COA – LECTURE 1

• Computer Architecture:
• Computer Architecture deals with giving operational attributes of the
computer or Processor to be specific. It deals with details like physical
memory, ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) of the processor, the
number of bits used to represent the data types, Input Output
mechanism and technique for addressing memories.
• Computer Organization:
• Computer Organization is realization of what is specified by the
computer architecture .It deals with how operational attributes are
linked together to meet the requirements specified by computer
architecture. Some organizational attributes are hardware details,
control signals, peripherals. EXAMPLE
•EXAMPLE:

•Say you are in a company that manufactures cars, design and all low-
level details of the car come under computer architecture (abstract,
programmers view), while making it’s parts piece by piece and
connecting together the different components of that car by keeping
the basic design in mind comes under computer organization
(physical and visible).
 Computer Organization Computer Architecture
Computer architecture (a bit higher
Often called microarchitecture (low level)
level)
Transparent from programmer (ex. a Programmer view (i.e. Programmer has
programmer does not worry much how to be aware of which instruction set
addition is implemented in hardware) used)
Logic (Instruction set,
Physical components (Circuit design,
Addressing modes, Data types, Cache
Adders, Signals, Peripherals)
optimization)
How to do ? (implementation of the
What to do ? (Instruction set)
architecture)
•GENERATIONS OF A COMPUTER

•Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer

is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish
between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes
both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer
system.

There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation
has been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics.
Here approximate dates against each generations have been mentioned which
are normally accepted. Following are the main five generations of comp
S.N. Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based
•First generation
• The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of
first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for
memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These
tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone to
frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive
and could be afforded only by very large organizations. In this
generation mainly batch processing operating system were used.
Punched cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input
and output devices. The computers in this generation used machine
code as programming language
•The main features of first generation are:
❖ Vacuum tube technology
❖ Unreliable
❖ Supported machine language only
❖ Very costly
❖ Generated lot of heat
• Slow input and output devices
• Huge size
• Need of A.C.
• Non-portable
• Consumed lot of electricity
•Some computers of this generation were:
• ENIAC
• EDVAC
• UNIVAC
• IBM-701
•Second generation
•The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation
transistors were used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact
in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of
vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary
memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
In this generation assembly language and high-level programming languages
like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and
multiprogramming operating system.
The main features of second generation are:
• Use of transistors
• Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
• Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
• Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
• Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
• Faster than first generation computers
• Still very costly
• A.C. needed
• Supported machine and assembly languages
• Some computers of this generation were:
• IBM 1620
• IBM 7094
• CDC 1604
• CDC 3600
• UNIVAC 1108
•Third generation

•The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third

generation used integrated circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has
many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller
in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-
sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. Highlevel languages
(FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used
during this generation.
The main features of third generation are:
• IC used
• More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
• Smaller size
• Generated less heat
• Faster
• Lesser maintenance
• Still costly
• A.C needed
• Consumed lesser electricity

• Supported high-level language

•Some computers of this generation were:
• IBM-360 series
• Honeywell-6000 series
• PDP(Personal Data Processor)
• IBM-370/168
• TDC-316
•Fourth generation
• The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of
fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.
VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit
elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it
possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth
generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable,
and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC)
revolution. In this generation time sharing, real time, networks,
distributed operating system were used. All the high-level
languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation
The main features of fourth generation are
• VLSI technology used
• Very cheap
• Portable and reliable
• Use of PC's
• Very small size
• Pipeline processing
• No A.C. needed
• Concept of internet was introduced
• Great developments in the fields of networks

• Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

• DEC 10
• STAR 1000
• PDP 11
• CRAY-1(Super Computer)
• CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
•Fifth generation

•The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI
technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in
the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science,
which interprets means and method of making computers think like human
beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in
this generation.
AI includes:
• Robotics
• Neural Networks
• Game Playing
• Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations
• Natural language understanding and generation
•The main features of fifth generation are:
• ULSI technology
• Development of true artificial intelligence
• Development of Natural language processing
• Advancement in Parallel Processing
• Advancement in Superconductor technology
• More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
• Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper
rate
• Some computer types of this generation are:
• Desktop
• Laptop
• NoteBook
• UltraBook
• Chromebook
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
•COMPUTER TYPES
•Classification based on Operating Principles
•Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into
one of the following types:
•-
1) Digital Computers
2) Analog Computers
3) Hybrid Computers
• Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities
are expressed as discrete or numbers. Digital computers are useful
for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of data
(such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous
equations etc).
• Analog Computers:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses
the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being
solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities
symbolically, as their numerical values change.
• Hybrid Computers:- are computers that exhibit features of analog
computers and digital computers. The digital component normally
serves as the controller and provides logical operations, while the
analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.
 •Classification digital Computer based on size and Capability
•Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into
•Micro Computers(Personal Computer)
• A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. The
older pc started 8 bit processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64 bit
processor with speed of 4.66 GB.
• Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers
•Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types:
1. Desktops
2. Portables
• The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops
computers cannot be carried around
 •Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types:
1. Desktops
2. Portables

•The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops

computers cannot be carried around.
The different portable computers are: -
1) Laptop
2) Notebooks
3) Palmtop (hand held)
4) Wearable computers
• Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computers but the
size is smaller. They are expensive than desktop. The weight of
laptop is around 3 to 5 kg.
• Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size
of these computers are comparatively smaller than laptop and
desktop. They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are more costly than laptop.
• Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital
Assistant (PDA). These computers are small in size. They can be
held in hands. It is capable of doing word processing, spreadsheets
and hand writing recognition, game playing, faxing and paging.
These computers are not as powerful as desktop computers. Ex: -
3com palmV.
• Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so
that it can be worn on the body. It has smaller processing power. It
is used in the field of medicine. For example pace maker to correct
the heart beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of insulin in the
blood. Example: Unix and windows NT.
b) Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is
more powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are usually designed
to serve multiple users simultaneously (Parallel Processing). They are more
expensive than microcomputers.
• Examples: Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra
b) Mainframe (Enterprise) computers: - Computers with large
storage capacities and very high speed of processing (compared to
mini- or microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers.
They support a large number of terminals for simultaneous use by
a number of users like ATM transactions. They are also used as
central host computers in distributed data processing system.
• Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.
b) Supercomputer: - Supercomputers have extremely large
storage capacity and computing speeds which are many times
faster than other computers. A supercomputer is measured in
terms of tens of millions Instructions per second (mips), an
operation is made up of numerous instructions. The
supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical problems
in scientific and engineering disciplines such as Weather analysis.
• Examples: - IBM Deep Blue
 •Classification based on number of microprocessors
a) Sequential computers and
b) Parallel computers
Sequential computers: - Any task complete in sequential computers is
with one microcomputer only. Most of the computers (today) we see are
sequential computers where in any task is completed sequentially instruction
after instruction from the beginning to the end.
Parallel computers: - The parallel computer is relatively fast. New types of
computers that use a large number of processors. The processors perform
different tasks independently and simultaneously thus improving the speed of
execution of complex programs dramatically.
• Parallel computers match the speed of supercomputers at a fraction of the
cost
•Classification based on word-length

• A binary digit is called “BIT”. A word is a group of bits which

is fixed for a computer. The number of bits in a word (or word
length) determines the representation of all characters in these
many bits. Word length leis in the range from 16-bit to 64-bitsf or
most computers of today.
 •Classification based on number of users
• Based on number of users, computers are classified into:
Single User: - Only one user can use the resource at any time
• Multi User: - A single computer shared by a number of users at any
time
 .
Network:- A number of interconnected autonomous computers
shared by a number of users at any time.
 •COMPUTER TYPES

• A computer can be defined as a fast electronic calculating machine that

accepts the (data) digitized input information process it as per the list of
internally stored instructions and produces the resulting information. List of
instructions are called programs & internal storage is called computer
memory.

The different types of computers are

1. Personal computers: - This is the most common type found in homes, schools,
Business offices etc., It is the most common type of desk top computers with processing
and storage units along with various input and output devices.
2. Note book computers: - These are compact and portable versions of PC
3. Work stations: - These have high resolution input/output (I/O) graphics
capability, but with same dimensions as that of desktop computer. These are
used in engineering applications of interactive design work
4. Enterprise systems: - These are used for business data processing in
medium to large corporations that require much more computing power and
storage capacity than work stations. Internet associated with servers have
become a dominant worldwide source of all types of information.

5. Super computers: - These are used for large scale numerical

calculations required in the applications like weather forecasting etc.,
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
• Input: Whatever is put into a computer system.
• Data: Refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects, or ideas.
• Information: The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes; the
words, numbers, sounds, and graphics.
• Output: Consists of the processing results produced by a computer.
• Processing: Manipulation of the data in many ways.
• Memory: Area of the computer that temporarily holds data waiting to be
processed, stored, or output.
• Storage: Area of the computer that holds data on a permanent basis when it
is not immediately needed for processing.
• Assembly language program (ALP) –Programs are written using
mnemonics
• Mnemonic –Instruction will be in the form of English like form
 ➢Assembler –is a software which converts ALP to MLL (Machine Level
Language)
➢HLL (High Level Language) –Programs are written using English like
statements
➢Compiler -Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by reading source program
at once
➢ Interpreter –Converts HLL to MLL, does this job statement by statement

➢ System software –Program routines which aid the user in the execution
of programs eg: Assemblers, Compilers
➢ Operating system –Collection of routines responsible for controlling and
coordinating all the activities in a computer system
•Computers has two kinds of components:
• Hardware, consisting of its physical devices (CPU, memory, bus, storage
devices, ...)
• Software, consisting of the programs it has (Operating system,
applications, utilities, ...)

•FUNCTIONAL UNIT
• A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts input,
memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), output and control unit
• Functional units of computer
• Input device accepts the coded information as source program i.e. high level
language. This is either stored in the memory or immediately used by the
processor to perform the desired operations. The program stored in the memory
determines the processing steps. Basically the computer converts one source
program to an object program i.e. into machine language.

• Finally the results are sent to the outside world through output device. All of
these actions are coordinated by the control unit.