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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials
ELSEVIER
journal homepage: www.clsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Effect of temperature on geopolymer and Portland cement composites
modified with Micro-encapsulated Phase Change materials ar
Shima Pilehvar*, Susana G. Sanfelix*”, Anna M. Szczotok’, Juan Francisco Rodriguez‘, Luca Valentini“,
Marcos Lanzén*, Ramén Pamies', Anna-Lena Kjoniksen **
Hoc of Egicering aol Universi Clee PO. Bae 700, 1757 Helden. Norway
* epartanente de Quin orgie nies de Malaga, Campus Terns sn. 29071 Malaga, Spain
“Departmen of Chena Engineering Univesity of Csi = La Manca, 15004 Cad Real Spa
“Deparoent of Geoscience Univer of Pod, 5131 Pa. ay
“Departament de Argutecury Teel dee Eicon sues Tec Spe de AgutectrayEcecén ETA, Universidad Pode de Cartagena
30205 Aso 52: Cartagena Span
“eperameot de Inger Mecca Materiales yFabceén Universe Polen de Cartagena, Cope. Murcia, pen
HIGHLIGHTS
+ Micrcapsules slow down the reaction ofboth geopolymer and Portland cement pastes.
“increasing the temperatute accelerates the siting times of geopolymer and Portland cement pastes
{Addition of microcapsules reduces the compressive strength
{Enhanced porosity at higher temperatures for bath geapolymer and Portland cement
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
‘rice iy
Received in revised form 39 Mach 2520
‘Accepted Api 2020;
‘To reduce pollution and global warming, the energy consumption needs to be decreased incorporation of
Phase Change Materials (PCM) into bulding materials can help lower the energy needed to cool and
‘warm buildings. while keeping the indoor temperature ata confortable level, However, incorporate
‘of PCM into consritton materials alter their performance. In this study, the effect of temperature
And addition of two different Microrencapsulated Phase Change Materels (MPCM) to zeopolymet
‘onesete (GPC) and Portland cement concrete (PCC) and pastes was investigated. The samples were
Kom sscthuechnettamay amined ih blow (20°C) ant ave 80°) the meng pi te ea. Whe te MFCM
Perland cement ve hot damaged by the alkaline solution, & few microcapsules are broken during the mixing process
Coe Cea clnesy shows tha MPCML in sows own te Teton rate of bah eeopeyet
and Portand cement paste. The setting times were faster when the temperature was incteased. The
mechanical properties are reduced when MPM is added t0 GPC and PCC, although the compressive
stength s adequate for building appcatons. Microstructural stuges show mote uniform and nda
ged edges inthe shell-concrete matrix transition zone of GPC than PCC, The samples cured at 40 °C
‘exhibits more ar voids in both GPC and PCC than at 20°.
'9 2020 The Author(s}, Published by Elsevier Le. Ths isan open access article under the CC BY Hcense
(htplfreativecommons orgicensesiby/40).
Compresive sength
Ithermal arity
1. Introduction tion is an exothermic reaction that involves dissolution of silico
aluminates in an alkaline solution and provides an amorphous 10
‘The production of Portland cement is a major contributor to CO>
‘emissions [1], One of the efforts to reduce the CO; produced by
concrete is to develop geopolymer-based building materials, con-
sisting of inorganic alumino-silicate polymers |2), Geopolymeriza-
responding author
[mal eres sn ijonivenshiotne (AL. Kents)
oso org)10.1016) cnbusémat2020 119088,
0830-0618 2020 The Authors) Pulse by sever ie
semicrystalline three-dimensional network (3). The aluminosi-
‘ate sources can be natural minerals, like kaolinite, metakaolin
and clays [24] oF industrial secondary products such as fly ash
(FA), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), red mud, and
silica fume [5-7], Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium silicate
(a,Si0,). potassium hydroxide (KOH), and potassium silicate
(K,Si0;) are commonly used as the alkaline solutions. Generally.
geopolymer concrete (GPC) exhibits improved mechanical 2 5. lear et al Constrained Buling Materia 252 (2020) 18055,
performance in comparison with conventional Portland cement
conerete (PCC) [8.9
Buildings accounts for approximately 1/3 of the global energy
demand and about 30% of CO, emissions, and more than 50% of
the energy use of buildings is heating and cooling [10]. Accord
ingly, obtaining new building materials containing Phase Change
Materials (PCMs) is attracting interest, to reduce the energy
consumption while retaining comfortable indoor temperatures
[11-13], PCMS are compounds that absorb, store and release
‘energy during the phase change within a specific temperature
range. When the temperature of the environment rises above the
‘melting point of the PCMSs, the PCMs absorb heat while changing
‘rom solid to liquid. When the temperature decreases below the
‘melting point of the PCMS, the heat of fusion is released back to
‘the environment and the PCMs return to a solid state 14), In hot
climates such as southern Europe, PCMs prevent buildings from
ovesheating at daytime during the warm season, and may also
attenuate the necessity for heating at night during the cold months
[15-18], PCMs with melting points in the range of 10 to 30 °C
should be used to facilitate humman thermal comfort 19). Microen-
capsulation of PCMSs is conducted to avoid interactions between
the PCMs and the surrounding environment, to provide a high heat
transfer area, and to prevent leakage of the core material during.
the phase change [20
Im order to obtain new structural materials with improved ther-
mal energy storage, Micro-encapsulated Phase Change Materials
(MPCM) have been incorporated in concrete (21,22). However,
the mechanical properties of concrete are diminished with the
addition of MPCM [23-26]. Despite reduced concrete compressive
‘strength after adding MPCM, the compressive strengths are mainly
‘within the desired range (25 to 40 MPa) suitable for constructional
purposes [27)
Studies of the mechanical strength of geopolymer (25.28.29)
and Portland cement (21,25,30] composites with incorporated
MPCM have been reported previously. In addition, their ability to
‘enhance the thermal properties of the building materials for reduc~
ing the energy needed to keep a comfortable indoor temperature
hnas been explored [31-35]. However, there are few previous stud
ies utilizing isothermal calorimetry to examine the influence of the
addition of MPCM on the reaction kinetics of Portland cement
[36.37], and such studies of geopolymers seems to be lacking
The aim of ths study is to evaluate how incorporation of diffe
‘ent types of MPCMs, above and below the melting point of each
PCM influences the reaction rates, physical and mechanical proper-
ties and the microstructure of both geopolymer and Portland
‘cement composites. Ths isa contintation of our previous studies
[25,38,39], where the effect of MPCMs on the slump, setting times,
‘microstructure, mechanical stcength, and the effect of freeze-thaw
cycles had been studied. We have also previously examined rheo-
logical properties of pre-set Portland cement and geopolymer
pastes containing MPCM (40,41), and the thermal properties of
PCC and GPC containing MPCM [21-35] Unlike the previous stud-
ies, this paper focuses on how MPCM addition affect the reaction
kinetics of the samples, utilizing isothermal calorimetry at both
20 and 40°C. In order to gain additional information, setting times
‘and compressive strengths are examined at the same tempera
‘ures, and finaly scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray
tomography were usilized to explore how the microstructure of
the samples were affected by MPCM addition at these conditions
‘Two different MPCMs were compared: PE-EVA-PCM has an amphi
Philic polymer shell of low-density polyethylene (50 wes) and
‘ethylvinylacetate (50 WE), while St-DVB-PCM has a hydrophobic
polymer shell of styrene (50 wt) and divinylbenzene (50 wt)
Both MPCMs have a paraffin core, with slightly diferent melting
points
2. Materials and methods
2.1, Materials
In order to prepare geopolymer composites, an alkaline activa
tor solution, class F fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast furnace
slag (GGBFS), sand, and gravel were used. The alkaline solution
consisted of sodium hydroxide pellets and sodium silicate solution
(25 w1% solid) A poly-naphthalene sulfonate polymer (FLUBE OS
439) was used a¢ 2 superplasticizing admixture to improve the
workability of GPC and decrease the amount of water. Portland
‘cement I mixed with FA was used for Portland cement composites
preparation. Dynamon SR-N, which is a high-performance super-
plasticizing admixture based on modified acrylic polymers, was
utilized to improve the workability of PCC. The densities and sup-
pliers ofthe utilized materials are shown in Table 1, The composi-
tion of the fly ash class F (FA) is 50.83 wt SiO,, 23.15 wt Al,
and 6.873 wt CaO, The ground granulated blast fumace slag.
(CCBES) consists of 34:51 w0t SiO,, 103 wt% ALO, and 42.84 wt
% C20. Portland cement Il (Blaine fineness of 4500 em"/g) was
pre-mixed mixed with FA from the supplier
Im this study, two different MPCMs denoted PE-EVA-PCM and
St-DVB-PCM were utilized. The synthesis of these microcapsules
is described in previous publications [42.43]. The properties of
the MPCMs are summarized in Table 2, St-DVB:PCM has a
hydrophobic shell, while the shell of PE-EVA-PCM is amphiphilic
(both hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups). The workability of
the pre-set samples becomes poorer with the addition of MPCM
[28]. Enhanced hydrophobicity of the MPCM shell reduces
amount of water adsorbed onto the microcapsules [38.40], s0 that
Tess water is needed to obtain a good workability 38,40,41]. PCMs
with melting points around 28 °C and 24°C were chosen, since this
{is within the range considered optimal in cooling dominant el-
mates [44]
In order to distinguish the differences in shape and size of the
‘components, SEM images of fly ash, slag, cement, and the two
ifferent kinds of microcapsules are provided in Fig. 1. While
PE-EVA-PCM reveals a cluster structure due to a high amount of
agglomerates. a spherical shape is observed for StDVB-PCM
[26.34], The PE-EVA-PCM clusters are mainly due to non-
encapsulated PCMS [45]
22. Specimen preparation
‘An alkaline solution consisting of a mixture ofa sodium silicate
solution (35 w0 solids, from VWR, Norway) and 14 M NaOH(2q)
(prepared from sodium hydroxide pellets, from VWR, Norway) at
2 ratio of 15 was used for all geopolymer samples (38). The
rable?
round granultee bast 285 Cemex Germany
‘when
sand 2.70 Canna Hath AS, Norway
Sodium nyvende pellets 213 a Norway
Sodium sitcatesoisen 193 we Norway
(3s we sold
Dynan St 110 MATE Neway 5; lear et al /Consraction an uling Mati 252 (2020) 119055, 2
able
Propet of the we MFCM 243)
Properier TERA SOV
Shel composi Tow densi paetilene [30 wis) styrene (50 wi)
‘ybinylaceate (50 wt) Davbencene
(sows)
core mater Partin Pecan
Meting point 264209: piazos'c
renter SRA iE 2) Se. ie
alkaline solution was prepared 1 day in advance to ensure com-
plete dissolution of NaOH pellets and to lose the exothermic reac-
tion heat. The microcapsules were added to the paste and concrete
by the MPCM additive method and the MPCM replacement
method. respectively [26]. The MPCM is added as an extra additive
(Gn volume} to the powder materials in the additive method [46 In
the replacement method, a certain percentage of sand (in volume}
is replaced with the same percentage of MPCM [45], The replace-
‘ment method cannot be used forthe pastes, since they do not con-
tain any sané.
22.1, Paste preparation
For geopolymer paste, the alkaline solution and geopolymer
binder (Fy ash + slag) was utilized at a ratio of 04. For Portland
‘cement paste, a fixed water to cement ratio of 0.35 was used. In
the case of the isothermal conduction calorimetry, the materials
containing the MPCM were weighed in the calorimeter glass
ampoules and loaded into the isothermal conduction calorimeter
‘channels without mixing. In the setting times measurements, the
‘geopolymer binder and alkaline solution (for geapolymer paste)
and cement and water (for Portland cement paste) were mixed
for 90 5. Ater the subsequent addition of the microcapsules, the
samples were mixed for another 90 s, resulting in homogenous
pastes with the same consistencies
2.22. Concrete preparation
‘The ratio between the liquid (alkaline solution + extra water)
and the geopolymer binder, as well as the water to cement ratio
‘of Portland cement were both kept atthe same value of 0.5, Addi
tionally, the total amount of sand and gravel for the concrete sam—
ples not containing MPCM was approximately the same for GPC
and PCC. More details regarding the sample preparation can be
found in Pilehvar ef al. [26.58]. The amount of MPCM in the sam-
ples were chosen based on previous studies [25.24.35.38], with
the aim of maximizing the thermal storage capacity while keeping
‘the workability ofthe pre-set samples and the mechanical strength
of the concrete within an acceptable range. The components of the
Portland cement and geopolymer mixtures are shown in Table 2
and Table 4, respectively.
223. Casting and caring
GPC and PCC where 0 and 20% of the sand was replaced by
MPCM, were cast into 10 x 10 x 10 cm? molds: see Pilehvar
‘etal, [26] for details. After a 24h precuring period at room temper~
ature with 2 90% relative humidity, both GPC and PCC samples
‘were demolded and cured in water at 20 or 40°C (below and above
‘the melting point of both MPCMs) for 1, 7, 14. and 28 days.
23, Testing methods
23.1. MPCM shel resistance against alkane solution and mixing
process
“To determine the resistance of the MPCM shell against the
strong basic environment of the alkaline solution, St-DVB-PCM.
‘was immersed in alkaline solution for 7 days. EDX mapping and
‘SEM images of St-DVB-PCM alter immersion were performed by
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Hitachi $3500N microscope.
‘Additionally, SEM images of St-DVB-PCM after mixing with aggre-
gates and water for 3 min were utilized to explore whether the
‘mixing process affects the shell of the micracapsules. Tis experi-
‘ment was only conducted on St-DVB-PCM, since the irregular
ve
2/ F
PEEVAPCM 100 ym_ MAG: 500s
MAG: 5005
SEDVE-PCM 100 un,
ig. 1. SEM images f(a thy sh (b) Sag.) Foca een (8) PEEVA.PCM ane) S-OVB.PCM 4 5. lear et al Constr and ulding Materia 2522020} 18055,
Table
Composvan of he geome composes.
Werle Tae Cone)
Compostian of he Poland cement compass
Woerale Fase ‘onetete igh
shape of PE-EVA-PCM (Fig. 1d) makes it difficult to distinguish
‘whether the shell is damaged during the mixing process
232, othermal conduction calorimetry
The effect of different MPCMs on the heat evolution of the
geopolymer and hydration reactions was studied in an eight-
channel isothermal conduction calorimeter (TAM Air instrument)
using Admix glass ampoules. All materials were mixed inside the
calorimeter channels, after equilibrating them within the calorime-
ter at the measuring temperature for 24 h. The calorimetry was
conducted on geopolymer and Portland cement pastes containing
(0% and 20% MPCM. The heat flow was collected for 3 days from
the start of the reaction at both 20 °C and 40 “C. As mentioned in
‘in section 2.2, the MPCM is added as an extra additive (in volume)
to the fixed binder mass (additive method).
233. Setting time
‘A computer controlled Vicat needle apparatus (ToniSET One,
‘Model 7301) was utilized to measure the initial and final setting
‘times in accordance with EN 196-3, The measurements were per=
ormed on geopolymer and Portland cement pastes without micro-
capsules and containing 20% MPCM at both 20 °C and 40 °C. In
‘order to measure the setting times at 40 °C, the basin was filled
with water and the conical mold containing the paste was kept
inside this basin, which was kept at 40 °C by water circulation
through a thermal bath allowing temperature control (£0.1 °C),
The setting times was measured at intervals of 2 min and 10 min
for geopolymer paste and Portland cement paste, respectively
The intial setting time was defined as when the needle penetra-
tion is less than 39.5 mm, and the final setting time at a penetra~
tion of 05 mam,
23.4, Compressive strength
The compressive sirength was measured at 40 °C by thermally
insulating the compressive strength machine and connecting i to
«aheating chamber. The compressive strength tests were performed
in accordance with EN 12390-3. To remove excess water before
initiating the measurements, the cubes cused at 40 °C were kept
in a heating chamber at 40 “C for 1 h before being weighed and
tested. Three cubes were used for each sample to obtain the
reported averages. For comparison plirpases, measurements were
also caried out at 20 °C.
235, Microstructural studies
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Hitachi $3500N) was used
{in order to analyze the morphology of the fracture surface of GPC
and PCC specimens without MPCM and with 20% St-DVB-PCM or
PE-EVA-PCM cued at 40 °C. The SEM images were captured at
15 KV using back scattered electrons (BSE) to improve the exami-
nation of chemical differences on the samples surface.
‘The internal visualization of the specimens was performed by
X-ray tomographic scans, The measurements were conducted by
a Bruker Skyscan 1172 CT scanner utilizing 85 KV incident radia-
ton, a rotation step of 03°, and 600 ms exposure time per frame,
The measurements were performed on cylindrical samples (1 cm
height and 1 em diameters) of PCC and GPC without microcapsules
and with 20% MPCM cured at 40°.
43. Results and discussion
3.1, MPCM shel resistance against alkaline solution and mixing
process
EDX mapping and SEM images of St-DVB-PCM after immersion
in the alkaline solution are presented at two different magnifica-
tions ih Fig. 2a and b. As previously abserved for other types of
‘microcapsules [47]. the MPCM are resistant to the alkaline solution
since no broken or damaged particles are observed in Fig. 2. In
addition, the capsules sutlace is mostly displayed in blue (color
assigned to Cin Mapping) suggesting thatthe shell daes not retain
Significant amounts of alkaline solution due to the hydrophobic
nature of the shell. Additionally, MPCMs are clearly surrounded
by a Na-rich phase. High NaOH concentration in che alkaline solu-
ton might cause Na;CO; formation (by carbonation due to atma-
spheric C0,).
SEM images of St-DVB-PCM after mixing with aggregates and
‘water for 3 min is shown in Fig. 3, to scrutinize whether the mixing.
process affect the shell of the microcapsules. It is evident that the
‘mixing process can cause ruptures on the microcapsule shell. A
broken MPCM and possible surface damage can be seen in Fig. 2a 5 leva tl Corti end uling Meters 2522020) 18055,
Allaline solution/ St-DVB-PCM MAG: 90x
Alkaline solution/ St-DVB-PCM MAG: 500x
Fig 2) EOX a ster of -D¥B-FCM immerse in alkaline sluin (b) SEM image of single arte of S-DVIAPOM fer immetsng in allaline solution fo 7 ays
St-DVB-PCM after mixing __40 um __ MAG: 900x
| SeOvE-PCM after mixing
StOVB-PCM after mixing MAG: 700%
ig. SEM images ef the SeDVE-FCM ster ning a) magiction of 006 at a magneton of OOK (the ae sows pat surface damage ofthe shel). and)
sats magnicton of 9x (te arows sow that Some microcapsules are Broke
and b, respectively. However, from Fig. 3c, with a wider field of
‘view, itis clear that only a few microcapsules are broken or dam-
aged ding the mixing process. The MPCMs have less stifiness and
strength than the aggregates. This might cause deformation and
‘Fracture ofthe MPCM during mixing. which will concribute 0 low=
‘ering the compressive strength of concrete [26) It shoul be noted
that the field of view is limited, and it is therefore dificult to est-
mate the percentage of broken MPCM. The itregular shape of PE-
EVA-PCM makes it dificult to distinguish between damaged and
undamaged shells These experiments were therefore conducted
only on St-DVB-PCM microcapsules.
3.2 Isothermal conduction calorimetry
‘The rate of reactions in geopolymer anc Portiand cement pastes,
‘without MPCM and with 20% of t-DVB-PCM and PE-EVA-PCM was
studied by isothermal conduction calorimetry. In order to evaluate
ifthe reactions are affected by whether the PCMSs are in a solid ot
liquid state, experiments were conducted at 20 °C and 40 °C for
72 h. For geopolymer paste, the frst peak in Fig. 4a has been
reported to be related to wetting and dissolution of FA and GGBFS
51). Comparison with sheological data on similar geopolymer
pastes Suggest that geopolymer precursors (monomers) are also ‘ 5; lear et al Constrained ling Materia 2522020} 18055,
03
Reaction ime (hou)
‘47 pamafoe
z i277 fate” Fo" 2k pecevaeou
3 Sorte necasas.| Bag [ec so Be Sea
é co
z cecsayreenten | 5 otc
= 6. raion fe
if i
2 2
° ° as
1 7 to GGT Otto t00
Reaction tme (haut)
Fig 4 Heat Bow versus tection ine fra) geopelymer paste and (b)Fortang cement pst
otmed at this stage [40]. The shoulder observed at longer times is
4 second peak, which overlaps withthe first peak This second peak
is due to the geopolymerization reaction [40°51], As can be seen.
from Fig. 4a, geopolymer dissolution and formation of geopolymer
precursors starts within the first 10 min after mixing materials at
‘both 20 °C and 40 °C, However, the heat evolution peak at 40 °C
‘was higher in this step since more FA and GGBFS can dissolve at
high temperatures. Inerestingly, both the first and second peak
are shifted towards longer times when the temperature of the
-eopolymer paste is raised, even though higher temperatures is
‘expected to speed up reaction rates. This is probably because the
dissolution step and the formation of geopolymer precursors can
continue for a longer time at high temperatures (shifting the top
‘of the fist peak to longer times). The formation of more geopoly-
‘mer precursors enhances the viscosity of the samples. Accordingly,
the transportation of the monomers is slowed down, and the 3D
_geopolymer network takes longer to form | 40 shifting the second,
peak to longer times)
For Portland cement (Fig, 4b), there isa first peak related to dis-
solution and early cement hydration followed by an induction per=
jod before the main hydration peak at later times [52,53], The
dormant induction period is commonly observed for Portland
‘cement, and thought to be related toa slow-down of the dissolu-
tion process due to low undersaturation (52,53), The hydration
process ofthe second peak reached its maximum value within 5~
‘1h. As expected, increasing the temperature from 20 °C to 40°C
accelerates the hydration reaction (54,55). However, there is a
‘eduction in heat flow at early ages (dissolution step). This is prob-
ably due to 2 faster approach to low undersaturation at higher tem-
peratures. The second peak is much higher at 40 °C, due to the
‘temperature-induced acceleration ofthe hydration reaction (54),
When exposed to an aqueous environment, the microcapsules
retain water. S-DVB-PCM adsorbs water corresponding to 45% of
its weight, while PE-EVA-PCM adsorbs 65% due to the more polar
nature of the microcapsule shells [38]. This affects the effective
water content in the samples, which has a complex effect on the
reaction kinetics. Less available water in a system will normally
cause 2 viscosity increase (56-58). This has also been observed.
for pre-set Portland cement paste [4) and concrete [26], as well
as for pre-set geopolymer paste [40] and concrete [25,38]. Since
the components will move slower at higher viscosities (Stokes-
Einstein relationship), it will take a longer time for the reactants
to encounter each other. Accordingly, a viscosity increase may slow
down the reaction rates [38]. On the other hand, a lower amount of
available water will increase che effective concentration of the
teactants, which may result in faster reaction rates [40]. ln addi
tion, for the geopolymers the rate of aluminosilicate dissolution
is expected (o increase when there is less water in the samples,
‘due fo the resulting higher concentration of OH" (59|, A higher
OW" concentration might also speed up both the formation of
sgeopolymer precursors and the polymerization of these precursors
Into the geopolymer network, since both these reactions involves
OH" as one of the reactants [40,50\61|, However, if the water
retained by the microcapsules also includes the dissolved OF ions,
the concentration of OH” would not be affected and this effect
could be neglectable. At very low water conditions the geopolymer
reaction rate is expected to decrease when the available water is
reduced, due to stabilization ofthe anions which reduce the rate
of the condensation reactions (59). A smaller water content will
also lower the total amount of reactants that can be dissolved
before the sample reaches saturation. Accordingly, low undersatu-
tation will be approached faster, which may slow down the reac-
tion. The different effects a reduced water content can have on
the reaction rates is summatized in Table 5. The overall ellect of
[MPCM addition (which decreases the available water) is expected
to be 2 combination of these competing factors, and will depend
‘on which factor that dominates in each case,
At 20 °C, MPCM addition to the geopolymer and Portland
cement paste causes a decrease in the peak intensity ofthe first
peak (Fig. 4), Significant amounts of water are retained by
MPCM particles (28), especially by PE-EVA-PCM (which contain
polar groups) Since the peak reduction is more pronounced for
PE-EVA-PCM, this suggests that the peak reduction is related to
the adsorbed water. Less available water in the samples will lead
to a faster approach to low undersaturation for the Portland
cement and to less water for wetting and dissolution of FA and
{GGBES in the geopolymer. Ths is expected to result inthe observed
reduced height of the first reaction peak
‘While the frst peak of the Portland cement stays more or less in
the same place with the addition of MPCM, the frst peak of the
-geopolymer samples are shifted towards longer times in the pres-
The eet of decreased avalable water
Incest] a decree 1) ection tee.
the reaction tes Te ara nate
Ivey low water content
higher eecive OF" concentration - ence of microcapsules. A lower availability of water is expected to
increase the viscosity of the samples (40), which can slow down
the formation of geopolymer precursors |38,52-54), thereby caus-
ing the observed shift of the fist peaks toward longer times with
MPCM addition,
Interestingly. at 40 °C both geopolymer and Portland cement
containing 20% St-DVB-PCM have slightly higher heat evolution
of the fist peak than the samples without MPCM, while utilizing
20% PE-EVA-PCM still causes a reduction of the peaks. The reduc-
tion of the peak heights for PE-EVA-PCM is probably related to
the high amount of adsorbed water (as discussed above). The rea-
son for the higher frst peak in the presence of ST-DVE-PCM at
40 °Cis unclear, For geopolymers, the cumulative heat during this
time period is lower for ST-DVB-PCM than for pure water (Fig 5).
‘Accordingly, the total dissolution and reactions are reduced due to
the lower water content inthe presence of ST-DVB-PCM, while the
peak becomes narrower and thereby higher (Fig. 4a). For Portland
cement, the cumulative heat is initially higher for ST-DVB-PCM
than in water (Fig. 5d), suggesting that early cement hydration is
increased due to a higher concentration of reactants (Table 5),
For the geopolymer paste (ig, 4), the second peak is not mark-
edly affected by MPCM addition. However, the overlap with the
first peak makes it dificult to distinguish whether there are small
changes. Since this reaction releases water instead of consuming t
[65], tis less influenced by the available water in the sample (ex-
cept for very low water contents (59])
The second peak of Portland cement paste (Fig. 4b) is shifted
toward longer times when MPCM is added to the samples. This
prologation of the dormant induction period is probably due to
the water retained by the MPCM [38], which reduces the available
water in the sample and thereby extend the period of low
uundetsaturation,
‘As can be seen in Fig. 5a and c, there isa sharp increase inthe
cumulative heat immediately after starting the geopolymerization,
which corresponds to the first peak of Fig. 42, The total cumulative
heat developed during the geopolymerization reaction is much
higher at 40 °C than at 20 °C (Fig 5a) The elevated temperature
speeds up the alkaline activation ofthe geopolymer binder, causing,
‘the final products to form faster [65]. ince the reaction does not
seem to be completed within the timeframe of the experiments,
this causes a higher cumulative heat at 40 °C. At 20 °C. the MPCM.
is not significantly affecting the total amount of cumtlative heat
developed during the reaction, However, at 40 “C the sample con-
taining St-DVB-PCM has the highest cumulative heat at long times
while PE-EVA-PCM has the lowest, The reduced cumulative heat of
PE-EVA-PCM is due to the lower amount of available water, caus-
ing higher viscosities and fewer reactants dissolved at saturation,
This will slow down the reaction rates (Table 5), ané thereby result
in lower accurnulated heat. The higher cumulative heat at long,
times for geopolymets containing St-DVB-PCM at 40 °C (Fig. Sa)
is not evident at short times (Fig. Se). This effect is therefore due
to reactions occurring relatively late in the process. ie. when the
geopolymer precursors ate combining into the 3D-geopolymer
structure. Higher cumulative heat in the presence of St-DVB-PCM.
at 40 °C occurs only after the sample has set (Fig. Ga), and the vis
Cosities are therefore not the dominating factor. It is possible that
the reduced water content increases the effective concentration of
OH" in the sample [59], and that this speeds up the reaction
‘between the geopolymer precursors and OH" te form the geopoly~
mer network
For Portland cement paste (Fig. Sb and there is a small
upturn of the cumulative heat at short times, corresponding £0
the frst peak. This is followed by a period of slow increase (the
dormant induction period) and a sharper upturn (the second
peak) at longer times. As for the geopolymer paste, the total
‘cumulative heat is higher at 40 °C than at 20 °C. The addition
‘of microcapsules decreases the total accumulated heat at long
times for both themperatures, This is probably caused by the
as0 |e) pow
= 0 eon
Soo] |r 2 Soercevarcd
: 2S dom Sioveeon
3 00
2 100
5 0
eopolymer sate
5 ater pas
0 70 20 30 40 60
Reaction time (hour)
6070
ja
‘Geopalyner paste
Cummulative heat
250] (b)
200
Portland cement paste|
20 30 40 80 60 70
Reaction time (hou)
0%
(@) Portane cement paste
04
2 3
Reaction me (hour)
a
2 3
Reaction tine (hour) s 5. lear et al Constrained ulding Materia 2522020} 18055,
ceopoymer paste 7 Donan cement poste
0 Be 8 a satra e
s oo Ti Ft eugene
Ee
2 <=
es
B 20 4 sea -
° 2
ig 6 The intl ang nal seing tes of (2) xopeimer pst and b Portland ement past cenaining 20 vs of PE-EVA-PCM and S-OVE-POM a 20 “Can 40°C
adsorption of water onto the MPCM, which can reduce the Port
land cement hyération.
3.3, Setting time
The effect of MPCM and temperature on the initial and final set
ting times of geopolymer paste and Portland cement paste is illus-
trated in Fig. 6. As can be seen from Fig. 6a, the geopolymer
reaction is significantly faster when the temperature is raised from
20 °C to 40 °C. As expected, the geopolymerization reaction is
accelerated at higher temperatures without any significant effect
‘of MPCM addition. When the temperature increases, the solubility
of aluminosilicate is higher. This results in larger quantities of alu-
‘mina and silica available for the geopolymerization reaction,
speeding up the seting times of the geopolymer paste [67], Unlike
the setting times at 20 °C (which is discussed previously (28),
MPCM in liquid state (40°C) has no noticeable effect on the seting
times,
ig. 6b shows that a higher temperature (40 °C) leads to rapid
hydration and shorter setting times for Portland cement paste than
‘at 20 °C [68]. At 20 °C, the initial setting time of Portland cement
paste becomes longer in the presence of microcapsules due t0
the higher viscosity of the paste which leads to slower cement
hydration [99), However, at 40 °C MPCM addition has no signifi-
cant effect on the initial setting time of cement. After the initial
setting time, the solidification of the samples becomes faster in
the presence of microcapsules. due to the water adsorption on
the microcapsules surface [38]. For the final setting time at both,
20 °C and 40 °C, the influence of PE-EVA-PCM is stronger than
for St-DVB-PCM, since PE-EVA-PCM adsorbs higher amounts of
water and has a smaller siamp (38)
34, Compressive strength
The effects of temperature and MPCM addition on the compres~
sive strength and compressive strength reduction of GPC and PCC
are shown in Fig. 7. As observed previously [26], GPC has a higher
‘compressive strength than PCC at both temperatures, In addition,
the compressive strength of both GPC and PCC increase with curing,
time and temperature, For GPC, the higher temperature speeds up
the formation of a hard structure, especially in the early-stage of
‘the geopolymerization reaction (70), Analogously, the faster hydra-
tion reaction increases the strength of PCC at elevated tempera
tures. At early curing times, the increase of the strength with
temperature is mare pronounced for the geopolymers, since the
-geopolymerization is faster than hydration at higher temperatures
(ig. 5)
The 28-day compressive strength (Fig. 7c, d) decreases with the
addition of MPCM [26), and increases with temperature. In addi-
lerPce
ah
40
0
Compressive strength (MPa)
oF «0 w 0 Tf wm a
Caring tine (ay) Curing ine (ay)
F of PC a a 7
Efron |] Pocaay2s |
Foo |
3 40 |
5 20.
6 : 0 2
PCM
o (oy PCM (i)
zg [eee [weet
5 are
: ‘2 hou MECN
& PE-EVApcM
8 2 subvaPoM
ot «0 wo 7 wm a
Curing time (ay) Curing time (day)
IMCM, compressive srength of GPC and PCC a a fnction of the amount of sand
replaced by MPM afer 28 ayy caring for (c) GPC, and (e) FCC Reduction of
Cnnpesive strength du to MFCM addin fot e) GP with 20" MECM and (9 PCC
sh 20 Men
‘ion, itis smaller for PE-EVA-PCM than for St-DVB-PCM, except
for 20% MPCM for PCC at 20 °C, PE-EVA-PCM has an irregular shell
and form agglomerates, which may enhance the compressive
strength reduction. In addition, we have previously demonstrated
that more air is trapped within the PE-EVA-PCM samples, due to
4 reduced workability [38]. This lowers the compressive strength 5; lear et al /Costractin an ung Mati 252 (2020) 119055, .
GPC 20% PE-EVA-PCM — MAG:900x
GPC 20% St-DVB-PCM
MAG:500x
Fig 8. SEN images of he rac
PCC 20% PE-EVA-PCM
PCC 20% St-DVB-PCM,
MAG:S00x
src ofa) GPC conning 20% E-LVA-PCM.(b) PCC containing 20% E-LVA-HCME (c) GC containing 20% S-DVE-POM, anf PCC
‘anaining 202 S-DVD-PCM The rows show the edge of shellconrete mats tanion Yon,
in comparison with St-DVB-PCM. Furthermore, PE-EVA-PCM con-
tains significant amounts of non-encapsulated PCM [45], which
right reduce the strength ofthe concrete.
The reduction of GPC and PCC compressive strength in the pres-
‘ence of 20% PE-EVA-PCM and St-DVB-PCM are shown in Fis. 7e and
F. When cured at 20 °C, GPC has a stronger strength reduction at
short curing times, However, after about 1 week it stabilizes at
an approximately constant value. When cured at 40 °C. the reduc-
tion of GPC strength is almost constant at all curing ages. At long
times, the strength reduction is approximately the same for the
‘GPC samples cured at 20 and 40 °C, which is probably caused by
the faster geopolymerization at higher temperatures (Fig 5). The
reduction of GPC strength is more pronounced for samples con-
taining PE-EVA-PCM than for St-DVE-PCM. PCC containing PE-
EVA-PCM and St-DVB-PCM show approximately the same strength
reduction at 20 °C, However, for PCC cured at 40 °C the strength
reduction is much higher in the presence of PE-FVA-PCM than
for St-DVB-PCM. Melting the core ofthe microcapsules i expected
to make them mechanically weaker, and therefore deteriorate the
‘concrete strength. Interestingly, for PCC containing St-DVB-PCM,
the strength reduction is significantly lower at 40 °C than at
20°C (Fig. 1. This is probably caused by the higher mechanical
strength of PCC cured at 40°C (Fig. 7b), which makes it ess vulner~
able to softer particles. Comparing the temperature effects of the
Strength reductions of PCC and GPC, PCC is more affected by
increasing the temperature above the melting point of the MPCM
core than GPC. A more uniform and compact structure of GPC
together with its initially higher mechanical strength may con-
tribute to a better resistance against the softening ofthe particles.
3.5, Microstructural analysis
3.5.1, SEM imaging
SEM analysis was conducted on the failure surface of PCC and
‘GPC samples containing 20% St-DVB-PCM and PE-EVA-PCM cured,
at 40 °C, Fig. 8 shows individual particles of St-DVB-PCM and PE-
-EVA-PCM in the GPC and PCC matrixes as an example of how the
(MPCMs shell binds with the surrounding matrix Fig. 8 illustrates
‘that there are more uniform and undamaged edges in the shell-
conerete matrix transition zone of GPC than PCC. This illustrates
4 better compatiblity between the MPCMs shell with GPC than
{or PCC. This might contribute to a better performance of GPC than
PCC in the presence of MPCMs when the samples are exposed to
temperature fluctuations from 20 “C to 40 °C oF vice versa
(Fig, 7a and b)
Smaller gaps are observed atthe interface between St-DVB-PCM
and the concrete matrix compared to PF-EVA-PCM, suggesting a
better compatibility between the St-DVB-PCM shells and the sur=
rounding matrix. The larger gaps combined with agglomeration
of PE-EVA-PCM and non-encapsulated PCMs in the PE-
EVA-PCM samples [45] contributes to the greater reduction of
E-EVA-PCM compressive strength compared to St-DVB-PCM
35.2. X-ray micro-tomograpiy
‘Typical 20 X-ray micto-tomography cross-sectional slices of
{GPC and PCC without MPCMs cured at 20°C and 40 °Cate depicted
in ig. 6. To obtain reliable statistical data, more than 600 2D slices
‘were taken foreach sample. As seen in fig 9a and b, more ait voids
are visible inthe GPC samples cured at 40 °C than at 20°C. Increas~ o 5: lear et al Constrained ulin Materia 2522020} 18055,
Gece
tomography unages of (2) GPC without MECM at 20 °, (0) GPC
Mechta 40° (6) 2 tout MPCM 320 and 4) PCC hou MPC
[E40 'C Dat alr niet lon no abrorpion of ray [eg merospeles oF
{ie bie} and bight ots inate igh absorption ef aps gavel abd sae)
Se mages have approximately 1 er ldo ew
ing the curing temperature is known to dissolve more Si and Al
{rom the amorphous phases. This accelerates the development of
hard structure, especially during the inital stages of the geopoly-
‘merization reaction. Accordingly, higher temperature increases
water evaporation rates thereby producing further air voids (72
This causes the formation of micro-cavities, and therefore an
increase inthe porosity ofthe GPC matrix. For PCC, higher temper=
atures enhance the hydration rates This results in a more hetero
‘geneous hydration distribution, and enhanced porosity, Lower
temperatures results in a more homogenous and uniform distribu-
tion of the hydrates, and thereby the formation of smaller pores
ia
¢. 10 shows the distribution ofthe MPCMSsin the GPC ané PCC
matrix. Given the low level of X-ray attenuation of the MPCMSs, itis
challenging to utilize grey scale values to distinguish between air
voids and microcapsules. However, since air voids tend to be
spherical, irregular profiles are probably due to agglomerated
MPCM. Fig. 10 shows that both agglomerated St-DVB-PCM and
PE-EVA-PCM are distributed throughout the PCC samples. GPC
has some regions containing agglomerated MPCMs and some more
homogeneous regions without any MPCMs distribution. The
‘enhanced viscosity (reéced workability) of the fresh GPC and
the fast setting times of GPC especially at 40 °C can contribute t0
the prevention of a homogeneous distribution of MPCM through-
‘out the matrix,
4. Conclusion
Incorporation of PCMs in building materials can help reduce the
‘energy needed to heat and cool buildings, while retaining a com-
{ottable indoor temperature. However, inclusion of PCMs in con-
struction materials influence many aspects of their performance
In this paper, the influence of two different MPCMs in liquid and
solid state (above and below the melting point of the PCM core)
‘on the reaction kinetics, physical, mechanical and microstructural
*
Sere rete
seers eee
Teens eee (eats seme
{ontaning 20% S-DVB-PCM at 40°C Dak clos indicae low oF no absorpion of
properties of Portland cement and geopolymer concrete(pastes
Were investigated. The following conclusions can be drawn from
this work
1, The mierocapsuies shell can resist the highly basic nature of the
alkaline solution without any leakage or damage, A few micro-
capsules were broken and damaged during the mixing process
due tothe lower stifiness and strength ofthe MPCM shell com-
pared to the conventional aggregates.
2, Isothermal calorimetry shows that MPCM addition slows down,
the reaction of both geopolymer and Portland cement paste at
20°C, which is probably due to the water adsorption onto the
‘microcapsules. At 40 “C, the effect of microcapsule addition is
‘more complex, and St-DVB-PCM are speeding up some of the
3, The setting times of geopolymer paste and Portland cement
paste were accelerated at higher temperatures due to faster
geopolymerization and hydration. MPCM in liquid state
(40°C) has no noticeable effect on the setting times of geopoly-
mer paste. For Portland cement paste, PE-EVA-PCM as a
greater influence on the final setting time than St-DVB-PCM,
since much mote water ate adsorbed onto PE-EVA-PCM,
4, The compressive strength of both GPC and PCC increased with
curing time and temperature. However, MPCMs addition
reduced the compressive strength. and heating the samples
above the melting point of the MPCM core affected PCC rmuch
‘more than GPC, The strength reduction was more pronounced
for PE-EVA-PCM than for St-DVB-PCM. The irregular shel
agglomeration, and reduced workability of PE-EVA-PCM are
probably the major contributing factors for this.
5. A more uniform and compact structure of GPC combined with
higher mechanical strength might contribute to the better tesis-
ance against softer particles. These were mote uniform and
undamaged edges in the shell-concrete matrix transition zone
ff GPC than for PCC. This might contribute to the better perfor- 5; lear et al /Consraction an uling Mati 252 (2020) 119055, "0
mance of GPC than PCC when microcapsules are added to the
‘samples. Porosity was enhanced at higher temperatures in both
GPC and PCC. Incteased viscosity (poorer workability) of the
fresh GPC and the fast setting times of GPC especially at 40 °C
may contribute to the prevention of 2 homogeneous distribu
tion of MPCM throughout the matrix,
‘CRediT authorship contribution statement
Shima Pilehvar; Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing
‘Susana 6, Sanfelix: Investigation, Writing - review & editing, Anna
'M. Szezotok: Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Juan Fran-
‘isco Rodriguez: Investigation, Waiting - review & editing. Luea
Valentini: Investigation, Writing - review & editing, Visualization.
‘Marcos Lanz6n: Investigation, Writing - review & editing, Visual-
ization, Ramén Pamies: Writing - review & editing, Visualization,
‘Supervision. Anna-Lena Kjaniksen: Resources, Writing - review &
‘editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration, Funding
acquisition
Declaration of Competing Interest
‘The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper,
Acknowledgement
‘We gratefully acknowledge funding from the Research Council
‘of Norway, project number 238198, The authors acknowledge Fun-
«laci6n Seneca Agencia de Ciencia y Tecnologia de la Region de
Murcia “Ayuda a las Unidades y Grupos de Excelencia Cientifica
de la Region de Murcia (Programa Séneca 2014)" (Grant
19877/GERM/14), for financial support.
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