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SOCIALIZATION & IDENTITY P1

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
Family
One way in which young children learn about social norms is by imitating their parents. They
may copy the way adults talk, or their table manners for example. By a process of trial and
error, they learn what is acceptable – asking politely – and unacceptable – rudely interrupting.
As they get older they use their parents as role models. Girls may play with dolls ‘just like
mummy’. Later in life the roles might be reversed – young people sometimes have to teach
their parents about things like mobile phones and computers!
For their part, parents try to instil social norms by setting an example and teaching their
children how to behave. They use sanctions (rewards and punishments) to guide and control
the learning process. If children follow the ‘proper’ norms, their parents will reward them with
smiles, loving attention, praise and treats. But if they misbehave they are likely to be punished
by frowns, reprimands, the denial of treats, and maybe even a smack.
Secondary Socialization
Education
In school they are formally taught the culture of their country – its history, language and
religions. They also learn technical knowledge such as maths and science that often has
practical applications in daily life. Pupils also learn from the unofficial hidden curriculum – the
background values and expectations that run through the school system. For example, they
learn the importance of hard work and success through the exam system. When they take part
in sports they learn the value of competition and teamwork. They learn the importance of
conforming to rules when they get punished for being late, misbehaving, or not submitting in
work on time.

Peer group
A peer group is a friendship group formed by people of roughly the same age and social
position. They meet each other as equals rather than being supervised by adults. In the early
years of life, children like to play with one another for fun and amusement. But play is also a
valuable learning experience. In play situations they learn about social norms (eg, treating
others properly) and they develop social skills (eg, negotiating over toys).
When children become teenagers, they spend increasing amounts of time away from their
families and in the company of their friends. Parents often worry that peer pressures will
encourage their children to steal, take drugs etc. Young people themselves often worry about
their popularity within the peer group.
Mass media
Mass media consume an enormous amount of our time – just think of all those teenagers
locked away for hours on end in their bedroom with their own music centre, TV, game console
and computer. Admittedly, media seldom have a direct hypodermic effect – they do not inject
their content into us and make us immediately accept what they tell us. But they help to create
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the cultural climate within which we live. They give us a sense of what values and behaviour
are acceptable in the modern world. They provide us with role models – they hold up certain
sports stars or showbiz celebrities for us to admire and copy.
Religion
Although religions deal with spiritual matters, they also have an influence on social attitudes
and behaviour. The major world religions – Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism –
have had a deep impact on the societies in which they are dominant.
First, each religion offers a set of moral values. Over time these become part of the culture of a
society Second, the rituals and ceremonies of religion have traditionally been seen as a force
for social unity. Collective acts of worship such as marriages, baptisms and funerals bring
people together and remind them of their common bonds and shared values.
Third, religions provide a moral code (eg, the Ten Commandments, Holy Quran) which guides
our earthly behaviour.
Traditionally it was thought that parents, and perhaps the church, had the greatest effect. In
modern society the school, peer group and mass media seem to have growing influence. It is
also debateable whether these agents have a sufficiently ‘responsible’ attitude to their
socialisation tasks.

To what extent is the peer group the most effective agent of social control? Possible answers for: • the
peer group can exert a strong influence over socialisation into identity by setting out what is normal for
particular roles, e.g. gender roles;
• the peer group can give positive sanctions in the form of praise and compliments, for example in the
workplace, and this can be a big motivator for continued conformity to groups norms and values;
• people feel they need to belong in groups and so the kind of social control exerted by peers, such as
the threat of being rejected, is powerful;
• the peer group can use negative peer pressure to ensure individuals conform to group norms and this
can be very powerful e.g. ostracism;
• the peer group can use sarcasm, ridicule, shame and criticism in an attempt to control individuals;
• for many youth peers are a more powerful socialising agent than families or education e.g. the peer
control that takes place in anti-school subcultures;
• youth spend a great deal of time with peers, for example in school, and hence their impact is
magnified;
Against:
• the effect of peers is negligible compared to the family – as Oakley shows it is the family that sets the
agenda for gender identity, for example, through canalisation, manipulation etc;
• education has a more profound influence in socialising the young through the hidden curriculum which
is reinforced by positive and negative sanctions;
• for some people religion is the most powerful socialising agent as it is also promoted by the family and
in some societies, by schools and the media too – it can shape the core norms and values that
individuals believe in and live by;
• formal social control is more effective, police have the power to apply severe sanctions that restrict
right and liberty;
• postmodernists may argue that we live in a media-saturated world and that the media – particularly
the internet – is now more powerful in terms of the way it shapes attitudes, opinions and identities;
• functionalists would argue that all of the agents of socialisation must work together to ensure that
successful socialisation takes place so to pinpoint one as more effective than another is incorrect;
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• the workplace is a more powerful agent of socialisation e.g. the social controls exercised by pay and
promotion and the threat of being fired/sacked is significant;

Explain how the peer group socialises individuals into their culture.
The following ideas may be discussed:
 Peer groups consist of people of a similar status who come into regular contact with one
another such as group of friends, school children or colleagues in the same job.
 Link with secondary socialisation.
 Importance between age 5 to 18 due to time spent together in school.
 Socialisation through different activities (e.g. in the playground, learning the rules of games).
 Resistance and rebellion – may refer to youth subcultures e.g. Goths, skinheads, emos and
punks.
 Peer group pressure
 Learning about hierarchy, leaders and followers.
 Recognising similarity (identity)
 Cultural comfort zones / importance of inclusion /exclusion
Relevant studies and theories:
 Skelton & Francis (peer groups in primary school playgrounds)
 Sewell (cultural comfort zones)
 Sue Lees (peer pressure and the sexual double standard)
 Judith Harris (compares peer groups to adults influence)
 Functionalism
 Interactionism

‘The peer group is the most influential agent of socialisation in shaping gender identity.’ Explain this
view. Indicative content
• The role of ‘peer pressure’ with suitable examples and/or references to gender subcultures.
• The setting for peer gendering is often shaped in a school setting.
• Evidence that peer groups may reinforce gendered identities
• Examples of informal social sanctions in respect of expectations and attitudes (e.g. towards female
roles, appearance, etc.)
• Individuals may hide alternative identities (boys and educational success) to fit in with a peer group.
• Any other relevant point. Research evidence: Lees, Willis, McRobbie, Lamb, Frosh, Reynolds, Francis,
Hughes et al Additional concepts: Bedroom culture; Social control, conformity, positive/negative
sanctions

‘The peer group is the most influential agent of socialisation in shaping gender identity. Using
sociological material, give one argument against this view.
Indicative content • Deterministic explanation i.e. the influence of the peer group may be exaggerated,
for example, many individuals do not necessarily conform.
• Biological explanations as opposed to sociological explanations.
• Evidence of changing attitudes with less strict gendering
• Role of other agents of socialisation relative to the influence of the peer group, e.g. others may be
more or less influential or that it is too simplistic to isolate the power of one agent as the most
significant. Note: With these arguments responses need to explain why an agent is a more important
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influence than the peer group, e.g. ‘The family is where gender is initially shaped and is more influential
than the peer group.’
• Youth cannot be easily isolated from other identities e.g. gender and class.
• Any other relevant argument. Research evidence: Lamb [same-sex toys]; McRobbie [boys occupying
public spaces]; Frosh on what gives boys status and the labels they fear; Francis [role play in primary
schools]; Reynolds [the identities expected of boys in a school setting]

Describe two ways the media socialises individuals.

Possible answers:
• the behaviour and appearance of role-models in the media are imitated by many, especially the
young;
• individuals are manipulated by techniques used in the media such as advertising which may create
‘false needs’;
• representations of women and other groups in popular media are influential in establishing social
expectations for various forms of social identity such as gender, age etc;
• the worldview reflected in global media is often a westernised or Americanised one which some may
believe is leading to a global culture where individuals share common norms and values;
• the media socially controls individuals by showing the negative consequences of not conforming to
social norms and values e.g. labelling, ‘naming and shaming’ etc.;
• the media uses praise and positive comments to show approval and reward conformity to social norms
and values;
• social media ‘likes’ can be seen as a reward for and expression of social approval for conformity;
• cyberbullying and negative emojis online can be seen as expressions of disapproval and an attempt to
negatively sanction an individual in order to bring them back to conformity with expected norms;

Explain how agencies of socialisation, apart from the family, help to develop gender identity.
[6] Candidates may be expected to show an awareness that gender identity is also reinforced
by the media, religion, peer, work place and in education.
Possible answers: • Media – programmes and advertising reinforce traditional male/female
identities e.g. males portrayed as heroes/ lead characters while females are in a supporting role
• Religion – suggest clearly defined identities e.g. separate rituals for men and women
• Education – reinforces gender identities e.g. gender identity reinforced in text books
• Peer group – individuals who fail to conform to traditional gender roles may be excluded
from the group or bullied
• Work place-gender identity may be enforced by peer groups within the work place as above
or by factors like patriarchy within the work place i.e. ‘the boss’ most frequently being male
Evaluate the view that human behaviour is socially constructed.
Term socially constructed means something which is shaped and defined by society. Many
sociologists believe that human behaviour is a direct result of the socialisation process and the
influence of institutions. However, there is also evidence to show that some behaviour is a
result of biology and genetics. This debate is often referred to as the nature versus nurture
debate.
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Primary socialisation takes place in the first few years of life and it is in this period that children
learn basic skills such as walking and talking from those around them. This process shows the
importance of human interaction in order for the child to develop. Further proof can be seen
through examples of feral children: wild, unsocialised or abandoned children. Case studies such
as Oxana Malaya and Genie Wiley clearly show the importance of the primary socialisation
process. If a child does not learn basic functions from its parents, then it’s development is
seriously impacted. The findings from these studies have shown the importance of learning
communication, empathy and self-recognition and that these skills must be taught during a
critical stage.
Secondary socialisation is also further evidence of human behaviour being socially constructed.
This process continues throughout the life of the individual. At the secondary stage humans
learn from agencies such as friends, religion, education and the media. These combine to shape
our intelligence, our views, our accents, our values and so on.
However, the more scientific approach to understanding human behaviour suggests that
biology or nature also takes a significant role. One such example is our physical appearance
which is determined by genetics. We, as humans, can change certain characteristics but factors
such as height, body shape and hair colour are determined by our genetic make-up. This is
important because how we look influences our behaviour. A person who is very tall and
attractive, for example, may exude more confidence.
Functionalists discuss the idea of the organic analogy, and Parsons states that all the agencies
in society work together like the organs of a human body. He believed that it is this
interconnection of the institutions all working together that shapes human behaviour. We are
continually learning from a range of sources and it is this process that forms social norms,
values and consensus. However, it must be noted that much of Functionalist theory is now
considered rather outdated.
Marxists such as Bourdieu also believe that human behaviour is socially constructed, but they
see this in a conflicting sense: they feel that the system of capitalism causes humans to become
greedy and fixated on money and materialism. Carvel gives the example of pester power
whereby the media is so powerful in convincing children they need a toy or piece of technology
that often parents give in to this. Gramsci said the process of capitalism is maintained through
human socialisation and the desire to consume, therefore a human is not born with greed, but
they learn it through socialisation.
Interpretivist sociologists consider a wide range factors such as race, which is biological. Race is
distinct from ethnicity as it looks specifically at the biological make up of our colouring. Race is
therefore an important factor as it is out of our control. Society does not shape our skin colour.
Goffman notes that our race can often relate to our master status, meaning that it can often be
the most important and defining factor in shaping our identity. Although our master status is
taught, it is often based on a biological characteristic.
Liberal and Marxist feminists believe that human behaviour is constructed via the system of
patriarchy. One such example of this is canalisation or sex role theory, whereby parents treat
their children differently based on their sex. McRobbie believes that having distinctive colours,
toys and names for each sex simply reinforces gender differences and inequalities through
social construction. Whereas liberal feminists highlight the social construction of gender, radical
feminists look at issues relating to our sex. Sex is biological, and for theorists such as Dworkin
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this determines the power imbalance between men and women, as males can use their
physicality to dominate females through threat and fear. McKinnon believes that the physical
threat of violence is what drives the system of patriarchy.
There is clear evidence that much of our behaviour is a direct result of the society, people and
institutions around us and that human behaviour is a result of learning, mimicking and
conformity.
However, alternative factors such as disability and age are also important factors that are out of
the control of humans and society. They are biological factors that shape our lives, and can be
seen as further evidence of the genetic influence on human behaviour. For example, an older
person cannot be as physically active as an adolescent even if they had the same desire to be
so. It is therefore evident that although society clearly shapes us as humans, much of our
behaviour is also determined by nature. Our sex, race and age are all factors out of the control
of nurture and society.
The reality is that a combination of factors from both nature and nurture combine to shape our
attitudes, characteristics, personalities and our overall individual behaviour, rather than one
being the overwhelming determining factor.

c) Explain why sociologists have emphasized socialization rather than biological instinct when
explaining human behavior. [8]
Socialization involves the learning of norms, values and beliefs of society in order for individuals
to become competent members or social actors as Goffman states.
Sociologists highlight the importance of this concept through the fact that the construction of
identity, behavior and roles differ when analyzed cross-culturally. As Cooley states, through the
looking-glass self, individuals create their identity in the image of others and their behavior
reflects the wider society.
In various indigenous areas such as rural Africa, tribes survive by hunting and live communally
by sharing resources. The socialization process here teaches how to survive in the wild.
Contrarily, in modern societies such as the UK, individuals are socialized to perform jobs and
survive economically, through various academic and social skills that they learn from different
agencies of socialization for example the family and educational institutions.
Additionally, gender divisions and the assigned roles between males and females differ
between traditional and modern industrial societies. In areas like South Asia, women are
socialized to become domestic laborers and child carers whilst men are socialized to be the
financial earners. However, in modern industrial societies, both men and women are being
socialized more equally, for example within the educational sphere both are receiving equal
amounts of investment and care. This shows how different socialization creates individuals
with varying patterns of thinking and acting.
Significantly, the importance of socialization over biological aspects can be seen with feral
children. Pines found how Genie, a feral child who had been neglected for the majority of her
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childhood, showed no social skills whatsoever for example inability to communicate verbally or
stand upright. Without having any external influence or exposure to social learning, she became
an incompetent member of society as she would not be able to fit in with the established
norms. On the contrary, children who go through proper socialization, learn the language,
behavior, functioning, actions and desirability of society to fulfill their roles.
From a biological perspective, this shows that though genetics affect an individual, their
development and integration into society is largely an outcome of social engineering.
Biologically, individuals know that the basic needs of survival such as reproduction need to be
fulfilled but the way that these actions and inclinations are executed is solely learnt through the
process of socialization.
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Social control, conformity and resistance

There will be groups which have different values-subcultures. e.g, working class cultures will be
very different from wider cultures. Miller suggests working class young males conflict with
society. Their leisure activities lead to involvement in gangs and conflict with authority figures
e.g., police. Another cause of deviance or non conformity is undersocialization.

‘Under-socialisation is the main reason that individuals act in deviant ways.’

Explain this view.
Indicative content
• • Under-socialisation is the idea that some groups experience inadequate socialisation
which can negatively impact on their behaviour.
• • Failings in early socialisation and family background mean that many young people are
raised without appropriate norms, values and attitudes which means they are likely to behave
in deviant ways.
• • Some sociologists argue that there is a growing underclass who account for a great
deal of criminal behaviour. This concept is often linked to the idea of an overgenerous welfare
system which they argue makes it easier for young women to be single mothers and for men to
reject the idea that it is important to have a job.
• • Any other reasonable point.
‘Under-socialisation is the main reason that individuals act in deviant ways.’
Using sociological material, give one argument against this view.
Indicative content
• • Critique of the explanation in terms of differences in culture rather than under-
socialisation (subcultural);
• • It is very difficult to measure/define what constitutes under-socialisation, and so it is
difficult to study whether under-socialisation is the main cause of deviance;
• • It fails to explain the occurrence of deviant acts among individuals and groups who
might be expected to have experienced adequate socialisation, such as university students and
those from the middle class who commit white-collar crime;
• • Social resistance;
• • Marginalisation – approaches that view the relationships between different groups as
shaped by power leads to some marginalised/resistant groups (e.g. The young) being ‘labelled’
as deviant etc.;
• • Biological/psychological explanations for deviant behaviour focusing on deficient
personalities more prone to deviance;
• • Evidence of the persistence of social pressure promoting conformity (social exchange
theory);
• • Structural approaches that focus on socio-economic factors that give rise to
deviant/criminal behaviour.
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‘The existence of subcultures best explains deviant behaviour.’ Explain this view.

Indicative content • Subcultures develop norms and values different from wider society (though
not necessarily at odds with it). • Youth subcultures in particular may be linked to status
frustration (links to structure and agency) and the difficulties some individuals/groups have in
establishing identity and in receiving status in society. • Research examples: religious sects,
teddy boys, mods and rockers, skinheads, punks, goths, emos and Rastas. • Range of education-
related subcultures typically linked to class (e.g. delinquent subcultures), gender and ethnicity.

‘The existence of subcultures best explains deviant behaviour.’ Using sociological material,
give one argument against this view.

Indicative content • Subcultural deviance tends to be focused on youth and therefore does not
offer a generalised account of deviance / non-conformity. • Most deviant subcultures are short
lived and so do not explain long term deviant behaviour. • The extent to which subcultures
engage in deviant behaviour has been exaggerated; although they have some different norms it
is misleading to call this deviant behaviour and many subcultures are more conformist than is
often assumed. • Subcultures are one amongst many other explanations for deviant behaviour
e.g. cultural deprivation, under-socialisation, marginalisation, social resistance and labelling
theory.

To what extent does functionalism offer the best explanation of why individuals join youth sub-
cultures?
Arguments for:
• functionalists argue joining a youth sub-culture can be explained as a way of managing the transition
from childhood to adulthood;
• functionalists argue youth sub-culture helps detach the individual from their family so they can
achieve their own status as an adult developing autonomy and independence;
• functionalists argue youth sub-cultures act as a ‘safety valve’ and people join to help them manage
going through adolescence;
• functionalists claim that youth sub-cultures offer members an alternative opportunity structure where
they can gain status and respect;
• functionalists argue that young people join sub-cultures to gain status, moving from an ascribed status
to an achieved status;
• functionalists argue that youth sub-cultures are a way of dealing with stress caused by the transition
from childhood to adulthood;
• joining a youth sub-culture can be a way of gaining success and status for those young people who find
other routes to success (such as education) blocked;
• functionalists argue (Eisenstadt) that young people need to find a way to distinguish themselves from
their parents and youth sub-cultures are a vehicle for this
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Arguments against: • Marxists argue that youth sub-cultures are a form of resistance against capitalism
e.g. skinheads;
• Marxists argue working class youth sub-cultures are formed as other routes to resistance are blocked
for such groups who lack power and status;
• Marxists argue (P Cohen) the skinhead sub-culture formed as a reaction to the decline of
manufacturing and as a means of protecting working-class identity;
• other Marxists (Brake) argue working class youth sub-cultures are ‘magical’ they provide each new
generation with a chance to prove they are unique;
• teddy boys took their style from the upper class Edwardians to show their new affluence;
• Marxists see working-class youth sub-cultures as linked to the decline of working-class inner-city
communities;
• postmodernists argue youth sub-cultures no longer have a clear purpose, young people join for thrills
and leave, sub-cultures are transient;
• feminists such as McRobbie argued girls created a bedroom sub-culture to create a space away not
just away from adults but also from boys;
• labelling theory suggests that pupil subcultures are a response to in-school processes such as teacher
labelling;
• Paul Willis argued counter school sub-cultures were formed because the lads saw school and academic
learning as pointless to their future lives as factory workers;
• ethnicity and anti-school sub-cultures Sewell claimed that Black Caribbean boys may experience
pressure by their peers to adopt the norms of an ‘urban’ or ‘street’ sub-culture

‘The main cause of deviant behaviour is social resistance.’ Explain this view.
Indicative content
• Social groups that develop norms and values different from wider society, and who resist and
oppose the dominant system.
• Youth subcultures in particular may be linked to status frustration (links to structure and
agency) and the difficulties some individuals/groups have in establishing identity and in
receiving status in society. Research examples: Teddy Boys, mods and rockers, skinheads,
punks, Goths, emos and Rastas.
• Counter-school attitudes in education e.g. Willis’s Lads who subverted middle class
educational values by devaluing conformist behaviour.
• • Micro or passive resistance (Williams) might be goths who resist middle class values of
appearance as well as setting themselves apart from the conformist mainstream; or listening to
rap music that is critical of the white establishment as a form of passive resistance (Harrison).
• • Macro or active resistance is more political and organised e.g. Rock against Racism
which mobilised punk culture to oppose racist ideology. Another example could be vegan
activists who join organisations to end factory farming are actively resisting, whereas people
choosing not to eat meat or dairy but who rarely talk about it are passively resisting.
• • Cultural appropriation i.e. mainly working class youth who showed resistance to the
dominant culture by taking everyday objects and subverting their meaning e.g. punks and safety
pins (Hebdige/Birmingham School).
• • Gender example: Riot grrrl zines use cultural appropriation to resist patriarchal beauty
norms that are oppressive to women in their magazines.
• • Overt and covert resistance: distinction between that which is visible and recognised
and that which is not (Holland).

‘The main cause of deviant behaviour is social resistance.’

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Using sociological material, give one argument against this view.

Indicative content
• • The role of social resistance relative to the influence of other factors that can explain
deviant behaviour e.g. cultural deprivation, under-socialisation and marginalisation. Note: with
these arguments, responses need to explain why social resistance is not the main cause of
deviance to enter level 3
• • Not all resistance is intentional opposition.
• • In a postmodern society, the potential for style itself to resist is lost – the
commodification of subcultural styles causes style to lose any shock value and becomes merely
an act of identity creation rooted in consumption and the ‘next cool thing’ (Clark).
• • Some sociologists would argue that deviance can only be understood in terms of
biological and psychological causes.
• • Social resistance tends to be focused on youth and therefore does not offer a
generalised account of deviance/non conformity.
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‘Marginalisation provides the best explanation for deviant behaviour.’

Explain this view. 10
Indicative content
 Marginalisation is the idea that some groups experience multiple
disadvantages that push them to the margins of society, e.g. lack
resources and facilities, poor education and job opportunities (social
exclusion).
 Unemployment, poverty, lack of education, disability, racism etc lead to
socially excluded groups unable to access or take a full part in social
life.
 As a result of poverty, marginalised groups may commit crime to gain
resources, e.g. theft, burglary etc.
 Some groups may lack political representation, this weakens their
connection to dominant value system or ideology.
 Marginalisation may lead people to join subcultures and reject the
values of society.
3(b) ‘Marginalisation provides the best explanation for deviant behaviour.’
Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. 6
Indicative content
 Some arguments take a more individualistic approach and suggest
marginalisation can be explained in terms of fatalism and dependency.
Marginalisation is one amongst many other sociological explanations for
deviance e.g. subcultural, under-socialisation, cultural deprivation and
social resistance.
 Some researchers would argue that a psychological or biological
approach is required to fully understand deviant behaviour.
 Most marginalised people do not commit crime or deviant behaviour so
on its own it is not a strong explanation.
 Evidence showing that marginalised groups commit crime may be a
result of social practices such as policing, stop and search, etc.
 Dominant groups (who are not marginalised) have the power to define
what counts as deviant behaviour.

Explain how the underclass is different from other social classes.

Possible answers: • cultural differences – the underclass have a way of life
characterized by a dependency culture;
• different lifestyle choices – these can lead to social exclusion resulting in
unemployment;
• different attitudes to work and achievement – underclass are characterised
by fatalism and despair;
• higher crime rates – the underclass may turn to crime as they have more
blocked opportunities than the middle class;
• different attitude to education – leads to limited life chances in laterlife;
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• higher proportion of teen pregnancies and single parent households –

these positions are often associated with a dependency on state benefits;
• material deprivation –the underclass have less money and access to goods
than the middle class;
• poverty trap – the underclass are more likely to be stuck in the poverty
trap because of their attitudes to work and education;
• ethnic differences – in the USA the underclass are associated with ethnic
minority groups;
Deviant subcultures are comprised of working-class youth such as territorial
street gangs, tagging (spraying graffiti on public transport), joy-riding, and
anti-social, non-criminal behaviour such as hanging around street corners or
in shopping centres.
The majority of street robberies or crimes such as street muggings of
schoolchildren for their mobile phones and other gadgets and burglaries are
committed by teenagers. The number of gang-related murders using knives
and guns sharply increased in London in 2016. There are different
explanations of why working-class youth commit crime in groups.
l Albert Cohen blames status frustration – deviance may be a group
attempt to compensate for a lack of status and respect at school and in
wider society. Use the Nightingale and Bourgeois studies to support Cohen’s
ideas.
l Cloward and Ohlin observe that the type of deviance that youth adopt
depends on the existence of illegitimate
opportunity structures in their localities.
l Walter Miller blames the parents and culture of working-class boys for
socialising them into a set of deviant values he calls ‘focal concerns’ which
inevitably get them into trouble with the police.
The New Right blame the dysfunctional parents and families because they
have failed to adequately socialise their children. Such children grow up to
be anti-authority and often do not know the difference between right and
wrong.
l Marxists blame the criminogenic value system of capitalism which
encourages greed and material success regardless of the cost to others.
l Left Realists blame a combination of relative deprivation and powerlessness
which leaves sections of youth feeling angry, frustrated and disaffected so
they turn to each other – in subcultures or gangs – as a solution to these
problems.
l Labelling theory blames agents of social control – schools, the police, the
courts and the mass media for negatively stereotyping young people as
potential trouble-makers. This negative labelling means that some sections
of youth, especially the working-class, are subjected to greater surveillance
and negative treatment such as stop and search.
This often leads to resentment and deviancy amplification. l Feminists and
others such as Connell suggest gang violence may be an attempt to
compensate for a crisis of masculinity being experienced by working-class
boys and men.
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lPostmodernists such as Lyng argue that youth crime is edgework as it is

located on the edge, between the thrill of getting away with it and the
potential danger and uncertainty of being captured and punished.
Interactionist sociologists claim that negative labelling or stereotyping can
explain the high levels of arrest and conviction for young Black males.
The Teddy-boy youth subculture was popular among working-class youth in
the 1950s. It had a very elaborate dress code, in that male members wore
Edwardian-style brightly coloured crepe jackets, winklepicker or blue suede
shoes and string ties. Tony Jefferson claimed that this dress code
demonstrated working-class contempt for the class system and poked fun at
their supposed middle-class ‘social superiors’.
The punk rock subculture of the late 1970s wore a costume that was meant
to deliberately ‘shock’ mainstream society. For example, punks would re-use
ordinary objects or commodities such as sticking safety pins through their
noses and ears. They often wore swastikas as part of their dress. Punk girls
often wore bin liners or
sexual bondage gear. Dick Hebdige concluded that the dress code of punk
rockers was a form of resistance to the dominant cultural values of British
society in the late 1970s.
2 Cashmore notes that in the 1970s many young African-Caribbean people
who had been born in Britain adopted a Rastafarian identity with a very
visible style – locs and clothing and headwear in the colours of the Ethiopian
flag – red, gold and green. These youth had a very distinctive ethos – they
saw white society as Babylon, which
would one day be destroyed by Jah (God) who would send his son Ras Tafari to lead
his people back to Africa. Many Rastas deliberately flaunted drug laws by openly
smoking marijuana which Rastafarians saw as helping them to achieve a higher
level of spirituality.
Both Hebdige (1976) and Gilroy observed that Black youth in Britain in the 1970s
often adopted the Rasta spiritual lifestyle as a form of resistance to white culture
and what they perceived as police racism, symbolised by the
frequent and disproportionate police use of stop and search of Black youth. The
very visible style and look of the Rastafarians along with their anti-White-society
stance meant they were often the focus of police attention and some were involved
in the urban riots and uprisings that were common in the UK throughout the 1970s
and
1980s.

Social identity and change

Gender Identity
Feminist sociologists believe gender is socially constructed via gender role socialisation. This
means that boys and girls are taught by society to conform to culturally dominant or hegemonic
 17

masculine and feminine norms of behaviour. Hegemonic femininity encourages females to be

subordinate to men, to see themselves primarily as mothers, to take on without complaint the
responsibility for childcare and housework etc. However, evidence suggests that hegemonic
femininity is being challenged as girls no longer conform to the norms of feminine identity that
dominated British culture thirty years ago. Evidence suggests that women in 2017 are more
likely to see themselves as equal to men rather than subordinate. Sociologists observe that
there now exists a range of feminine identities in the UK including the traditional, culturally
dominant version focused on motherhood as well as the breadwinner/career woman, single
mother and ladette. Firstly, they may express their identity by pursuing educational
qualifications at university in order to become career-orientated rather than be a mother-
housewife. Secondly, they may express their identity by proclaiming their independence from
men. Jackson (2006) defines the latter as working-class girls who smoke, drink and swear (like
boys or lads) and who disrupt lessons in order to be popular and to be considered ‘cool’.

Traditional or hegemonic masculine identity was once bound up with being in paid work, being
the family breadwinner and being the head of the family. Hegemonic masculinity went into
decline from the 1980s on because of a rise in unemployment brought about by globalisation.
In particular, in the late 20th century, men’s status as breadwinners and as heads of the
household was challenged as women went out to work and were often the sole breadwinner.
Connell identifies two other forms of masculinity: ‘Subordinate masculinity’ refers to males who
demonstrate traits which are the opposites of hegemonic masculinity. An example is the
metrosexual male who is supposedly meticulous about his grooming and appearance. Some
feminists have modified the idea of subordinate masculinity to refer to men who have
successfully adapted to a more feminised economic environment by taking more responsibility
for housework and childcare as women go out to work and become the main wage-earners.
Males who voluntarily choose to stay at home as househusbands or those described as ‘new
men’ may be typical of this type of masculinity.
The rise in male unemployment has led to some sociologists such as Mac an Ghaill declaring
that males are experiencing a ‘crisis of masculinity’ because they are no longer sure of their
masculine identity and role. This ‘crisis’ is allegedly leading to problems such as depression and
suicide as traditional men felt emasculated by unemployment. Mac an Ghaill and Sewell have
suggested that one response to this crisis of masculinity has been the emergence of a hyper-
masculinity among young men who look to violence and promiscuity as a means of earning
respect from their peers. Faludi’s study of a subculture of young American men called the ‘Spur
Possee’ observes that young working-class males have responded to this crisis of masculinity by
blaming feminism for their troubles and by engaging in sexual violence. She observes that such
violence is their only remaining source of power.
‘Sex’ refers to the biologically determined identity of male and female. ‘Gender’ refers to the
cultural expectations associated with masculinity and femininity.
5. ‘Hegemonic masculinity’ is the dominant form of masculinity in a particular society at a
particular point in time.
6. The suggestion that sexuality is ‘socially constructed’ implies that what counts as sexuality
varies historically and cross-culturally. It has nothing to do with debates about what causes
 18

people to have a particular sexual orientation. To some extent, sexuality can be seen as a
social construct in that the language used to define particular sexual acts and relationships
alters over time and across cultures. For example, the term ‘homosexual’ was coined in
1869 (at the same time as the term ‘heterosexual’) to describe same-sex sexual attraction.
Hence, the identity of a ‘homosexual’ (and of a ‘heterosexual’), strictly speaking, did not exist
before 1869. (Note: this is not to say that same-sex sexual attraction and sexual
relationships didn’t pre-date 1869.)
7. One way in which identities associated with femininity may be changing is the idea that
women can be both feminine and ‘leaders’ (e.g. with the appearance of women as state
leaders – such as Margaret Thatcher and Angela Merkel – and fictional leaders – such as the
character played by Jennifer Lawrence in the Hunger Games films). Another is the idea that
women can be both feminine and misbehave (e.g. as ‘ladettes’).
8. One change is the increasing employment of married women which has altered the idea of
married women as housewives, ‘married’ to the house. Another is the acceptance of women as
newsreaders and as presenters of ‘hard news’ on TV which has challenged the idea that women
don’t possess the necessary ‘gravitas’ for such roles.
9. The idea that there are several different forms of masculinity and femininity in complex
societies like Britain is particularly associated with Connell (1995, 2009). Connell argues that a
particular set of ideas about what it means to be ‘manly’ is hegemonic (i.e. culturally
dominant) and that both other notions of masculinity and all notions of femininity are
subordinate to hegemonic masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity involves heterosexuality,
dominance, rationality, control of emotions, power and physical toughness. The most common
form of femininity he argues is ‘emphasised femininity’ which involves women’s compliance
with their subordination to men by accommodating the interests and desires of men.
Arguably, one can identify ‘new men’, ‘metrosexual men’ and ‘gay men’ as exhibiting
alternative forms of masculinity and ‘ladettes’, ‘career women’ and ‘lesbians’ as exhibiting
alternative forms of femininity, although the extent to which these are real social entities as
opposed to marketing creations is open to question.
10.Functionalists tended to present socialisation as a one-way process imposed by agents of
socialisation on those being socialised who passively internalised the cultural prescriptions of
their society. Denis Wrong suggested that this overlooked how inherited biological drives
interacted with such influences in each person, and interactionists argued that socialisation
is a two-way process in which the target of socialisation may resist the efforts of
socialising agencies and, indeed, impact the agents themselves so that they too are
changed in the process (think of the impact of having children on a couple).
Despite the increasing involvement of married women in paid employment, married men
continue to enjoy greater leisure time in most households. Also, whilst gender segregation in
leisure pursuits is much less pronounced than it once was, gender differences in how people
spend their leisure time continues e.g. video games and virtual reality technology are mostly
enjoyed by men.
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Age Identity
There is evidence that childhood, adolescence and old age are socially constructed because
people’s experiences of these life-stages differ according to social class, gender, ethnicity and
culture. For example, in some cultures older people are often revered for their wisdom and
experience. In contrast, in the UK there is evidence that the elderly are generally viewed as a
burden and consequently treated very negatively.
Ageism refers to prejudice and discrimination which is practised against particular age groups,
particularly older people. Writing off old people as a burden to society or seeing them as
useless or decrepit are examples of ageism.
Hockey and James found that older people in care homes were deliberately kept in a state of
dependency whilst Featherstone and Hepworth argue that media images of ageing are often
derogatory and condescending although there is some evidence that the media is abandoning
such stereotypes as advertisers realise that older people have money to spend. However, it is
important to realise that young people are often victims of ageism too.
Disability Identity
Shakespeare argues that disabled people are disabled by society, particularly by the negative
attitudes and stereotypes held by non-disabled people about disabled people. These prejudices
create social barriers that discriminate against disabled people and prevent them from leading
independent lives. Social barriers include the built environment, which is often more suitable
for the needs of non-disabled people rather those with disabilities, for example, toilets, access
to buildings and transport systems, although this is improving. Employers may
be often reluctant to employ people with disabilities. This means that disabled people are more
likely to be on state benefits and to be living in a state of poverty. There is evidence of
widespread bullying of disabled people, that is, ‘hate crimes’ in both care homes and in wider
society.
Ethnic identity
Ghumann found that tradition, religion and family values, especially respect for elders, duty,
obligation, honour, the avoidance of shame and the importance of prayer were central aspects
of the ethnic identity of Asian groups living in the UK. Jacobson and others have found that
some young Pakistani Muslims are adopting a strong Islamic identity in response to
Islamophobia, growing tensions and cultural misunderstanding arising from events such as the
joint US-UK invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. However, recent research suggests that most
young Muslims in Britain generally express a strong sense of belonging to British society and
consequently feel very integrated. Research suggests that there is little evidence that young
Asian people are turning to fundamentalist Islam as an alternative and oppositional identity
which is at odds with British identity. Extremist Islamist views are held only by a tiny minority.
Johal (1998) found that many educated young Asian people subscribed to a dual identity that
he called ‘Brasian’. He suggests they inherit an Asian identity which they predominantly use in
their home environment. However, they also adopt a form of identity which Johal calls a ‘white
mask’ which they use in public spaces such as school to interact and connect with their white
peers. Similarly, Ghuman’s research found that Hindu and Sikh children were brought up to
respect tradition and to put religious commitment and family honour before their own
interests. Gilroy (1993) argued that African-Caribbean identity could be described as ‘Black
 20

Atlantic’ because young Black people in the UK identified with the racism and powerlessness
they saw themselves as sharing with their American peers.
A hybrid culture and identity comes about when two very different cultures mix or merge. For
example, Johal claims that many educated young Asian people subscribed to a dual identity
which he terms ‘Brasian’. He suggests they inherit an Asian identity which they predominantly
use in their home environment.
However, they also adopt a form of identity which Johal calls a ‘white mask’ which they use in
public spaces such as school to interact and connect with their white peers. Back (1996)
discovered evidence of ethnic or cultural hybridity among white youth in the 1990s. His
research found that white youths were attracted to and adopted many aspects of Black culture
including speech mannerisms, dress codes, musical tastes and conspicuous consumption of
particular brands and logos. Nyak (2003) describes young white people who imitate Black
speech patterns as ‘white wannabees’. Nyak suggests white teenagers may be influenced by
Black and/or Asian culture in terms of clothing styles, body piercing, gestures of respect (the
fist-bump, the high-five and so on), linguistic style and activities such as street dance, rap and
hip-hop. Societies too may be hybrid because they may combine the best of global culture with
aspects of their localised culture. A good example of this is the Indian film industry which is
known as Bollywood – this has combined aspects of south Asian culture with the commercial
norms of the American or Hollywood film industry. British cultural habits with regard to food
and drink are particularly hybridised. For example, the British love Chicken Tikka Masala which
combines curry and gravy.
National Identity
It can be defined as the feeling of being part of a larger community, especially the nation state,
which gives the individual a sense of pride, purpose and meaning. That pride might be
expressed through patriotic or nationalistic attitudes, feelings and behaviour, for example, by
volunteering to fight for one’s country in times of war, fervently supporting the national
football team and so on.
Some sociologists argue that national identity for British people is often quite confused. There
is some evidence that British identity has actually weakened for three reasons: Firstly, Celtic
(Scottish, Welsh and Irish) people are less likely than English people to see themselves as
British. For example, Welsh speakers identify themselves first and foremost as Welsh rather
than British and 45 per cent of Scots voted to leave the United Kingdom in the referendum of
2014.Secondly, some sociologists claim that the English are experiencing an identity crisis
because many English liberals and left-wing thinkers are reluctant to identify with either an
English or British identity because they believe it to be too closely associated with racism, anti-
Europeanism, Brexit, anti-immigration and hate crime. Thirdly, there is some evidence that
people from minority ethnic groups living in the UK want to identify as British but are uneasy at
the fact that surveys suggested that their presence had not been totally accepted by the white
indigenous population. In a survey conducted in September 2017, one in four British white
people admitted they were racist.
Many English, Welsh, Northern Irish and Scottish people identify themselves as British in terms
of their national identity, but there are also significant minorities in each country who
identify with their own nation. Indeed, there are Welsh and Scottish nationalist parties, and
in Northern Ireland Sinn Fein identifies more with Ireland than Britain. In many countries
 21

around the world there are ethnic groups who pursue separatism, i.e. wish to establish a
separate nation-state within the boundaries of the existing ones, e.g Catalan and Basque
separatists in Spain.
4. The notion of a hybrid identity involves the combination of two sources of identity as in
Irish-American or Italian-American. Such identities are less well developed in the British
context, despite the pursuit of multiculturalism.
5. Two factors that have made a ‘British’ identity less strong than some other national
identities are high rates of immigration and emigration and the fact that Britain is made up of a
number of different nation-states.
6. People are socialised into a British identity through a common language (English),
education, national rituals and symbols and the mass media.
7. In recent years a British identity has been challenged through the development of Scottish
and Welsh nationalism; Irish republicanism in Northern Ireland; through globalisation
(understood as Americanisation) and through problems in adapting to the growth of ethnic
diversity (exemplified, for example, by the growth of ‘Little Englanders’). (Note: the level of
support for nationalist parties is currently far higher in Scotland than in Wales.)
8. Dominant ethnic groups tend to take their ethnicity for granted. Indeed, they often talk as if
they don’t have an ethnic identity – using the word ‘ethnic’ to refer only to others! Since
England has long been the dominant partner in the collection of nations that make up Britain,
English identity has consequently been assumed rather than actively constructed.
9. The arguments for this view would cite the rise in Scottish (and, to a lesser extent, Welsh)
nationalism and the growing concern in recent years to define ‘Britishness’, starting with
Gordon Brown in 2006, which – arguably – is a symptom of insecurity (if it wasn’t an issue,
people wouldn’t be talking about it). The arguments against are that opinion polls suggest
that most members of ethnic minority groups who are British citizens regard themselves as
British and the fact that few British people identify themselves as European (unless prompted).
However, it is difficult to know whether British national identity is or is not in decline
because of a lack of reliable data.
10. Ethnic minority identity is a complex issue and it is important to recognise that it is not fixed
but varies with what is happening both in this country and elsewhere.
There is no reason to think that minority ethnic groups’ self-identity is any different to (or
stronger than) that of (white) British people living abroad. One’s ethnic ‘roots’ are important
for most people.
A survey conducted in 2007 for the ONS found that the majority of people in BAME groups
in Great Britain described their national identity as British, English, Scottish or Welsh:
87% of people with mixed heritage, 85% of Black Caribbean people, 80% of Pakistanis and 78%
of Bangladeshis.
 22

The 2011 Census found that, overall, 91% of the usually resident BAME population of
England and Wales identified with at least one UK national identity (English, Welsh, Scottish,
Northern Irish or British).
As one might expect, ethnic minority self-identity varies with generation (1 st generation:
born overseas; 2nd generation: born here to overseas-born parents; 3rd generation: born
here to British born parents). According to Ethnic Politics (The Online Centre for Ethnicity in
Politics, based at the University of Manchester), in 2010, amongst the 1st generation, an
average of 40% identify more with their ethnic background than with being British, but
only around 20% of the 2nd and 3rd generations do so. However, in all generations, a majority
either see themselves as equally British or as more British.
Some groups have responded to globalisation by emphasising their ethnic identity as a way of
trying to resist the social changes connected with globalisation e.g. ‘Little Englanders’. Others
have embraced globalisation by adopting hybrid identities which fuse elements from two or
more cultures. Gill (2009), for example, writes about the adoption by some young British Asians
of a ‘Blasian’ identity that fuses elements of Black and Asian culture.

To some extent it is true that people have greater freedom today to construct their own
identities, particularly in urban settings where people are less tied to their family origins.
However, identities are not only chosen: they are also imposed. The fact that a young person of
Indian or Caribbean ancestry sees themselves primarily as, say, a footballer or a dancer is
unlikely to make any difference to the racist thug who wishes to humiliate them! Moreover,
identities are shaped by people’s material lives: experiences of unemployment, poverty, poor
housing and inner-city deprivation are likely to leave their mark. It might be difficult for a
working class youngster to adopt an identity as an international jet-setter!
Evaluate the view that social class is a strong influence on an individual’s identity.

Social class is a system of stratification used in the UK today. It is a tri level system which has
three social classes - the upper class, the middle class and the working class. New Right
commentators such as Charles Murray argue that there is a fourth class at the bottom of the
social strata called the underclass; however this is still a debated topic. This means an individual
is born into a social class which undoubtedly has an impact on their identity. McIntosh and
Mooney have attempted to research the upper classes and they have found this difficult
because the upper classes operate in social closure. They do not like to let outsiders in and
remain very private. However, we do know that they have high levels of cultural capital and live
elite lifestyles. Their children are also socialised into this elite type of identity as they are
surrounded in high culture. Marxists argue the upper class aim to keep this part of their elite
identity to keep control over the masses. However it is worth noting that high culture is in
decline in the UK and the upper classes are losing some wealth and having to let insiders in such
as “new money”.
Savage argues that middle class identity can be linked to occupational status. Savage identified
four main categories of job that we can find middle class people in, one of them being
professionals. The professional group base their identity on high education levels and job
 23

training. Another feature of middle class identity is the nuclear family and the concept of child
centeredness which the middle classes strive for. However, postmodernists argue that the
nuclear family is now in decline and this may not be a feature of middle class family life
anymore.
The working classes used to have a really strong sense of collective identity, through the
manual labour jobs they did and trade union membership of trade unions and the labour party.
A huge part of working class identity was being part of extended family kinship networks and
traditional gender roles. However Mac and Ghail claim there has been a crisis in masculinity
with no traditional working men’s manual jobs available anymore and thus impacting on
working class identity.
The underclass have an identity based on welfare dependency according to Murray who are
lazy and work shy, they pass these norms and values onto their children which creates a
cultural dependency. The children of the underclass pick up and learn the identity of their
parents and they are unable to change this because they have been socialised inadequately.
However Marxists argue that the people at the bottom of the system do not get enough help
and that’s why they cannot get out of the situation they are in.
It is clear to see that social class does shape a person’s identity as from a young age you
socialised into your class identity; however we are living in a postmodern world. Identities are
being blurred.
Postmodernists such as Waters argue that a person can now base their identity on the products
they consume meaning social class may not be as big a factor as it used to be in shaping a
person’s identity. On a final note though a person must have money to consume items so social
class is still important. But Greater emphasis is placed on individual, rather than collective,
experiences. As a result, working-class identities in particular have become more varied. This
reflects the idea that class identity is becoming increasingly fluid - based on someones ability to
choose who they are or who they want to be.

Reference to influence of agencies of socialisation in shapingclass identity

•Reference may be made to studies such as: Skeggs, Roker,Reay, Savage, Roberts, MacDonald
& Marsh, McIntosh &Mooney, Willis, Mac an Ghaill, Medhurst, Brundson, Brah,Murray, Cooper
•Concepts such as: social disadvantage, marginalisation,labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy,
underclass, old boys’ network,social closure, cultural capital, crisis of masculinity, cultural
comfort zones, ascribed/achieved status, family as an ideological conditioning device, hidden
curriculum, false classconsciousness
•Theory – reference to Marxist views on class in relation to class identity
Responses may focus on the ways in which gender, age and ethnicity may have a stronger
influence on an individual’s identity than their class
• Reference to the implied passivity of individuals being socialised into their identity
• Reference to the problematic nature of the concept of social class
• Postmodern views on a ‘pick and mix’ identity and the blurring of boundaries between social
groups
• The intersection of different aspects of an individual’s identity including gender, age and
ethnicity
 24

• Reference to the changing nature of the social class system

To what extent do the working class still have a distinct social identity?
Possible answers: Arguments for: • there is still a strong sense of community in areas with an industrial
past, e.g. areas associated with coal mining, shipbuilding and steel-making; • some working class areas
still have their own language or idioms, e.g. Cockney and this gives them a distinct identity; • some
would argue that the working class still have their own culture, e.g. popular culture rather than high
culture and this unites them; • some parts of the working class may have their own set of values, e.g.
immediate gratification, anti-school, fatalism, etc. which mark them out as a distinctive group in society;
• the working class may have distinct norms of behaviour e.g. the culture of traditional or hegemonic
masculinity is still very much the norm for working class males; • incomes have changed but there is still
a gap between the working class and middle and upper classes especially in terms of lifestyle and so
there are clear similarities among working class people in terms of the goods and services they
consume, e.g. working class could be distinguished by the styles of clothing they chose to wear or their
‘fake’ couture • working class youth sub-cultures are an exaggeration of the working class identity, e.g.
skinheads (Cohen) and display a clear and distinct social identity; • any other reasonable response.
Arguments against: • traditional working class communities have disappeared, e.g. the old industries
have gone and communities have dispersed and fragmented resulting also in a fragmentation in identity;
• political de-alignment has occurred, e.g. the working class no longer vote just for socialist parties like
Labour in UK or join trade unions; • postmodernists argue that class culture has been replaced by
consumer culture, e.g. in MIS the working class now have the wealth to aspire to consumer goods and
activities they could not afford in the past; • embourgeoisement has taken place and some members of
the old working class are now part of the lower middle class so the boundaries are being blurred; •
working class identity has become negative as a result of media stereotyping and has been ‘disowned’,
e.g. ‘chav’ and ‘scrounger’ labels have been applied; • traditional working class pastimes have become
‘gentrified’, e.g. soccer is now a sport for the rich as much as for the masses;

To what extent is class the most important factor in creating social identity? Arguments for: • the
different social classes have distinct values e.g. members of the upper class are likely to see themselves
as belonging to a sort of exclusive club, based on their ability to spend a lot of money (conspicuous
consumption), which signals their wealth and difference to others whereas the underclass may enshrine
fatalism, immediate gratification etc.; • there is a strong sense of working class community in areas with
an industrial past linked to manual work e.g. in the UK coal, steel and shipbuilding industries boys would
often follow their fathers to work and marriages often were made in the community; • membership of
trade unions, voting patterns and shared working and living conditions created a strong sense of
collective identity that was stronger in the working class than in some other classes; • social class may
still affect language e.g. restricted and elaborate code, accent, etc. Which can all create a sense of
identity and belonging; • different classes may participate in different cultural activities and this can
affect identity e.g. members of the working class may associate themselves more with the products of
popular rather than high culture; • social class can also affect aspects of identity such as gender e.g. the
distinct norms of behaviour linked with the working class culture of hegemonic masculinity; • although
working class incomes have changed there is still a gap between the working class and middle and upper
 25

classes especially in terms of consumption and lifestyle and this affects social identity, e.g. the working
class could be distinguished by the styles of clothing they choose to wear or their ‘fake’ couture; •
working class youth sub-cultures are an exaggeration of the working class identity e.g. skinheads
(Cohen); • media reporting of the working-class has become very negative, representing them
stereotypically as lazy and scrounging off welfare e.g. the demonisation of the word ‘chav’ in the UK and
this impacts on identity;

Arguments against: • the old collective working class identity has now been weakened by the loss of
jobs in the old manual industries and the fragmentation of the communities based on them so class
identity is not now significant; • age as a social characteristic is more important than class in creating a
sense of identity – members of an age group share a common experience of growing up at the same
point in history and therefore experience different events and social changes which can impact on social
identity e.g. the baby boomers of the 1960s have grown up in a more liberal and affluent society than
their parents and thus may have different values and attitudes; • age is more important for adolescents
– this is often seen as a difficult period because it involves an evolving identity and status anxiety; as a
result peers often band closely together and create their own youth culture and sub-cultures which may
give a strong sense of norms and values e.g. skinheads; • gender as a social characteristic is more
important than class in creating a sense of identity – early gender role socialisation via canalisation and
manipulation instil a strong sense of who we are as individuals and feminists argue that this can
transcend social class identity in terms of its effects on roles within the family, the workplace, etc.; •
nationality is now more important than class in creating a sense of identity – in recent times, and
following globalisation, nationality has become a more central part of peoples’ identities e.g. in the rise
of nationalism, Brexit, etc. and this crosses social class divides; • ethnicity remains a strong influence on
social identity and affects language, clothing, food and values e.g. in multi-ethnic countries like the UK
communities such as the Pakistani or Chinese communities are often more closely bound by ethnic ties
than social class; • some postmodernists argue that class culture has been replaced by consumer culture
– what we buy and own shapes our identity more than our social class e.g. in MIS the working class now
have the wealth to aspire to consumer goods and activities they could not afford in the past and use
items to signal status; • in more open and socially mobile societies traditional class characteristics have
largely disappeared e.g. the old upper class has now fragmented, class boundaries have become blurred
as people have moved up/down the class ladder;
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Explain why age affects an individual’s social identity.

Possible answers: • adolescence can be a difficult time because it involves status anxiety – young people
can find it stressful to make the transition from ascribed to achieved status and often look to their peer
group for support e.g. in subcultures; • childhood is seen as a distinct phase in life and generally a
carefree time of innocence, learning and play during which children are protected by special laws e.g.
about care, education and working; • different ages bring different rights and responsibilities in society
e.g. the right to marry or to vote are set at an age when young people are seen as being capable of
making their own decisions; • different ages are often linked to different interests and lifestyle e.g. the
young are more interested in adrenaline-fueled activities, being in fashion etc. whilst older people may
live a relaxed, quieter life and be less interested in following the latest trends; • members of the same
age group are a generation and this can lead to significant differences in experiences and attitudes,
leading to conflict between the generations (generation gap); • elderly people enter retirement which
can be experienced as a period of impoverishment and negative labelling for some; • in some societies
elders are highly respected for their wisdom and will be treated with special honour and respect; • in
Western societies children spend a long time relative to other societies undergoing socialisation into
adult roles and this period of socialisation shapes the child’s later identity;

Explain why ethnicity is an important influence on social identity.

Possible answers: • human beings are socialised into an ethnic identity through primary and secondary
socialisation e.g. being taught to pray or observe cultural celebrations and festivals; • ethnicity can affect
what we eat e.g. prohibitions against pork in religions such as Judaism and Islam; • ethnicity can affect
gender roles e.g. the norms and expectations of the roles of women and men in Islam; • ethnicity can
affect age identity e.g. in some ethnic groups old age is generated and there is a gerontocracy; •
ethnicity can affect social identity through negative labelling and stereotyping of a group which may lead
to discrimination and selffulfilling prophesy; • ethnicity can affect the type of family you live in e.g.
contrast the one (now three) child policy in China with the extended family networks often found in
ethnic groups in India; • social control is applied in some groups to those who transgress against ethnic
norms and values e.g. sanctions against those who marry outside of their ethnic group; • ethnic identity
is often expressed through clothing as a ‘marker’ and displays our identity to the world e.g. the Jewish
kippah is a visible sign of Jewish identity; • ethnicity is sometimes linked to religion which can have a
profound influence over the values and norms that an individual follows e.g.

Discuss the view that crime and deviance are relative.

Your answer should include: • at least three developed points with evidence. Use Table A to mark
answers to this question. Possible responses: • Relative to time/era – a behaviour in a society may be
considered deviant in one time period but acceptable many years later, e.g. homosexuality; conversely,
a behaviour may be considered acceptable in one time period but deviant many years later, e.g. smoking
in public places. • Relative to culture – something defined as deviant in one culture may be accepted as
normal in another e.g. polygamy. • Relative to role – behaviour by a person whilst in a particular role
may be defined as not deviant but deviant for that same person to do when not in that role, e.g. a
soldier killing a human in battle is not deviant, but if that soldier kills a human when out shopping that
would be deviant. • Relative to society – different societies have different norms and values and thus
different understandings of deviance, e.g. the permissible and expected role of women. • Relative to
situation – it is typically seen as deviant in most societies to be naked in public but perfectly acceptable
to do this in private. • Ever changing – crime and deviance can be considered to be relative because
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there is no one universal definition and because the concepts are ever changing as societies progress
and change. • Marxism – belief that the creation and enforcement of laws benefit the higher social
classes, e.g. that robbery is perceived to be a threat to social order and criminals are treated harshly by
the authorities but whitecollar crime (that involves stealing a lot more money) is rarely discussed or
prosecuted. • Feminism – definitions of crime and deviance depend on the perpetrators’ gender, e.g.
males fit the stereotype of ‘criminal’ and they are therefore targeted by the authorities and given
harsher sentences (Cicourel). In contrast women may benefit from the ‘chivalry thesis’ (Pollack). •
Labelling theory – Becker claims that labels are not applied in a consistent way and that the deviant is
the person/group a label has been successfully applied to, thus deviant behaviour is only the behaviour
that people label.

Explain three reasons why people may join deviant sub-cultures. Award one mark for each point
correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to
a maximum of three). Possible responses: • To achieve status within the peer group – status frustration
due to failure in school or wider society may lead some to achieve status in a socially unacceptable way,
e.g. by joining a gang. • Inadequate socialisation – the New Right argue that some individuals are not
taught the correct norms and values or may have unsuitable role models, hence they are more likely to
fall into a deviant sub-culture. • Some people suffer relative deprivation which leads them to join
criminal groups to make money. • Individuals from some marginalised groups may be negatively labelled
and end up in deviant sub-cultures as a self-fulfilling prophecy. • For thrills and excitement – some
people enjoy the adrenalin rush from doing deviant or illegal acts, e.g. gangs. • Any other reasonable
response. 6

Explain three ways identity can be chosen rather than given in the digital age. Award one mark for each
point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed
(up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • Social media posts where identity can be constantly
re-edited. • Virtual communities which require users to create their own avatar via which they interact
and form relationships in an online ‘world’. • Postmodernists argue that individuals can now write and
edit their own online profiles and select and continually edit their public persona. • It is possible to
create an identity or identities online that are far removed from your offline identity and this can be
empowering for some. • Joining social networks based on personal interests or hobbies, political
affiliations, etc. • Through online consumption patterns – buying clothes, accessories and goods/services
associated with a chosen lifestyle. • Dating websites in which people create profiles to meet and interact
with others searching for a relationship
Evaluate the view that gender is the main influence on identity. Your answer should include: • at least
three arguments for the view and three arguments against the view • a conclusion. Use Table D to mark
answers to this question. Possible arguments for: • Social identity is shaped through processes of
primary socialisation many of which are highly gendered, such as manipulation, canalisation, imitation
and verbal appellation. • Gender expectations in the workplace shape our sense of self, e.g. norms of
appearance for women and men are often different. • The gendered division of labour in the workplace
influences how we see ourselves in relation to colleagues, e.g. women often occupy lower positions due
to vertical segregation. • Social identity is influenced by gender norms and expectations in education
such as subject choice, friendship groups, subcultures, dress codes, teacher expectations and labelling. •
Gender stereotypes in the mass media influence how we see ourselves – role models are often
stereotypical. • Peer groups are often formed along gender lines and subsequently shape the way we
see ourselves in relation to the group, e.g. single-sex friendship groups reinforce traditional gender
norms. • Hegemonic notions of masculinity, e.g. the male as breadwinner and protector still shape how
many men see themselves and their social role. • Many religions have different expectations for
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different genders and within the leadership roles are segregated along gender lines, e.g. in Catholicism
women can still not become priests, or the wearing of hijab or burqa to preserve female modesty. • Any
other reasonable response. Possible arguments against: • Postmodernists argue gender is more fluid as
alternative and nontraditional role models emerge and this reduces the effects of gender stereotypes. •
Traditional notions of gender are breaking down, we now have multiple acceptable
masculinities/femininities, gender convergence etc., so traditional ideas of gender are less important in
shaping our sense of self. • Marxists argue that social class and access to cultural capital is more
important in shaping our social identity as it determines who we interact with, our aspirations and our
life chances. • For some groups race, ethnicity and religious background are more important influences
on social identity than gender, e.g. nationalist groups or religious cults/sects. • Age is important in
shaping our sense of self throughout the life course, e.g. teen identity and old age are both stereotyped
and labelled negatively in some societies. • Gender does not work in isolation and it is a combination of
factors, such as age, ethnicity and gender that operate together to influence our social identity. 14

• Postmodernists would argue that we live in a consumer-based, media-saturated society and we are
free to choose our identity via our consumption and lifestyle choices – traditional sources of identity
such as gender have dwindled in importance
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Outline and briefly evaluate the view that social classis a strong influence on an
individual’s identity.
The following list is indicative of possible factors/evidence that candidates may refer to but is not
prescriptive or exhaustive:
•Reference to influence of agencies of socialisation in shapingclass identity
•Reference may be made to studies such as: Skeggs, Roker,Reay, Savage, Roberts,
MacDonald & Marsh, McIntosh &Mooney, Willis, Mac an Ghaill, Medhurst, Brundson,
Brah,Murray, Cooper
•Concepts such as: social disadvantage, marginalisation,labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy,
underclass, old boys’ network,social closure, cultural capital, crisis of masculinity,
culturalcomfort zones, ascribed/achieved status, family as anideological conditioning device,
hidden curriculum, false classconsciousness
•Theory – reference to Marxist views on class in relation to classidentity
AO3: Analysis and evaluation
The following list is indicative of possible factors/evidence that candidates may refer to in
evaluation but is not prescriptive or exhaustive:
• Responses may focus on the ways in which gender, age and ethnicity may have a stronger
influence on an individual’s identity than their class
• Reference to the implied passivity of individuals being socialised into their identity
• Reference to the problematic nature of the concept of social class
• Postmodern views on a ‘pick and mix’ identity and the blurring of boundaries between social
groups
• The intersection of different aspects of an individual’s identity including gender, age and
ethnicity
• Reference to the changing nature of the social class system
• Any other reasonable point of evaluation

Evaluate the interpretivist approach to sociological research.

Your answer should include:
at least two arguments for the approach and two arguments against the approach
a conclusion.

Use Table A to mark answers to this question.

Possible responses for:
Sociologists need to understand how individuals make sense of their interactions and
behaviours and therefore an in-depth micro approach is needed.
Humans are not ‘puppets’ but possess choice and agency, so interpretivists use
qualitative methods which aim to uncover these, e.g. interviews, participant observations.
It is crucial to understand the ‘why’ behind statistical patterns and trends in social
behaviour, thus qualitative data is needed for a valid picture of social reality.
Individuals are complex and people experience society in different ways and have their
own reasons for acting in the world, thus scientific methods are not appropriate as they simply
measure phenomena.
Interpretivists criticise ‘scientific sociology’ (positivism) because many of the macro level
statistics it relies on are themselves socially constructed, so it concentrates on understanding
micro social interactions in detail.
Any other reasonable response.

Possible responses against:

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Unlike interpretivists, positivists believe sociologists should use a scientific approach

which should allow them to uncover the ‘social facts’ /laws that govern social behaviour.
A positivist approach that uses methods that are high in reliability allows research to be
checked because the methods are standardised and hence repeatable, unlike interpretivist
methods.
Interpretivist methods for researching social behaviour are prone to bias in data
collection, positivists believe that errors and bias can be reduced by standardising the methods
used and being objective.
Interpretivist methods alone are not the most effective – some argue that reliability and
validity are equally important in researching social behaviour and thus advocate a triangulation
of data from both positivism and interpretivist perspectives.
Interpretivism usually uses only small samples and hence results are often
unrepresentative and not generalisable to the wider research population.

Evaluate the view that human behavior is socially constructed.

socially constructed refers to something formed and defined by society. a number of sociologists argue
that human behavior is directly influenced by socialization processes and institutions however it is
commonly believed among scientists that some behavior inevitably stems from biology and genetics.

Primary socialization occurs during early childhood, when children learn essential skills like language,
behavior, and social norms from their immediate family. This period shows the importance of social
interaction in developing a child's basic abilities. Studies of feral children, such as the cases of Victor of
Aveyron emphasize the important role of early socialization as those children isolated from human
contact failed to develop typical human behaviors expected within a society.

Secondary socialization provides further evidence that human behavior is socially constructed. This
process involves learning from a wider range of social agents, such as peers, educational institutions,
workplaces, and media. These influences shape our social skills, cultural norms, and personal values
overtime.

On the other hand, biological and genetic factors also contribute significantly to human behavior. For
instance, temperament, can affect how individuals react to their environment and social interactions.
Twin studies have shown genetics play a role in traits like intelligence, personality, and likelihood of
mental illnesses.

Furthermore, evolutionary psychology explains how certain behaviors may have been advantageous for
survival and hence became ingrained in human genetics. For example, behaviors related to aggression
can be traced back to evolutionary adaptations, such innate behavior highlights the role of biology in
shaping human actions.

other factors such as disability and age are also important to mention as they are out of the control of
humans and society. They are biological factors that shape our lives, and can be seen as further evidence
of the genetic influence on human behaviour. For example, an older person cannot be as physically
active as an adolescent even if they had the same desire to be so. It is therefore evident that although
society clearly shapes us as humans, much of our behaviour is also determined by nature.

Functionalist theorists like Talcott Parsons argue that societal institutions work together like organs in a
body, to maintain social order and stability. They believe that these institutions including family,
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education, and religion, collectively shape human behavior by teaching shared values and norms.
However, critics argue that Functionalist perspectives may overlook the complexities and conflicts within
society.

Conflict theorists, including Marxists like Althusser view human behavior as influenced by societal
structures that maintain inequality. They argue that capitalism shapes behavior by promoting
competition and consumerism. This perspective suggests that human behavior is not only socially
constructed but also influenced by economic and political forces. Carvel gives the example of pester
power whereby the media is so powerful in convincing children they need a toy or piece of technology
that often parents give in to this.

Feminist theorists, both liberal and radical, emphasize how gender roles are socially constructed through
processes such as socialization. They argue that patriarchal structures force gender inequalities by
teaching different behaviors and expectations for men and women.

In conclusion, while there is solid evidence that human behavior is socially constructed through
socialization processes, institutions, and cultural contexts, biological and genetic factors also do play a
crucial role, meaning both elements are significant in understanding human actions.