Part I

DC circuits

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 Chapter (1)
Elements and properties

1.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of most commonly used elements in electric circuits. It also
contains laws governing the current through and voltage across these components as well as the
power supplied/dissipated and energy storage in this context. In addition, difference between ideal
and nonideal voltage and current sources is highlighted including a discussion on sign convention i.e.
voltage polarity and current direction.

The concepts of current and voltage are first introduced as these constitutes one of the most
fundamental concepts particularly in electronics and electrical engineering.

1.2 Electrical and Electronic circuits for Mechanical Engineers

It is necessary that you know the basics of electricity if you are becoming a mechanical
engineer. For example,

 Machines - If you are going to work in an industry in the manufacturing sector, you need to
know how much electricity is required to run the machines and how to control it. You don’t
need to know in detail how the controllers work, but you need to have a basic understanding.

 Heat Transfer - Cooling of electronic appliances has a direct impact on the electricity used by
the component.

 Power Plant engineering - This deals with the generation of power and the various methods to
generate power. If you don’t know electricity you won’t be able to link this to real life
applications.

Seeing the various subjects where electricity touches mechanical engineering, electricity is not
directly involved but has an indirect effect. The theory you learn in college needs to be applied to the
real industry. Electricity adds to the overall cost of the industry. Therefore as a mechanical engineer,
we should optimize our operations so that we can reduce the use of electricity and the cost.
Electronics came to be after electrical engineering became further specialized, which became a field
when it departed from mechanical engineering.

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 Given that in the end electronics are produced by machines build by mechanical engineers to
start with and typically end up in other mechanical machines, say cars, airplanes, powertools,
computers etc. the question should be reversed: is learning mechanical engineering useful to
electronic engineering?

Can one design things meant to used by the core engineers being himself an overspecialised
leaf engineer without understanding their design philosophy and principles? Down the road there will
always be a mechanical engineer functioning as a system’s engineer and integrator who will tell you
that the operational parameters of your electronics are these, that this, say Boeing 747, needs such
and such a control board to replace an older heavier electrohydraulic control system.

But be not confused: it’s the mechanical engineer that signs it off in the end and gets the credit
or the blame, for it’s never a circuit or a server that went down it’s always an airliner.

1.3 Terminology in Electrical Circuits

Tables 1.1 and 1.2 show the basic circuit elements along with their symbols and schematics
used in an electric circuit. The R, L and C are all passive components i.e. they do not generate their
own emf whereas the DC voltage and current sources are active elements.

Table 1.1
Fundamental electric circuit quantities, their symbols and standard units.

Quantity Symbol Unit

Voltage V Volts (V)
Current I Ampere (A)
Charge Q Coulomb (C)
Power P Watts (W)
Energy W Joules (J)
Time T seconds (s)

Table 1.2
Common circuit elements and their representation in an electric circuit.

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1.3.1 Current
Current can be defined as the motion of charge through a conducting material. The unit of
current is Ampere whilst charge is measured in Coulombs. The ampere is : “The quantity of total
charge that passes through an arbitrary cross section of a conducting material per unit second. The
symbols for the current and ampere are given in Table 1.1. The relation between the current I ,
Charge Q and time is given by (1.1)

I = dQ / dt (1.1)

As rhe current is also be defined as the rate of charge passing through a point in an electric
circuit. However, for A constant current (also known as direct current or DC) equation (1.1) could be
rewritten as,

I=Q/t or Q=It (1.2)

Current is always measured through a circuit element.

Figure 1.1 demonstrates the use of an ampere-meter or ammeter in series with a circuit element,
R, to measure the current through it.

Figure 1.1: An ammeter is connected in series to measure current, I, through the element, R.

Example
Determine the current in a circuit if a charge of 80 coulombs (C) passes a given point in 20 seconds
(solution ).
Q = 80 C, t = 20 s, I =?
Q=I*t
I = Q / t = 80 / 20 = 4 A
Problems (Try with your self)
1. Over the course of an 8 hour day, 3.8x104 C of charge pass through a typical computer
(presuming it is in use the entire time). Determine the current for such a computer?
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 2. The large window air conditioner in Anita Breeze's room draws 11 amps of current. The unit
runs for 8.0 hours during the course of a day. Determine the quantity of charge that passes
through Anita's window AC during these 8.0 hours?
3. The large window air conditioner in Anita Breeze's room draws 11 amps of current. The unit
runs for 8.0 hours during the course of a day. Determine the quantity of charge that passes
through Anita's window AC during these 8.0 hours?

1.3.2 Voltage or Potential Difference

Voltage or potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is 1 V if 1 J (Joule) of

energy is expended in transferring 1 C of charge between those points. It is generally represented by
the symbol V and measured in volts (V). Note that the symbol and the unit of voltage are both
denoted by the same letter, however, it rarely causes any confusion. The symbol V also signifies a
constant voltage (DC) whereas a time-varying (AC) voltage is represented by the symbol v or v(t).
Voltage is always measured across a circuit element as demonstrated in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2: A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit element, R to measure the voltage
across it.

1.3.3 Sign Convention

It is common to think of current as the flow of electrons. However, the standard convention is to
take the flow of protons to determine the direction of the current. In a given circuit, the current
direction depends on the polarity of the source voltage. Current always flow from positive ( high
potential ) side to the negative ( low potential ) side of the source as shown in the schematic diagram
of Fig. 1.3 (a) where Vs is the source voltage, VL is the voltage across the load and I is the loop
current flowing in the
clockwise direction.

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 Fig. 1.3: Effect of reversing the voltage polarity on current direction .

Please observe that the voltage polarity and current direction in a sink is opposite to that of the
source. In Source current leaves from the positive terminal. In Load (Sink) current enters from
the positive terminal

A reversal in source voltage polarity changes the direction of the current flow and vice versa as
depicted in Figures 1.3(a) and 1.3(b).

1.4 DC sources
DC sources refer to sources of electrical energy which are associated with constant voltages
and currents. A DC power supply can be constructed as an electronic circuit operating from the ac
mains electricity supply. Examples on the devices that generated DC:

1. Batteries, Standard batteries (A, AA, AAA, C and D sizes, 6 and 9 volt batteries), Car
batteries

2. DC generators

3. Solar cell

4. Fuel cells

5. Rectified AC

1.4.1 Voltage/current sources

A voltage source is a two-terminal device which can maintain a fixed voltage. An ideal voltage
source can maintain the fixed voltage independent of the load resistance or the output current.
However, a real-world voltage source cannot supply unlimited current. A voltage source is the dual of
a current source.

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 F

A current source is an electronic circuit that delivers or absorbs an electric current which is
independent of the voltage across it. A current source is the dual of a voltage source. The term
current sink is sometimes used for sources fed from a negative voltage supply.

1.4.2 Ideal/actual sources

Ideal sources are those imaginary electrical sources which provide constant voltage or current to
the circuit regardless of the load current. These ideal sources don't have any internal resistance.

Sources having some amount of internal resistances are known as Practical Voltage Source.
due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and it causes the terminal voltage to reduce.
The smaller is the internal resistance (r) of a voltage source, the more closer it is to an Ideal Source.

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1.5 Material classifications
The materials are classified according to their electrical characteristics to conductors, semi-
conductors and insulators.

1.5.1 Conductors

An electrical conductor is a substance in which electrical charge carriers, usually electrons,

move easily from atom to atom with the application of voltage. Conductivity, in general, is the capacity
to transmit something, such as electricity or heat. Electrical conductivity has the symbol of σ.
Conduction materials include metals, electrolytes, superconductors, semiconductors, plasmas and
some nonmetallic conductors such as graphite and Conductive polymers.

Copper has a high conductivity. Annealed copper is the international standard to which all other
electrical conductors are compared; the International Annealed Copper Standard conductivity
is 58 MS/m.

Silver is 6% more conductive than copper, but due to cost it is not practical in most cases.
However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites, and as a thin plating to mitigate skin
effect losses at high frequencies.

Aluminum wire is the most common metal in electric power transmission and distribution.
Although only 61% of the conductivity of copper by cross-sectional area, its lower density makes it
twice as conductive by mass. As aluminum is roughly one-third the cost of copper by weight, the
economic advantages are considerable when large conductors are required.

The disadvantages of aluminum wiring lie in its mechanical and chemical properties. It readily
forms an insulating oxide, making connections heat up. Its larger coefficient of thermal
expansion than the brass materials used for connectors causes connections to loosen. Aluminum can
also "creep", slowly deforming under load, which also loosens connections. These effects can be
mitigated with suitably designed connectors and extra care in installation, but they have
made aluminum building wiring unpopular past the service drop.

Table 1
Conductors
Material ρ [Ω·m] at 20°C σ [S/m] at 20°C

Silver, Ag 1.59 × 10−8 6.30 × 107

Copper, Cu 1.68 × 10−8 5.96 × 107
Aluminum, Al 2.82 × 10−8 3.50 × 107

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 1.5.2 Semi-conductors

A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of

a conductor, such as metallic copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistance decreases as its
temperature increases, which is the behaviour opposite to that of a metal. Its conducting properties
may be altered in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled introduction of impurities ("doping") into
the crystal structure. Where two differently-doped regions exist in the same crystal, a semiconductor
junction is created. The behavior of charge carrierswhich include electrons, ions and electron holes at
these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics. Some examples of
semiconductors are silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, and elements near the so-called "metalloid
staircase" on the periodic table. After silicon, gallium arsenide is the second most common
semiconductor[citation needed]
and is used in laser diodes, solar cells, microwave-frequency integrated
circuits and others. Silicon is a critical element for fabricating most electronic circuits.

Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties such as passing current more
easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance, and sensitivity to light or heat.
Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can be modified by doping, or by the
application of electrical fields or light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for
amplification, switching, and energy conversion.

The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount (of the order of 1 in 108) of
pentavalent (antimony, phosphorus, or arsenic) or trivalent (boron, gallium, indium) atoms. This
process is known as doping and resulting semiconductors are known as doped or extrinsic
semiconductors. Apart from doping, the conductivity of a semiconductor can equally be improved by
increasing its temperature. This is contrary to the behaviour of a metal in which conductivity
decreases with increase in temperature.

The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum physics to

explain the movement of charge carriers in a crystal lattice.[1] Doping greatly increases the number of
charge carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called
"p-type", and when it contains mostly free electrons it is known as "n-type". The semiconductor
materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration
and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and n-type
regions; the p–n junctions between these regions are responsible for the useful electronic behavior.

A large number of elements and compounds have semiconducting properties, including: [7]

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  Certain pure elements are found in Group 14 of the periodic table; the most
commercially important of these elements are silicon and germanium. Silicon and germanium are
used here effectively because they have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell which gives
them the ability to gain or lose electrons equally at the same time.

 Binary compounds, particularly between elements in Groups 13 and 15, such as gallium
arsenide, Groups 12 and 16, groups 14 and 16, and between different group 14 elements,
e.g. silicon carbide.

 Certain ternary compounds, oxides and alloys.

 Organic semiconductors, made of organic compounds.

Most common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids, but amorphous and liquid
semiconductors are also known. These include hydrogenated amorphous silicon and mixtures
of arsenic, selenium and tellurium in a variety of proportions. These compounds share with better
known semiconductors the properties of intermediate conductivity and a rapid variation of conductivity
with temperature, as well as occasional negative resistance. Such disordered materials lack the rigid
crystalline structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon. They are generally used in thin
film structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to
impurities and radiation damage.

1.5.3 insulator

Insulators are materials that inhibit the flow of electrical current. The opposite of conductors,
which allow electric particles to flow freely, insulators are implemented in household items and
electrical circuits as protection. Thermal insulation is similar, but it constricts the flow of heat rather
than electricity.

Insulators oppose electrical current and make poor conductors, due to lack of free
electrons. Some common conductors are: Copper, Aluminum, Gold, and Silver (Water, and other
metals). Some common insulators are: Glass, Air, Plastic, Rubber, Porcelain, and Wood.

Most common insulation materials work by slowing conductive heat flow and--to a lesser
extent--convective heat flow. Radiant barriers and reflective insulationsystems work by reducing
radiant heat gain. ... During the cooling season, heat flows from the outdoors to the interior of a
house.

Organic compounds such as octane, which has 8 carbon atoms and 18 hydrogen atoms, cannot
conduct electricity. Oils are hydrocarbons, since carbon has the property of tetracovalency and forms
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covalent bonds with other elements such as hydrogen, since it does not lose or gain electrons, thus
does not form ions. Covalent bonds are simply the sharing of electrons. Hence, there is no separation
of ions when electricity is passed through it. So the liquid (oil or any organic compound) cannot
conduct electricity.

While pure water is not an electrical conductor, even a small portion of ionic impurities, such
as salt, can rapidly transform it into a conductor.

1.6 Passive Circuit Elements

A passive element is an electrical component that does not generate power, but instead
dissipates, stores, and/or releases it.Passive elements include resistances, capacitors, and coils (also
called inductors).

1.6.1 Resistors
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels,
to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses.

The resistor is an real element, which could be manufactured by different methods. Also it has
different forms. You should differentiate between resistor and resistance. Resistance is the
characteristic of impeding the flow of electricity, or the characteristic that describing the dissipation of
electrical energy as heat.

The resistor is defined: Resistance, allowed dissipated power, currents(maximum, average, root
mean square values) and voltages (maximum, average, root mean square values).

There is type of the resistors, which are called colored resistor, as shown in Fig. x

Fig. xx: colored resistors

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 There are many different types of Resistor available which can be used in both electrical and
electronic circuits to control the flow of current or to produce a voltage drop in many different ways.
But in order to do this the actual resistor needs to have some form of “resistive” or “resistance” value.
Resistors are available in a range of different resistance values from fractions of an Ohm ( Ω ) to
millions of Ohms.

Obviously, it would be impractical to have available resistors of every possible value for
example, 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω etc, because literally tens of hundreds of thousands, if not tens of millions
of different resistors would need to exist to cover all the possible values. Instead, resistors are
manufactured in what are called “preferred values” with their resistance value printed onto their body
in coloured ink.

4 Coloured Bands

The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed onto the body of the
resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors body is big enough to read the print, such as large
power resistors. But when the resistor is small such as a 1/4 watt carbon or film type, these
specifications must be shown in some other manner as the print would be too small to read.

So to overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate both their resistive
value and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage rating. These
coloured painted bands produce a system of identification generally known as a Resistors Colour
Code.

An international and universally accepted resistor colour code scheme was developed many
years ago as a simple and quick way of identifying a resistors ohmic value no matter what its size or
condition. It consists of a set of individual coloured rings or bands in spectral order representing each
digit of the resistors value.

The resistor colour code markings are always read one band at a time starting from the left to the
right, with the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its tolerance. By
matching the colour of the first band with its associated number in the digit column of the colour chart
below the first digit is identified and this represents the first digit of the resistance value.

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 Again, by matching the colour of the second band with its associated number in the digit column
of the colour chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and so on. Then the resistor colour
code is read from left to right as illustrated below:

The Standard Resistor Colour Code Chart

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 The Resistor Colour Code Table

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1,000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25%

10,000,00
Violet 7 ± 0.1%
0

Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

None ± 20%

Calculating Resistor Values

The Resistor Colour Code system is all well and good but we need to understand how to apply
it in order to get the correct value of the resistor. The “left-hand” or the most significant coloured band
is the band which is nearest to a connecting lead with the colour coded bands being read from left-to-
right as follows:

Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 colour in Ohm’s (Ω)

For example, a resistor has the following coloured markings;

Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω or 4k7 Ohm.

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 The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor.
Resistor tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive value and is a
consequence of the manufacturing process and is expressed as a percentage of its “nominal” or
preferred value.

Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while carbon resistors have
tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower than 2% are called precision resistors with the
or lower tolerance resistors being more expensive.

Most five band resistors are precision resistors with tolerances of either 1% or 2% while most of
the four band resistors have tolerances of 5%, 10% and 20%. The colour code used to denote the
tolerance rating of a resistor is given as:

Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10 %

If resistor has no fourth tolerance band then the default tolerance would be at 20%.

It is sometimes easier to remember the resistor colour code by using mnemonics or phrases that
have a separate word in the phrase to represent each of the Ten + Two colours in the code. However,
these sayings are often very crude but never the less effective for remembering the resistor colours.

1.6.2 Inductors
An inductor is a piece of conducting wire generally wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic
material. Like capacitors, they are employed as filters as well but the most well known application is
their use in AC transformers or power supplies that converts AC voltage levels.

In an inductor, the V – I relationship is given by the following differential equation:

V = L di / dt or i = 1 / L ∫ v dt + i ( 0 )

where L is the inductance in Henrys (H) and i(0) is the initial current stored in the magnetic field
of the inductor.When i = I (constant DC current), dt / dt = 0, v = 0. Hence an inductor acts as a short
circuit to DC. An ideal inductor is just a piece of conducting material with no internal resistance or
capacitance. The schematics in Fig. 1.8 are equivalent when the supply voltage is DC.

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 (a) For AC voltage (a) For DC voltage
Fig. 1.8: An ideal inductor can be replaced by a short circuit when the supply voltage is DC.

1.6.3 Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive circuit element that has the capacity to store charge in an electric field. It
is widely used in electric circuits in the form of a filter. The V − I relationship for a capacitor is
governed by the following equation

i = C dv/ dt or v = 1 / C ∫ i dt + v ( 0 )

where C is the capacitance measured in Farads (F) and v(0) is the initial voltage or initial charge
stored in the capacitor. When v = V (constant DC voltage), dv / dt = 0, and i = 0. Hence a capacitor
acts as an open circuit to DC.

Example

For the circuit diagram shown in Figure 1.7, determine the current, I flowing through the 5 Ω
resistance.

Fig. 1.7

Since the supply voltage is DC, the capacitor will act as an open circuit. Hence no current can
flow through the circuit regardless of the values of capacitor and resistor i.e I=0

A summary of the V − I relationships for the three passive circuit elements is provided in Table .3.

Table 1.3: V − I relationships for a resistor, inductor and capacitor.

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Table 1.4 Units of the
passive elements
Element Unit /Name
Resistance (R) Ohm or Ω/Ohm
Inductance (L) H/Henry
Capacitance F/Farad

1.7 Simple relations

1.7.1 Power

Given the magnitudes of V and I, power can be evaluated as the product of the two quantities
and is measured in Watts (W). Mathematically

P=VI (W)

Example 1

If the power dissipated in a circuit element is 100 W and a current of 10 A is flowing through it,
calculate the voltage across and resistance of the element.

P = 100 W, I = 10 A, V = ?, R = ?
P =VI
V = P / I = 100 / 10 = 10 V
R = V / I = 10 / 10 = 1 Ω
Example 2

A light bulb draws 0.5 A current at an input voltage of 230 V. Determine the power dissipated.

P = V I = 230 x 0.5 = 115 W

1.7.2 Energy

Energy is defined as the capacity of a physical system to perform work. In the context of electric
circuits, energy (w) is related to power by the following relationship

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 p = vi = dw / dt

i.e. power is the rate of change of energy.

Using Equation 1.2, voltage can also be written in terms of energy as the work done or energy
supplied per unit charge (q) i.e.

v= dw / dq

In terms of the three passive circuit elements, R, L and C, the energy relationships can be
derived as follows:

 Resistor

P = v i = i2 R = V 2 / R

Electrical power or energy supplied to a resistor is completely dissipated as heat. This action is
irreversible and is also commonly termed as i2 R losses.

 Inductor

p = vi = L i di/dt

Total energy supplied from 0 to t is

w= ∫p dt = L ∫ i di =(1/2) L i2

This energy is stored in the magnetic field of the inductor which can be supplied back to the
circuit when the actual source is removed.

 Capacitor

p = vi = C v dv / dt

Total energy supplied from 0 to t is

W = ∫ p dt = C ∫ v (dv / dt) dt = C ∫ v dv

W = ( 1/2 ) C v2

This energy is stored in the electric field of the capacitor which is supplied back to the circuit
when the actual source is removed.

Table 1.5 Power relations for the passive elements

Element Energy

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 Resistance (R) v i = i2 R = V 2 / R
Inductance (L) (1/2) L i2
Capacitance (C) ( 1/2 ) C v2

1.8 Problems
Problem 1: Calculate the electric current flowing by 100 coulomb of electric charge through a
conductor in time of 20 seconds.
Problem 2: What is the charge flowing in a conductor carrying a current of 10 Amperes in 2 seconds
of time?.
Problem 3: What is the voltage difference between two points a and b if the work needed to move 2
coulomb of charge between them is 100 joules?.
Problem 4a: A voltage applied to a resistance of 10 Ω is 20 V, what is the current flowing in the
resistance?
Problem 4b: The heating element of an electric toaster is typically made of nichrome wire (an alloy of
nickel and chromium). As current passes through the wires, the wires heat up, thus toasting the toast.
Estimate the overall resistance of a heating element which is 220 cm long and consists of nichrome
wire with a diameter of 0.56 mm. The resistivity of nichrome is 110x10 -8 Ω•m.
Problem 5:

Determine the overall resistance of a 100-meter length of 14 AWA (0.163 cm diameter) wire made of
the following materials.
a. copper (resistivity = 1.67x10-8 Ω•m)
b. silver (resistivity = 1.59x10-8 Ω•m)
c. aluminum (resistivity = 2.65x10-8 Ω•m)
d. iron (resistivity = 9.71x10-8 Ω•m)
Problem 6:
A power saw at the local hardware store boasts of having a 15-Amp motor. Determine its resistance
when plugged into a 110-Volt outlet.
Problem 7:

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A coffee cup immersion heater utilizes a heating coil with a resistance of 8.5 Ω. Determine the current
through the coil when operated at 110 V.
Problem 8:
Defibrillator machines are used to deliver an electric shock to the human heart in order to resuscitate
an otherwise non-beating heart. It is estimated that a current as low as 17 mA through the heart is
required to resuscitate. Using 100,000 Ω as the overall resistance, determine the output voltage
required of a defibrillating device.
Problem 9:
A stun gun or TASER is designed to put out a few seconds worth of electric pulses that impress a
voltage of about 1200 V across the human body. This results in an average current of approximately
3 mA into a human body. Using these figures, estimate the resistance of the human body.
Problem 10:
Determine the amount of electrical energy (in J) used by the following devices when operated for the
indicated times.
a. Hair dryer (1500 W) - operated for 5 minutes
b. Electric space heater (950 W) - operated for 4 hours
c. X-Box video game player (180 W) - operated for 2 hours
d. 42-inch LCD television (210 W) - operated for 3 hours
Problem 11:

Alfredo deDarke sleeps with a 7.5-Watt night light bulb on. He turns it on before getting in bed and
turns it off 8 hours later.
a. Determine the amount of energy used during one evening in units of kiloWatt•hours.
b. Electrical energy costs 13 cents/kW•hr where Alfredo lives. Determine the annual (365 days) cost
of this practice of using a 7.5-Watt night light.
c. Determine the annual savings if Alfredo replaced his 7.5-Watt incandescent night light by a 0.5-
Watt LED night light.
Problem 12:
Having recently lost her job, Penny Penching is looking for every possible means of cutting costs.
She decides that her 4.0-Watt clock radio alarm does not need to be on for 24 hours every day since
she only needs it for waking up after her average 8-hour sleep. So she decides to plug it in before
going to sleep and to unplug it when waking. Penny pays 12 cents per kiloWatt•hour for her
electricity. How much money is Penny able to save over the course of a month (31 days) with her
new alarm clock usage pattern?
Problem 13:
The power of a 1.5-volt alkaline cell varies with the number of hours of operation. A brand new D-cell
can deliver as much as 13 A through a copper wire connected between terminals. Determine the
power of a brand new D-cell.
Problem 14:
A central air conditioner in a typical American home operates on a 220-V circuit and draws about 15
A of current.
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a. Determine the power rating of such an air conditioner.
b. Determine the energy consumed (in kW•hr) if operated for 8 hours per day.
c. Determine the monthly cost (31 days) if the utility company charges 13 cents per kW•hr.
Problem 15:
During the Christmas season, Sel Erbate uses the equivalent of 45 strings of 100 mini-bulbs to light
the inside and outside of his home. Each 100-bulb string of lights is rated at 40 Watts. The average
daily usage of the strings is 7 hours. The lights are used for approximately 40 days during the holiday
season.
a. Determine the resistance of each string of lights. Each is powered by 110-volt outlet.
b. Determine the energy consumed (in kW•hr) by the lights over the course of 40 days.
c. If Sel pays 12 cents/kW•hr for electrical energy, then what is the total cost of Christmas lighting for
a single season?
Problem 16:
A 3-way light bulb for a 110-V lamp has two different filaments and three different power ratings.
Turning the switch of the lamp toggles the light from OFF to low (50 W) to medium (100 W) to high
(150 W) brightness. These three brightness settings are achieved by channeling current through the
high resistance filament (50 W), the low resistance filament (100 W) or through both filaments.
Determine the resistance of the 50 W and the 100 W filaments.
Problem 17:

Compare the resistance of a 1.5-Amp interior light bulb of a car (operating off a 12-V battery) to the
resistance of a 100-Watt bulb operating on a 110-volt household circuitry.
Problem 18:
An overhead high voltage (4.0x105 V) power transmission line delivers electrical energy from a
generating station to a substation at a rate of 1500 MW (1.5x109 W). Determine the resistance of and
the current in the cables.
Problem 19:
The UL panel on the bottom of an electric toaster oven indicates that it operates at 1500 W on a 110
V circuit. Determine the electrical resistance of the toaster oven.
Problem 20:
Determine the equivalent resistance of a 6.0 Ω and a 8.0 Ω resistor if …
a. … connected in series.
b. … connected in parallel.
Problem 21:
Two resistors with resistance values of 6.0 Ω and 8.0 Ω are connected to a 12.0-volt source.
Determine the overall current in the circuit if the resistors are …
a. … connected in series.
b. … connected in parallel.
Problem 22:
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 The series circuit at the right depicts two resistors connected to a voltage
source. The voltage source (ΔVtot) is a 48-V source and the resistor values are 6.4 Ω (R1) and 3.9 Ω
(R2).
a. Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b. Determine the current in the circuit.
c. Determine the voltage drop across each individual resistor.
Problem 23:

Voltmeters can be used to determine the voltage difference between two

points on a circuit. An ammeter can be used to determine the current at any given location on a
circuit. The circuit at the right is powered by a 12.0-volt battery and utilizes two voltmeters and two
ammeters to measure voltage drops and currents. The resistor values are 1.28 Ω (R1) and 3.85 Ω
(R2). Determine the ammeter readings and voltmeter readings.
Problem 24:

The series circuit at the right depicts three resistors connected to a

voltage source. The voltage source (ΔVtot) is a 110-V source and the resistor values are 7.2 Ω (R1),
6.2 Ω (R2) and 8.6 Ω (R3).
a. Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b. Determine the current in the circuit.
c. Determine the voltage drops across each individual resistor.
Problem 25:

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 Voltmeters can be used to determine the voltage across two
points on a circuit. An ammeter can be used to determine the current at any given location on a
circuit. The circuit at the right is powered by a 60.0-volt power source and utilizes three voltmeters
and three ammeters to measure voltage drops and currents. The resistor values are 10.3 Ω (R 1), 15.2
Ω (R2) and 12.8 Ω (R3). Determine the ammeter readings and voltmeter readings.
Problem 26:

A circuit powered by a 12.0-volt battery is comprised of three identical resistors in series. An ammeter
reading reveals a current of 0.360 A. Determine the resistance values of the resistors and the voltage
drops across the resistors.
Problem 27:
A 4.5-volt series circuit consists of two resistors. Resistor A has three times the resistance as resistor
B. An ammeter records a current of 160 mA of current. Determine the resistance values of resistors A
and B.
Problem 28:
A 9.00-volt battery is used to power a series circuit with a 2.50 Ω and a 3.50 Ω resistor. Determine the
power rating of each resistor and the total power of the circuit.
Problem 29:
Determine the equivalent resistance of a parallel arrangement of two resistors with resistance values
of …
a. … 8.0 Ω and 8.0 Ω
b. … 5.0 Ω and 5.0 Ω
c. … 5.0 Ω and 8.0 Ω
d. … 5.0 Ω and 9.2 Ω
e. … 5.0 Ω and 27.1 Ω
f. … 5.0 Ω and 450 Ω
Problem 30:

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 The parallel circuit at the right depicts two resistors connected to a voltage
source. The voltage source (ΔVtot) is a 12-V source and the resistor values are 6.4 Ω (R1) and 3.9 Ω
(R2).
a. Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b. Determine the current in each branch resistor.
c. Determine the total current in the circuit.
Problem 31:

The parallel circuit at the right depicts three resistors connected to a

voltage source. The voltage source (ΔVtot) is a 110.-V source and the resistor values are 15.4 Ω (R1),
21.9 Ω (R2) and 11.7 Ω (R3).
a. Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b. Determine the current in each branch resistor.
c. Determine the total current in the circuit.
Problem 32:
Voltmeters can be used to determine the voltage across two points on a circuit. An ammeter can be
used to determine the current at any given location on a circuit. The circuit below is powered by a
24.0-volt power source and utilizes four voltmeters and three ammeters to measure voltage drops
and currents.

The resistor values are 54.5 Ω (R1), 31.7 Ω (R2) and 48.2 Ω (R3). Determine the ammeter readings
and voltmeter readings.
Problem 33:

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A 9.00-volt battery is used to power a parallel circuit with a 2.50 Ω and a 3.50 Ω resistor. Determine
the power rating of each resistor and the total power of the circuit.
Problem 34:
Cullen Ary's family loves to cook. According to Cullen's friends, they have every imaginable kitchen
gadget that exists. One Sunday afternoon, they have a cooking party in which every member of the
family participates. They get out the following small appliances, plug them in and turn them on.
Mixer (81 Ω)
Crockpot (62 Ω)
Juicer (43 Ω)
Blender (21 Ω)
Electric Fondue (16 Ω)
Wok (12 Ω)
Rotisserie (7.5 Ω)
Deep-fat fryer (7.0 Ω)
The resistance values for each appliance is listed in parenthesis. Each appliance is plugged in to 110-
volt receptacles which are wired in parallel on the same circuit. The circuit is protected by a 20-amp
circuit breaker.
a. Determine the overall current on the circuit with the mixer and crockpot operating.
b. Determine the overall current on the circuit with the mixer, crockpot and juicer operating.
c. Determine the overall current on the circuit with the mixer, crockpot, juicer and blender operating.
d. Determine the overall current on the circuit with the mixer, crockpot, juicer, blender and electric
fondue operating.
e. Determine the overall current on the circuit with the mixer, crockpot, juicer, blender, electric fondue,
and wok operating.
f. Determine the overall current on the circuit with the mixer, crockpot, juicer, blender, electric fondue,
wok, and rotisserie operating.
g. Determine the overall current on the circuit with the mixer, crockpot, juicer, blender, electric fondue,
wok, rotisserie, and the deep-fat fryer operating.
h. At what point in the progression of turning on appliances will the circuit become overloaded and the
circuit breaker interrupt the circuit.

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