Detailed Explanation of Compiler Design Syllabus

UNIT I: Introduction (15 Instruction Hours)

1. Compilers:

A compiler is a specialized program that translates high-level programming languages (like C,

Java, or Python) into machine code or intermediate code that the computer's processor can

execute. Compilers are essential tools for creating software from source code.

2. Analysis of the Source Program:

- Lexical Analysis: The compiler first breaks down the source program into tokens (basic building

blocks like keywords, operators, and identifiers).

- Syntax Analysis: Then, it checks whether the sequence of tokens follows the syntax rules of the

programming language.

- Semantic Analysis: Finally, it ensures that the program makes logical sense (e.g., type

compatibility, variable declarations, etc.).

3. Phases of a Compiler:

A compiler operates in several phases:

- Lexical Analysis: Divides the source code into tokens.

- Syntax Analysis: Validates the token sequence using grammar.

- Semantic Analysis: Verifies the meaning of the code.

- Intermediate Code Generation: Produces an intermediate representation that is easier to

optimize and translate into machine code.

- Code Optimization: Improves the performance of the generated code.

 - Code Generation: Converts the intermediate code into the machine code or assembly.

4. Cousins of the Compiler:

Other tools related to compilers, such as assemblers (translate assembly to machine code), linkers

(combine multiple object files into a single executable), and loaders (load the executable into

memory for execution).

5. Grouping of Phases:

The phases of a compiler can be grouped into:

- Analysis Phases: Lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis.

- Synthesis Phases: Code generation and optimization.

6. Compiler Construction Tools:

Tools like Lex (for lexical analysis) and Yacc (for syntax analysis) help automate the process of

building compilers.

7. Lexical Analysis:

- This phase scans the source program and splits it into meaningful tokens, which makes it easier

for the parser to analyze the program's structure.

8. Role of Lexical Analyzer:

- The lexical analyzer scans the source code and groups characters into tokens, removing

unnecessary spaces and comments.

9. Issues in Lexical Analysis:

- Some challenges include efficiently handling large input programs, detecting errors, and
managing keywords and identifiers that might overlap.

10. Input Buffering (ICT):

- Input buffering is used to manage large streams of input efficiently, typically by storing chunks of

data in memory buffers.

11. Specification of Tokens:

- Tokens are defined using regular expressions. These patterns describe the syntactic form of

tokens in the language.

UNIT II: Different Types of Parsing (15 Instruction Hours)

1. Role of Parser:

- The parser takes a sequence of tokens and determines whether the sequence conforms to the

language's grammar. It constructs a parse tree, which represents the syntactic structure of the

program.

2. Writing Grammars:

- A grammar consists of rules that describe the structure of valid sentences in a language.

Context-Free Grammar (CFG) is commonly used to define programming language syntax.

3. Context-Free Grammars (CFG):

- A type of grammar where the left-hand side of each rule consists of a single non-terminal symbol.

It is used to define the syntax rules of many programming languages.

4. Types of Parsing:
 - Top-Down Parsing: Starts with the start symbol and recursively breaks it down to match the input

tokens.

- Recursive Descent Parsing: A set of recursive procedures, one for each non-terminal in the

grammar.

- Predictive Parsing: A form of recursive descent parsing that uses a lookahead symbol to make

decisions about which rule to apply.

- Bottom-Up Parsing: Builds the parse tree from the leaves upwards by applying grammar rules in

reverse.

- Shift-Reduce Parsing: Involves shifting tokens onto a stack and then reducing them using

grammar rules.

- Operator Precedence Parsing: A technique that deals with operator precedence (priority

between operators) in expressions.

5. LR Parsing:

- LR Parser: A type of bottom-up parser that reads input left to right and produces a rightmost

derivation.

- SLR Parser: Simple LR parser, which is a simplified version of the LR parser using a parsing

table.

- Canonical LR Parser: More powerful, capable of handling a wider range of grammars.

UNIT III: Intermediate Code Generation (15 Instruction Hours)

1. Intermediate Languages:

- Intermediate code acts as a bridge between the high-level source code and machine code. It is
easier to optimize and can be generated from any language.

2. Types of Three-Address Statements:

- Three-address code typically consists of operations involving three operands (e.g., x = a + b),

where a and b are operands, and x is the result.

3. Syntax-Directed Translation:

- Each syntax rule in the grammar is associated with a semantic action that generates the

corresponding intermediate code.

4. Implementation of Three-Address Statements:

- Involves translating operations (like assignments and expressions) into three-address code.

5. Boolean Expressions:

- Translates logical conditions into three-address code.

6. Case Statements:

- Special handling is required for translating case statements into efficient code.

7. Backpatching:

- A technique used to modify intermediate code later in the compilation process, typically used for

handling jumps or procedure calls.

UNIT IV: Code Generation (15 Instruction Hours)

1. Issues in Code Generator Design:

 - The code generator must consider factors like target machine architecture, instruction set,

memory management, and optimization.

2. The Target Machine:

- The machine or architecture for which the code is being generated. For example, an RISC

machine may have a simpler instruction set compared to a CISC machine.

3. Runtime Storage Management:

- Managing memory during program execution. This includes managing stack frames and heap

memory for dynamic allocation.

4. Basic Blocks and Flow Graphs (ICT):

- Basic Blocks: Sequences of instructions without control flow (no jumps).

- Flow Graphs: Graphs representing control flow, with nodes representing basic blocks and edges

representing the flow between them.

5. Transformation of Basic Blocks:

- Simplifying the sequence of instructions in basic blocks for efficiency.

6. A Simple Code Generator:

- Generates code directly from the intermediate code, taking into account the target machine's

instruction set.

7. DAG Representation of Basic Blocks:

- Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) are used to represent expressions and eliminate redundant

calculations.
8. Peephole Optimization:

- A local optimization technique that improves the quality of the generated code by replacing

suboptimal instruction sequences with more efficient ones.

UNIT V: Optimization (15 Instruction Hours)

1. Introduction to Optimization:

- Optimization improves the performance of the generated code by reducing its time complexity or

memory usage.

2. Principles of Optimization:

- Optimization techniques focus on reducing redundant operations, improving execution time, and

enhancing memory efficiency.

3. Optimization of Basic Blocks:

- Optimizes individual basic blocks by eliminating unnecessary instructions or simplifying

operations.

4. Global Data Flow Analysis:

- Involves analyzing data flow across the entire program to optimize it globally (across multiple

basic blocks).

5. Runtime Environments (ICT):

- Runtime Environment refers to the memory structures and mechanisms that support program

execution, including the stack, heap, and registers.

6. Storage Organization and Allocation Strategies:

- Static Allocation: Memory is allocated at compile time.

- Dynamic Allocation: Memory is allocated during runtime (e.g., for dynamic arrays or linked lists).

7. Access to Non-local Names:

- Handles variables in different scopes, including global and local variables.

8. Parameter Passing:

- Techniques for passing parameters to functions (e.g., by value, by reference, or by name).