in attribution research (Vol. 1). Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Harvey, O. J. , Hunt, D. , & Schroder, H. (1961). Conceptual systems and personality organization. New
York: Wiley.
Hastie, R. (1980). Memory for behavioral information that confirms or contradicts a personality
impression. In R. Hastie , T. Ostrom , E. Ebbesen , R. Wyer , D. Hamilton , & D. Carlston (Eds.), Person
memory: The cognitive basis of social perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hastie, R. (1983). Social inference. Annual Review of Psychology, 34, 511–542.
Hastie, R. (1984). Causes and effects of causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
46, 44–56.
Hastie, R. , & Carlston, D. E. (1980). Theoretical issues in person memory. In R. Hastie , T. Ostrom , E.
Ebbesen , R. Wyer , D. Hamilton , & D. Carlston (Eds.), Person memory: The cognitive basis of social
perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hastie, R. , & Kumar, P. A. (1979). Person memory: Personality traits as organizing principles in memory
for behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 25–38.
Hastie, R. , Ostrom, T. M. , Ebbesen, E. B. , Wyer, R. S. , Hamilton, D. L. , & Carlston, D. E. (Eds.)
(1980). Person memory: Cognitive basis of social perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Hastie, R. , & Park, B. (1986). The relationship between memory and judgment depends on whether the
judgment task is memory-based or on-line. Psychological Review, 93, 258–268.
Heider, F. (1946). Attitudes and cognitive organization. Journal of Psychology, 21, 107–112.
Heider, F. (1982). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates. (Originally published 1958)
Helson, H. (1964). Adaptation-level theory. New York: Harper & Row.
Henninger, M. , & Wyer, R. S. (1976). The recognition and elimination of inconsistencies among
syllogistically-related beliefs: Some new light on the “Socratic effect.” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 34, 680–693.
Herr, P. M. , Sherman, S. J. , & Fazio, R. (1983). On the consequences of priming: Assimilation and
contrast effects. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 323–340.
Higgins, E. T. (1981). The “communication game”: Implications for social cognition and persuasion. In E.
T. Higgins , C. P. Herman , & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Social cognition: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 1).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94,
319–340.
Higgins, E. T. , Bargh, J. A. , & Lombardi, W. (1985). The nature of priming effects on categorization.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 59–69.
Higgins, E. T. , & Chaires, W. M. (1980). Accessibility of interrelational constructs: Implications for
stimulus encoding and creativity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16, 348–361.
Higgins, E. T. , Herman, P. C. , Zanna, M. P. (Eds.) (1981). Social cognition: The Ontario Symposium
(Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Higgins, E. T. , King, G. (1981). Accessibility of social constructs: Information processing consequences
of individual and contextual variability. In N. Cantor & J. F. Kihlstrom (Eds.), Personality, cognition and
social interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Higgins, E. T. , & Lurie, L. (1983). Context, categorization and recall: The “change-of-standard” effect.
Cognitive Psychology, 15, 525–547.
Higgins, E. T. , & McCann, C. D. (1984). Social encoding and subsequent attitudes, impressions and
memory: “Context-driven” and motivational aspects of processing. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 47, 26–39.
Higgins, E. T. , McCann, C. D. , & Fondacaro, R. (1982). The “communication game”: Goal-directed
encoding and cognitive consequences. Social Cognition, 1, 21–37.
Higgins, E. T. , Rhodewalt, F. , & Zanna, M. P. (1979). Dissonance motivation: Its nature, persistence,
and reinstatement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 16–34.
Higgins, E.T. , & Rholes, W. S. (1976). Impression formation and role fulfillment: A “holistic reference”
approach. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 422–435.
Higgins, E. T. , & Rholes, W. S. (1978). “Saying is believing”: Effects of message modification on memory
and liking for the person described. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 363–378.
Higgins, E. T. , Rholes, W. S. , & Jones, C. R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 141–154.
Holmes, D. S. (1968). Dimensions of projection. Psychological Bulletin, 69, 248–268.
Holtgraves, T. , Srull, T. K. , & Socall, D. (1989). Conversation memory: The effects of speaker status on
memory for the assertiveness of conversation remarks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56,
149–160.
Holyoak, K. J. , & Gordon, P. C. (1984). Information processing and social cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T.
K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hong, S. , & Wyer, R. S. (1989). Determinants of product evaluations: Country of origin, attributes, and
time delay between information and judgments. Unpublished manuscript, University of Missouri at
Columbia.
Hovland, C. E. , Janis, I. L. , & Kelley, H. H. (1953). Communication and persuasion. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
Ingram, R. E. , Smith, T. W. , & Brehm, S. S. (1983). Depression and information processing: Self-
schemata and the encoding of self-referent information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45,
412–420.
Insko, C. A. (1967). Theories of attitude change. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.
Insko, C. A. (1984). Balance theory, the Jordan paradigm, and the Wiest tetrahedrom. In L. Berkowitz
(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 18). New York: Academic Press.
Isen, A. M. (1984). Affect, cognition, and social behavior. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of
social cognition (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Isen, A. M. , Shalker, T. E. , Clark, M. , & Karp, L. (1978). Affect, accessibility of material in memory, and
behavior: A cognitive loop? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1–12.
Jacoby, L. L. , & Witherspoon, D. (1982). Remembering without awareness. Canadian Journal of
Psychology, 36, 300–324.
James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
Janis, I. L. , & Feshbach, S. (1953). Effects of fear-arousing communications. Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 48, 78–92.
Johnson, E. J. , & Tversky, A. (1983). Affect, generalization and the perception of risk. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 20–31.
Jones, E. E. , Kanouse, D. , Kelley, H. , Nisbett, R. , Valins, S. , & Weiner, B. (Eds.). (1987). Attribution:
Perceiving the causes of behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (Originally published
1971)
Jones, E. E. , & Davis, K. E. (1965). From acts to dispositions: The attributional process in person
perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2). New York:
Academic Press.
Jones, E. E. , & Nisbett, R. E. (1971). The actor and the observer: Divergent perceptions of the causes of
behavior. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Kahneman, D. , Slovic, P. , & Tversky, A. (Eds.). (1982). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and
biases. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kahneman, D. , & Tversky, A. (1971). Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness. Cognitive
Psychology, 3, 430–454.
Kahneman, D. , & Tversky, A. (1973). On the psychology of prediction. Psychological Review, 80,
237–251.
Kahneman, D. , & Tversky, A. (1982). The simulation heuristic. In D. Kahneman , P. Slovic , & A. Tversky
(Eds.), Judgments under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kanouse, D. E. , & Hanson, L. R. (1971). Negativity in evaluations. In E. Jones , D. Kanouse , H. Kelley ,
R. Nisbett , S. Valins , & B. Weiner (Eds.), Attribution:Perceiving the causes of behavior. Morristown, NJ:
General Learning Press.
Keenan, J. M. , & Baillet, S. D. (1980). Memory for personally and socially significant events. In R. S.
Nickerson (Ed.), Attention and performance (Vol. 7). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on
motivation, 15, 192–238.
Kelley, H. H. (1987). Causal schemata and the attribution process. In E. Jones , D. Kanouse , H. Kelley ,
R. Nisbett , S. Valins , & B. Weiner (Eds.), Attribution:Perceiving the causes of behavior. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (Originally published 1971)
Kelly, J. , & Wyer, R. S. (1987). Emotional communication: The effects of recalling personal experiences
in reaction to another’s experience. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Kihlstrom, J. F. , & Cantor, N. (1984). Mental representations of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances
in experimental social psychology (Vol. 15). New York: Academic Press.
Kihlstrom, J. F. , Cantor, N. , Albright, J. S. , Chew, B. R. , Klein, S. B. , & Niedenthal, P. M. (1988).
Information processing and the study of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
psychology (Vol. 19). New York: Academic Press.
Klatzky, R. L. (1975). Human memory: Structures and processes. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Klatsky, R. L. (1984). Visual memory: Definitions and functions. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.),
Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Klein, S.B. , & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1986). Elaboration, organization and the self-reference effect in memory.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 26–38.
Klein, S. B. , & Loftus, J. B. (1987). The nature of self-referent encoding: The contributions of elaborative
and organizational processes. Unpublished manuscript, Trinity University, San Antonio, TX.
Klinger, E. (1971). Structure and functions of fantasy. New York: Wiley.
Klinger, E. (1975). Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives. Psychological
Review, 82, 1–25.
Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people’s lives. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
Kosslyn, S. M. (1980). Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kosslyn, S. M. , & Pomerantz, J. R. (1977). Imagery, propositions and the form of internal
representations. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 52–76.
Kraut, R. E. , & Higgins, E. T. (1984). Communication and social cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull
(Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kruglanski, A. (1980). Lay epistemo-logic—process and contents: Another look at attribution theory.
Psychological Review, 87, 70–87.
Kuiper, N. A. , & Rogers, T. B. (1979). Encoding of personal information: Self-other differences. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 499–512.
Kunst-Wilson, W. R. , & Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be
recognized. Science, 207, 557–558.
Lachman, R. , Lachman, J. L. , & Butterfield, E. C. (1979). Cognitive psychology and information
processing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lambert, A. J. (1987). The effects of stereotypes on social judgments. Unpublished masters thesis,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Lampel, A. K. , & Anderson, N. H. (1968). Combining visual and verbal information in an impression-
formation task. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 1–6.
Langer, E. (1978). Rethinking the role of thought in social interaction. In J. Harvey , W. Ickes , & R. Kidd
(Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Langer, E. , & Abelson, R. P. (1972). The semantics of asking a favor: How to succeed in getting help
without really dying. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 26–32.
Lazarus, R. S. (1982). Thoughts on the relations between emotion and cognition. American Psychologist,
37, 1019–1024.
Leary, T. (1957). Interpersonal diagnosis of personality. New York: Ronald.
Lerner, M. J. , & Simmons, C. H. (1966). Observer’s reaction to the “innocent victim”: Compassion or
rejection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 203–210.
Levine, S. R. , Wyer, R. S. , & Schwarz, N. (1987). Are you what you feel? The affective and cognitive
determinants of self-esteem. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Lichtenstein, E. , & Brewer, W. F. (1980). Memory for goal-directed events. Cognitive Psychology, 12,
412–445.
Lichtenstein, M. , & Srull, T. K. (1985). Conceptual and methodological issues in examining the
relationship between consumer memory and judgment. In L. F. Alwitt & A. A. Mitchell (Eds.),
Psychological processes and advertising effects: Theory, research and application. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lichtenstein, M. , & Srull, T. K. (1987). Processing objectives as a determinant of the relationship
between recall and judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 93–118.
Lichtenstein, S. , Slovic, P. , Fischoff, B. , Layman, M. , & Combs, B. (1978). Judged frequency of lethal
events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 551–578.
Lindsay, P. H. , & Norman, D. A. (1977). Human information processing. New York: Academic Press.
Lingle, J. H. , Altom, M. , & Medin, D. L. (1984). Of cabbages and kings: Assessing the extendability of
natural object concept models to social things. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social
cognition (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lingle, J. H. , & Ostrom, T. M. (1979). Retrieval selectivity in memory-based impression judgments.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 180–194.
Linville, P. W. (1982). Affective consequences of complexity regarding the self and others. In M. S. Clark
& S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Affect and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Locksley, A. , Hepburn, C. , & Ortiz, V. (1982). Social stereotypes and judgments of individuals: An
instance of the base-rate fallacy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 23–42.
Loftus, E. F. , & Marburger, W. (1983). Since the eruption of Mt. St. Helens, has anyone beaten you up?
Improving the accuracy of retrospective reports with landmark events. Memory & Cognition, 11, 114–120.
Loken, B. A. (1984). Attitude processing strategies. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20,
272–296.
Loken, B. A. , & Wyer, R. S. (1983). Effects of reporting beliefs in syllogistically related propositions on
the recognition of unmentioned propositions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 306–322.
Lombardi, W. J. , Higgins, E.T. , & Bargh, J. A. (1987). The role of consciousness in priming effects on
categorization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 411–429.
Malamuth, N. M. , & Donnerstein, E. (1982). The effects of aggressive-pornographic mass media stimuli.
In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 15). New York: Academic Press.
Mandler, G. (1975). Consciousness: Respectable, useful, and probably necessary. In R. Solso (Ed.),
Information processing and cognition: The Loyola Symposium. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and body. New York: Norton.
Mandler, J. M. , & Johnson, N. S. (1977). Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall.
Cognitive Psychology, 9, 111–151.
Markus, H. (1977). Self-schemas and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 35, 63–78.
Markus, H. , Crane, M. , Bernstein, S. , & Siladi, M. (1982). Self-schemas and gender. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 38–50.
Markus, H. , & Fong, G. (1976). The role of self in other perceptions. Unpublished manuscript, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Markus, H. , & Sentis, K. (1982). The self in social information processing . In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological
perspectives on the self (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Markus, M. , & Smith, J. (1981). The influence of self-schemata on the perception of others. In N. Cantor
& J. F. Kihlstrom (Eds.), Personality, cognition, and social interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Markus, H. , Smith, J. , & Moreland, R. L. (1979). Self schemas and other perceptions. Paper presented
at the American Psychological Association Convention, New York.
Martin, L. L. (1985). Categorization and differentiation: A set, reset, comparison analysis of the effects of
context on person perception. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Martin, L. L. (1986). Set/Reset: The use and disuse of concepts in impression formation. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 493–504.
Massad, C. M. , Hubbard, M. , & Newtson, D. (1979). Perceptual selectivity: Contributing process and
possible cure for impression perseverance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 513–532.
McClelland, D. C. , Atkinson, J. W. , Clark, R. A. , & Lowell, E. L. (1953). The achievement motive. New
York: Appleton-Century Crofts.
McGrath, J. E. , & Kelly, J. E. (1986). Time and human interaction: Toward a social psychology of time.
New York: Guilford.
McGuire, W. J. (1960). A syllogistic analysis of cognitive relationships. In M. J. Rosenberg , C. I. Hovland
, W. J. McGuire , R. P. Abelson , J. W. Brehm (Eds.), Attitude organization and change. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
McGuire, W. J. (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion: Some contemporary approaches. In L.
Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press.
McGuire, W. J. (1968). The nature of attitudes and attitude change. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.),
Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 3). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
McGuire, W. J. (1972). Attitude change: An information processing paradigm. In C. G. McClintock (Ed.),
Experimental social psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
McGuire, W. J. (1981). The probabilogical model of cognitive structure and attitude change. In R. Petty ,
T. Brock , & T. Ostrom (Eds.), Cognitive responses inpersuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
McGuire, W. J. (1985). Attitudes and attitude change. In G. Lindsey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of
social psychology (Vol. 2, 3rd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
McGuire, W. J. , & McGuire, C. V. (1980). Salience of handedness in the spontaneous self-concept.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 50, 3–7.
McGuire, W. J. , & McGuire, C. V. (1981). The spontaneous self-concept as affected by personal
distinctiveness. In M. D. Lynch , A. Norem-Hebeisen , & K. Gergen (Eds)., The self-concept. New York:
Ballinger.
McGuire, W. J. , & McGuire, C. V. (1982). Significant others in self-space: Sex differences and
developmental trends in the self. In J. Suls (Ed.), Social psychological perspectives on the self. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McGuire, W. J. , & McGuire, C. V. (1986). Differences in conceptualizing self versus conceptualizing
other people as manifested in contrasting verb types used in natural speech. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 51, 1135–1143.
McGuire, W. J. , & McGuire, C. V. (1987). Content and process in the experience of self. In L. Berkowitz
(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20). New York: Academic Press.
McGuire, W. J. , McGuire, C. V. , Child, P. , & Fujioka, T. (1978). Salience of ethnicity in the spontaneous
self-concept as a function of one’s ethnic distinctiveness in the social environment. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 36, 511–520.
McGuire, W. J. , McGuire, C. V. , & Winton, W. (1979). Effects of household sex composition on the
salience of one’s gender in the spontaneous self-concept. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15,
77–90.
McGuire, W. J. , & Padawer-Singer, A. (1976). Trait salience in the spontaneous self-concept. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 743–754.
Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Medin, D. L. , & Smith, E. E. (1981). Strategies and classification learning. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 7, 241–253.
Miller, G. A. , Galanter, E. , & Pribram, K. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
Miller, N. E. , & Campbell, D. T. (1959). Recency and primacy in persuasion as a function of the timing of
speeches and measurements. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 1–9.
Miller, N. E. (1959). Liberalization of basic S-R concepts: Extensions to conflict behavior, motivation, and
social learning. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: Study of a science (Vol. 2). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Monson, T. C. , & Snyder, M. (1977). Actors, observers and the attribution process: Toward a
reconceptualization. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 89–111.
Moreland, R. L. , & Zajonc, R. B. (1977). Is stimulus recognition a necessary condition for the occurrence
of exposure effects? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 191–199.
Moreland, R. , & Zajonc, R. (1979). Exposure effects may not depend on stimulus recognition. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1085–1089.
Newman, J. , Wolfe, W. T. , & Hearst, E. (1980). The feature-positive effect in adult human subjects.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 630–650.
Newtson, D. A. (1973). Attribution and the unit of perception of ongoing behavior. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 28, 28–38.
Newtson, D. A. (1976). Foundations of attribution: The perception of ongoing behavior. In J. Harvey , W.
Ickes , & R. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Newtson, D. A. , & Engquist, G. (1976). The perceptual organization of ongoing behavior. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 436–450.
Newtson, D. A. , Engquist, G. , & Bois, J. (1977). The objective basis of behavior units. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 847–862.
Nisbett, R. E. , Caputo, C. , Legant, P. , & Maracek, J. (1973). Behavior as seen by the actor and as seen
by the observer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 154–164.
Nisbett, R. E. , & Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Nisbett, R. E. , & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental
processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259.
Norman, D. A. , & Bobrow, D. G. (1976). On the role of active memory processes in perception and
cognition. In C. W. Cofer (Ed.), The structure of human memory. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Norman, D. A. , & Bobrow, D. G. (1979). Descriptions: An intermediate stage in memory retrieval.
Cognitive Psychology, 11, 107–123.
Nottenburg, G. , & Shoben, E. J. (1980). Scripts as linear orders. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 16, 329–347.
Orne, M. T. (1962). On the social psychology of the psychological experiment: With particular reference
to demand characteristics and their implications. American Psychologist, 17, 776–783.
Ortony, A. , Clore, G. L. , & Collins, A. M. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Osgood, C. E. , & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1955). The principle of congruity in the prediction of attitude
change. Psychological Review, 62, 42–55.
Osterhouse, R. A. , & Brock, T. C. (1970). Distraction increases yielding to propaganda by inhibiting
counterarguing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 344–358.
Ostrom, T. M. , Pryor, J. B. , & Simpson, D. D. (1981). The organization of social information. In E. T.
Higgins , C. P. Herman , & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Social cognition: The Ontario Symposium. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ostrom, T. M. , & Upshaw, H. S. (1968). Psychological perspective and attitude change. In A. G.
Greenwald , T. C. Brock , & T. M. Ostrom (Eds.), Psychological foundations of attitudes. New York:
Academic Press.
Ottati, V. , Riggle, E. , Wyer, R. S. , Schwarz, N. , & Kuklinski, J. (1989). The cognitive and effective
bases of opinion survey responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, in press.
Parducci, A. (1965). Category judgment: A range-frequency model. Psychological Review, 72, 407–418.
Park, B. , & Rothbart, M. (1982). Perception of out-group homogeneity and levels of social categorization:
Memory for the subordinate attributes of in-group and out-group members. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 42, 1051–1068.
Parrott, G. , & Sabini, J. (1989). Mood and memory under natural conditions. Unpublished manuscript,
Georgetown University.
Pennington, N. (1986). Story structures in evidence evaluation. Paper presented at the Conference on
juror decision making, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.
Pennington, N. , & Hastie, R. (1985). Causal reasoning in decision making. Unpublished manuscript,
University of Chicago, Chicago, IL.
Pennington, N. , & Hastie, R. (1986a). Evidence evaluation in complex decision making. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 242–258.
Pennington, N. , & Hastie, R. (1986b). Explaining the evidence: Tests of the story model for juror decision
making. Unpublished manuscript, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL.
Petty, R. E. , & Brock, T.C. (1981). Thought disruption of persuasion: Assessing the validity of attitude
change experiments. In R. E. Petty , T. M. Ostrom , & T. C. Brock (Eds.), Cognitive responses in
persuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Petty, R. E. , & Cacioppo, J. T. (1981). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches.
Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown.
Petty, R. E. , & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to
attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Petty, R. E. , Ostrom, T. M. , & Brock, T. C. (Eds.). (1981). Cognitive responses in persuasion. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Picek, J. S. , Sherman, S. J. , & Shiffrin, R. M. (1975). Cognitive organization and coding of social
structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 758–768.
Pryor, J. B. , Simpson, D. D. , Mitchell, M. , Ostrom, T. M. , & Lydon, J. (1982). Structural selectivity in the
retrieval of social information. Social Cognition, 1, 336–357.
Raaijmakers, J. G. W. , & Shiffrin, R. M. (1980). SAM: A theory of probabilistic search of associative
memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 14). New York: Academic
Press.
Raaijmakers, J. G. W. , & Shiffrin, R. M. (1981). Search of associative memory. Psychological Review,
88, 93–134.
Read, S. (1987). Constructing causal scenarios: A knowledge structure approach to causal reasoning.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 288–302.
Read, S. , Druian, P. , & Miller, L. (1985). The role of causal sequence in the meaning of actions.
Unpublished manuscript, University of Southern California.
Reed, S. K. (1973). Psychological processes in pattern recognition. New York: Academic Press.
Regan, D. , & Totten, J. (1975). Empathy and attribution: Turning observers into actors. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 850–856.
Revlin, R. , & Mayer, R. E. (1978). Human reasoning. Washington, DC: Winston.
Riggle, E. D. , Ottati, V. C. , Wyer, R. S. , Kuklinski, J. , & Schwarz, N. (1989). Bases of political
judgments: The role of a candidate’s physical attractiveness, party membership, and voting record.
Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinios at Urbana-Champaign.
Rogers, T. B. (1981). A model of the self as an aspect of the human information processing system. In N.
Cantor & J. F. Kihlstrom (Eds.), Personality, cognition, and social interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Rogers, T. B. , Kuiper, N. A. , & Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal
information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 677–688.
Rogers, T. B. , Kuiper, N. A. , & Rogers, P. J. (1979). Symbolic distance and congruity effects for paired-
comparison judgments of degree of self-reference. Journal of Research in Personality, 13, 433–449.
Rokeach, M. (1960). The open and closed mind. New York: Basic Books.
Rosch, E. H. (1973). On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories. In T. E. Moore
(Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language. New York: Academic Press.
Rosch, E. H. , & Lloyd, B. B. (Eds.). (1978). Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Roseman, I. (1979). Cognitive aspects of emotion and emotional behavior. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York.
Rosen, N. A. , & Wyer, R. S. (1972). Some further evidence for the “Socratic effect” using a subjective
probability model of cognitive organization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 420–424.
Rosenberg, S. , & Sedlak, A. (1972). Structural representations of implicit personality theory. In L.
Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10). New York: Academic Press.
Rosenthal, R. , & Rosnow, R. L. (Eds.). (1969). Artifact in behavioral research. New York: Academic
Press.
Ross, B. H. (1984). Remindings and their effects in learning a familiar skill. Cognitive Psychology, 16,
371–416.
Ross, B. H. (1986). Remindings in learning and instruction. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois,
Urbana-Champaign.
Ross, L. , Greene, D. , & House, P. (1977). The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social
perception asnd attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 279–301.
Ross, L. , Lepper, M. , & Hubbard, M. (1975). Perseverance in self-perception and social perception:
Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
32, 880–892.
Ross, L. , Lepper, M. R. , Strack, F. , & Steinmetz, J. (1977). Social explanation and social expectation:
Effects of real and hypothetical explanations on subjective likelihood. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 35, 817–829.
Rubin, D. S. (Ed.). (1986). Autobiographical memory. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Introduction to human information processing. New York: Wiley.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1984). Schemata and the cognitive system. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.),
Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rumelhart, D. E. , & Ortony, A. (1977). The representation of knowledge in memory. In R. C. Anderson ,
R. J. Spiro , & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rundus, D. (1971). Analysis of rehearsal processes in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
89, 63–77.
Rundus, D. (1973). Negative effects of using list items as recall cues. Journal of Verbal Learning and
Verbal Behavior, 12, 43–50.
Salancik, G. R. (1974). Inference of one’s attitude from behavior recalled under linguistically manipulated
cognitive sets. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 415–427.
Salancik, G. R. , & Calder, B. J. (1974). A non-predispositional information analysis of attitude
expressions. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL.
Salancik, G. R. , & Conway, M. (1975). Attitude inferences from salient and relevant cognitive content
about behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 829–840.
Schachter, S. (1964). The interaction of cognitive and physiological determinants of emotional state. In L.
Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental social psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press.
Schachter, S. , & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state.
Psychological Review, 69, 379–399.
Schank, R. C. (1972). Conceptual dependency: A theory of natural language understanding. Cognitive
Psychology, 3, 552–631.
Schank, R. C. (1975). The structure of episodes in memory. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.),
Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic Press.
Schank, R. C. (1982). Dynamic memory: A theory of reminding in computers and people. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Schank, R. C. , & Ableson, R. P. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Scheier, M. F. , & Carver, C. S. (1980). Private and public self-attention, resistance to change, and
dissonance reduction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 390–405.
Schneider, W. , & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I.
Detection, research and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1–66.
Schul, Y. , & Burnstein, E. (1985). When discounting fails: Conditions under which individuals use
discredited information in making a judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49,
894–903.
Schwarz, N. , & Clore, G. L. (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being. Informative and
directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513–523.
Schwarz, N. , & Clore, G. L. (1987). How do I feel about it? The informative function of affective states. In
K. Fiedler & J. Forgas (Eds.), Affect, cognition and social behavior. Toronto: Hogrefe International.
Schwarz, N. , Hippler, H. J. , Deutsch, B. , & Strack, F. (1985). Response scales: Effects on behavioral
reports and comparative judgments. Public Opinion Quarterly, 49, 388–395.
Schwarz, N. , & Scheuring, B. (1986). Inter- and intraindividual comparisons: A function of questionnaire
structure? Paper presented at meetings of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
Schwarz, N. , & Strack, F. (1981). Manipulating salience: Causal assessment in natural settings.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, 554–558.
Schwarz, N. , Strack, F. , Kommer, D. , & Wagner, D. (1987). Soccer, rooms, and the quality of your life:
Mood effects on judgments of satisfaction with life in general and with specific life domains. European
Journal of Social Psychology, 17, 69–79.
Schwarz, N. , & Wyer, R. S. (1985). Effects of rank ordering stimuli on magnitude ratings of these and
other stimuli. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 30–46.
Scott, W. A. (1963). Conceptualizing and measuring structural properties of cognition. In O. J. Harvey
(Ed.), Motivation and social interaction. New York: Ronald Press.
Scott, W. A. (1969). Structure of natural cognitions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12,
261–278.
Selfridge, O. (1959). Pandemonium: A paradigm for learning. In Symposium on the mechanization of
thought processes. London: HM Stationary Office.
Sentis, K. P. , & Burnstein, E. (1979). Remembering schema-consistent information: Effects on a balance
schema on recognition memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 2200–2212.
Sherif, M. , & Hovland, C. I. (1961). Social judgment. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Sherman, S. J. , Ahlm, K. , Berman, L. , & Lynn, S. (1978). Contrast effects and the relationship to
subsequent behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 340–350.
Sherman, S. J. , Cialdini, R. B. , Schwartzman, D. F. , & Reynolds, K. D. (1982). Imagining can heighten
or lower the perceived likelihood of contracting a disease: The mediating effect of ease of imagery.
Unpublished manuscript, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.
Sherman, S. J. , & Corty, E. (1984). Cognitive heuristics. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of
social cognition (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sherman, S. J. , Skov, R. B. , Hervitz, E. F. , & Stock, C. B. (1981). The effects of explaining hypothetical
future events: From possibility to probability to actuality and beyond. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 17, 142–158.
Sherman, S. J. , Zehner, K. S. , Johnson, J. , & Hirt, E. R. (1983). Social explanation: The role of timing,
set, and recall on subjective likelihood estimates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44,
1127–1143.
Smith, E. E. (1978). Theories of semantic memory. In W. K. Estes (Ed.), Handbook of learning and
cognitive processes (Vol. 6). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Smith, E. E. , Adams, N. , & Schorr, D. (1978). Fact retrieval and the paradox of interference. Cognitive
Psychology, 10, 438–464.
Smith, E. E. , & Medin, D. L. (1981). Categories and concepts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Smith, E. E. , Shoben, E. J. , & Rips, L. J. (1974). Structure and process in semantic memory: A featural
model for semantic decisions. Psychological Review, 81, 214–241.
Smith, E. R. (1984). Models of social inference processes. Psychological Review, 91, 392–413.
Smith, S. M. , Glenberg, A. , & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Environmental context and human memory. Memory &
Cognition, 6, 342–353.
Snyder, M. , & Cantor, N. (1979). Testing hypotheses about other people: The use of historical
knowledge. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 330–342.
Snyder, M. , & Swann, W. B. (1978). Hypothesis-testing processes in social interaction. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1201–1212.
Snyder, M. , & Uranowitz, S. W. (1978). Reconstructing the past: Some cognitive consequences of
person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 941–950.
Snygg, R. L. , & Combs, A. W. (1949). Individual behavior. New York: Harper & Row.
Solomon, R. L. , & Corbit, J. D. (1974). An opponent-process theory of motivation: I. Temporal dynamics
of affect. Psychological Review, 81, 119–145.
Sorrentino, R. , & Higgins, E. T. (Eds.). (1986). Handbook of motivation and cognition. New York: Guilford
Press.
Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs,
74, 1–29.
Spiro, R. J. (1977). Remembering information from text: The “state of schema” approach. In R. C.
Anderson , R. J. Spiro , & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Srull, T. K. (1981). Person memory: Some tests of associative storage and retrieval models. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 7, 440–463.
Srull, T. K. (1983). Organizational and retrieval processes in person memory: An examination of
processing objectives, presentation format, and the possible role of self-generated retrieval cues. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1157–1170.
Srull, T. K. (1984). Methodological techniques for the study of person memory and social cognition. In R.
S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Srull, T. K. , & Brand, J. F. (1983). Memory for information about persons: The effect of encoding
operations on subsequent retrieval. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 219–230.
Srull, T. K. , & Gaelick, L. (1983). General principles and individual differences in the self as a habitual
reference point: An examination of self-other judgments of similarity. Social Cognition, 2, 108–121.
Srull, T. K. , Lichtenstein, M. , & Rothbart, M. (1985). Associative storage and retrieval processes in
person memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 316–345.
Srull, T. K. , & Wyer, R. S. (1979). The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information
about persons: Some determinants and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37,
1660–1672.
Srull, T. K. , & Wyer, R. S. (1980). Category accessibility and social perception: Some implications for the
study of person memory and interpersonal judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38,
841–856.
Srull, T. K. , & Wyer, R. S. (1983). The role of control processes and structural constraints in models of
memory and social judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 497–521.
Srull, T. K. , & Wyer, R. S. (1986). The role of chronic and temporary goals in social information
processing. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition. New York:
Guilford.
Stein, N. L. , & Glenn, C. G. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. In
R. O. Freedle (Ed.), New directions in discourse processing. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Steiner, I. D. (1968). Reaction to adverse and favorable evaluation of one’s self. Journal of Personality,
36, 553–563.
Stern, L. D. , Marrs, S. , Millar, M. G. , & Cole, E. (1984). Processing time and the recall of inconsistent
and consistent behaviors of individuals and groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47,
253–262.
Storms, M. (1973). Videotape and the attribution process: Reversing actors’ and observers’ point of view.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 165–175.
Strack, F. , & Martin, L. L. (1987). Thinking, judging, and communicating: Aprocess account of context
effects in attitude surveys. In H. J. Hippler , N. Schwarz , & S. Sudman (Eds.), Cognitive aspects of
survey methodology. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Strack, F. , Martin, L. L. , & Schwarz, N. (1987). The context paradox in attitude surveys: Assimilation or
contrast? Unpublished manuscript, University of Mannheim, Germany.
Strack, F. , Martin, L. L. , & Stepper, S. (1988). Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: A
non-obtrusive test of the facial-feedback hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54,
768–777.
Strack, F. , Schwarz, N. , & Gschneidinger, E. (1985). Happiness and reminiscing: The role of time
perspective, affect, and mode of thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1460–1469.
Tannenbaum, P. H. (1967). The congruity principle revisited: Studies in the reduction, induction and
generalization of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 3).
New York: Academic Press.
Taylor, S. E. , & Fiske, S. T. (1978). Salience, attention, and attribution: Top of the head phenomena. In
L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 11). New York: Academic Press.
Taylor, S. E. , Fiske, S. T. , Close, M. M. , Anderson, C. E. , & Ruderman, A. (1974). Solo status as a
psychological variable. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Los Angeles, CA.
Thompson, W. C. , Fong, G. T. , & Rosenhan, D. L. (1981). Inadmissible evidence and juror verdicts.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 453–463.
Thurstone, L. L. (1959). The measurement of values. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Trafimow, D. , & Srull, T. K. (1986). The situation specificity of mental representations of another.
Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL.
Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory . In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization
and memory. New York: Academic Press.
Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of episodic memory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Tulving, E. , Schacter, D. L. , & Stark, H. A. (1982). Priming effects in word-fragment completion are
independent of recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and
Cognition, 8, 336–342.
Tversky, A. (1977). Features of similarity. Psychological Review, 84, 327–352.
Tversky, A. , & Gati, I. (1978). Studies of similarity. In E. Rosch & B. B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and
categorization. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tversky, A. , & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability.
Cognitive Psychology, 5, 207–232.
Tversky, A. , & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185,
1124–1131.
Tzeng, O. J. L. (1973). Positive recency effect in delayed free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and
Verbal Behavior, 12, 436–493.
Upshaw, H. S. (1962). Own attitude as an anchor in equal-appearing intervals. Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 64, 85–96.
Upshaw, H. S. (1965). The effect of variable perspectives on judgments of opinion statements for
Thurstone scales: Equal-appearing intervals. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 64, 85–96.
Upshaw, H. S. (1969). The personal reference scale: An approach to social judgment. In L. Berkowitz
(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4). New York: Academic Press.
Upshaw, H. S. (1978). Social influence on attitudes and on anchoring of congeneric attitude scales.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 327–339.
Warr, P. , Barter, J. , & Brownbridge, G. (1983). On the independence of positive and negative attitudes.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 644–651.
Warrington, E. K. , & Weiskrantz, L. (1974). The effect of prior learning on subsequent retention in
amnesic patients. Neuropsychologia, 6, 283–291.
Wason, P. C. (1968). Reasoning about a rule. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20,
273–281.
Watkins, M. J. , & Peynicrioglu, Z. F. (1983). Three recency effects at the same time. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 275–384.
Weber, R. , & Crocker, J. (1983). Cognitive processes in the revision of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 961–977.
White, G. L. , Fishbein, S. , & Rutstein, J. (1981). Passionate love and the misattribution of arousal.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 56–62.
Wicklund, R. A. (1975). Objective self-awareness. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
psychology (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.
Wicklund, R. A. , & Brehm, J. W. (1976). Perspectives on cognitive dissonance. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Williams, M. , & Hollan, J. D. (1981). The process of retrieval from very long-term memory. Cognitive
Science, 5, 87–119.
Wilson, W. R. (1979). Feeling more than we can know: Exposure effects without learning. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 811–821.
Wilson, T. D. , & Nisbett, R. E. (1978). The accuracy of verbal reports about the effects of stimuli on
evaluations and behavior. Social Psychology, 41, 118–131.
Winter, L. , & Uleman, J. S. (1984). When are social judgments made? Evidence for the
spontaneousness of trait inferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 237–252.
Winter, L. , & Uleman, J. S. , & Cunniff, C. (1985). How automatic are social judgments? Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 904–917.
Wyer, R. S. (1970a). Information redundancy, inconsistency and novelty and their role in impression
formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 6, 111–127.
Wyer, R. S. (1970b). The prediction of evaluations of social role occupants as a function of the
favorableness, relevance and probability associated with attributes of these occupants. Sociometry, 33,
79–96.
Wyer, R. S. (1970c). The quantitative prediction of belief and opinion change: A further test of a
subjective probability model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 559–571.
Wyer, R. S. (1972). Test of a subjective probability model of social evaluation processes. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 279–286.
Wyer, R. S. (1973). Category ratings as “subjective expected values”: Implications for attitude formation
and change. Psychological Review, 80, 446–467.
Wyer, R. S. (1974). Cognitive organization and change: An information-processing approach. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wyer, R. S. (1975). Functional measurement analysis of a subjective probability model of cognitive
functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 94–100.
Wyer, R. S. (1976). An investigation of the relations among probability estimates. Organizational Behavior
and Human Performance, 15, 1–18.
Wyer, R. S. (1977). The role of logical and nonlogical factors in making inferences about category
membership. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 577–595.
Wyer, R. S. (1981). An information-processing perspective on social attribution. In J. Harvey , W. Ickes ,
& R. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Wyer, R. S. , & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1985). Event memory: The effects of processing objectives and time
delay on memory for action sequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 304–316.
Wyer, R. S. , Bodenhausen, G. V. , & Gorman, T. F. (1985). Cognitive mediators of reactions to rape.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 324–338.
Wyer, R. S. , Bodenhausen, G. V. , & Srull, T. K. (1984). The cognitive representation of persons and
groups and its effect on recall and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20,
445–469.
Wyer, R. S. , & Budesheim, T. L. (1987). Person memory and judgments: The impact of information that
one is told to disregard. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 14–29.
Wyer, R. S. , Budesheim, T. L. , & Lambert, A. J. (1989). Person memory and judgment: The cognitive
representation of informal conversation. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign.
Wyer, R. S. , Budesheim, T. L. , Lambert, A. J. , & Martin, L. L. (1989). Person memory: The priorities that
govern the cognitive activities involved in person impression formation. Unpublished manuscript,
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL.
Wyer, R. S. , & Carlston, D. E. (1979). Social cognition, inference and attribution. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Wyer, R. S. , & Goldberg, L. (1970). A probabilistic analysis of the relationships among beliefs and
attitudes. Psychological Review, 77, 100–120.
Wyer, R. S. , & Gordon, S. E. (1982). The recall of information about persons and groups. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 128–164.
Wyer, R. S. , & Gordon, S. E. (1984). The cognitive representation of social information. In R. S. Wyer &
T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wyer, R. S. , & Hartwick, J. (1980). The role of information retrieval and conditional inference processes
in belief formation and change. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol.
13). New York: Academic Press.
Wyer, R. S. , & Hartwick, J. (1984). The recall and use of belief statements as bases for judgments:
Some determinants and implications. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 65–85.
Wyer, R. S. , & Martin, L. L. (1986). Person memory: The role of traits, group stereotypes and specific
behaviors in the cognitive representation of persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50,
661–675.
Wyer, R. S. , & Ottati, V. C. (in press). Political information processing. In S. Iyengar & W. J. McGuire
(Eds.), Current approaches to political psychology. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Wyer, R. S. , & Schwartz, S. (1969). Some contingencies in the effects of the source of a communication
upon the evaluation of that communication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 1–9.
Wyer, R. S. , Shoben, E. J. , Fuhrman, R. F. , & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1985). Event memory: The
cognitive representation of social action sequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49,
857–877.
Wyer, R. S. , & Srull, T. K. (1980). The processing of social stimulus information: A conceptual
integration. In R. Hastie , T. Ostrom , E. Ebbesen , R. Wyer , D. Hamilton , & D. Carlston (Eds.), Person
memory: The cognitive basis of social perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wyer, R. S. , & Srull, T. K. (Eds.). (1984). Handbook of social cognition (Vols. 1, 2, and 3). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wyer, R. S. , & Srull, T. K. (1986). Human cognition in its social context. Psychological Review, 93,
322–359.
Wyer, R. S. , & Srull, T. K. (1988). Understanding social knowledge: if only the data could speak for
themselves. In D. Bartal & A., Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology at knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wyer, R. S. , & Srull, T. K. , & Gordon, S. E. (1984). The effects of predicting a person’s behavior on
subsequent trait judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 29–46.
Wyer, R. S. , Srull, T. K. , & Gordon, S. E. , & Hartwick, J. (1982). The effects of taking a perspective on
the recall of prose material. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 674–688.
Wyer, R. S. , Strack, F. , & Fuhrman, R. W. (1988). Erwerb von Informationen uber Personen: Einflusse
von Aufgabenstellung und personlichen Erwartungen. Zeitschrift fur experimentelle und angewandte
Psychologie, 35, 657–688.
Wyer, R. S. , & Unverzagt, W. H. (1985). The effects of instructions to disregard information on its
subsequent recall and use in making judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48,
533–549.
Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35,
151–175.
Zajonc, R. B. , & Markus, H. (1984). Affect and cognition: The hard interface. In C. E. Izard , J. Kagan , &
R. B. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotion, cognition and behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Zanna, M. P. , & Cooper, J. (1974). Dissonance and the pill: An attribution approach to studying the
arousal properties of dissonance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 703–709.
Zanna, M. P. , & Cooper, J. (1976). Dissonance and the attribution process. In J. Harvey , W. Ickes , & R.
Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Zillmann, D. (1983). Connections between sex and aggression. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Zillmann, D. (1978). Attribution and misattribution of excitatory reactions. In J. H. Harvey , W. Ickes , & R.
Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.