UNVERSITY OF MAKENI [UNIMAK]

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR YEAR TWO

FIRST SEMSETER

This module is designed to help students to communicate in the best possible way using English
Language as a medium to convey ideas, feelings, thoughts, to name but few. This is to enable
students develop their communication skills after university studies and effectively use English
throughout their working lives.

COURSE OUTLINE FOR YEAR TWO

PART A: COMMUNICATIN AT WORKPLACE

1. LEADERSHIP

 Definition
 Types
 Traits, Qualities/characteristics of a leader

2. WORKPLACE ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL COURTESY

 Definition of terms
 Types
 Employee’s workplace ethics

3. PROFESSIONALISM

 Definition of term
 Types
 Ten Golden Rules to professional ethics in the workplace
 Professional behavior

4. DISCRIMINATING AND NON-DISCRIMINATING LANGUAGE IN THE WORKPLACE

 Definition of term
 Types

5. POWER AND AUTHORITY

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  Definition of term
 Types
 How to communicate with power and Authority

PART B: SOME MAJOR ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR

6. WORD CLASS [PARTS OF SPEECH]

 Definition of Part of Speech [Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives etc.]

 Singular and Plural forms of borrowed words and Irregular nouns [Latin, French, Italian,
Greek etc.]

7. WORD FORMATION BUILDING

 Definition[ Prefixes and Suffixes and Compound / Phrasal words] e.g. un-happy… chalk-
board

8. VERBS AND VERB CONJUGATION

 Definition
 Types and use
 Conjugation of verbs: regular and Irregular Verbs [ Present, Past, Past Participle]

9. TENSES

 Definition of terms
 Types, forms and use
 Conjugation of tenses [Simple Present Tense, Past Tense, Future tense]

9. CONCORD [Subject Verb Agreement]

 Definition of term and rules

PRELIMINARIES

1. FAMILIARIZATION

 Introduction of self and the Module [ Workload/ Course Outline]

 Mode of Assessment[ Class Presence/ Participation, Test/ Class Work and Assignment/
Presentation
 Expectations from students, lecturers and grand rules governing the conduction of the
class
 Principles of university regarding class, attendance, excuses, assignments, submissions
and class presentations.

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  UNIMAK’S Grade System [ exams and Continuous Assessment]
 Revision of year works [ communication, types/form]

LECTURE NOTES – 2023-2024

WORD CLASSES [Parts of Speech, Revision)

1. WORD CLASSES [PARTS OF SPEECH]

There are eight grammatical structures and they include:

i] NOUNS: Certain words in English Language are used as labels with which we identify the
followings:

 Persons: James, Hawa Francis

 Places: Fatima Campus, school, market
 Animals: cat, dog, goat, elephant
 Things: ion, phone, computer, Bluetooth
 Ideas: love, freedom, democracy, wisdom

ii) PRONOUNS: A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun, that is, it takes the place of
noun. The word for which the pronoun stands and to which it refers is its ANTECEDENT.
Examples,

a) The students were taking their exams

b) They studied very hard to English test
c) Our school is the best

iii) VERBS: A verb shows action or state of being. It can be affected by time – present, past or
future, examples,

a) He writes on the board

b) They fought each other few minutes ago
c) Joe is a boy

iv) ADJECTIVES: adjectives describe or modify nouns. They show things like size, appearance,
cooler and number. Examples,

a) The Fatima is a beautiful girl

b) Susan is fare in complexion
c) Our school bigger than others

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v) ADVERBS: An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, adjective and other adverb in a
sentence. Examples,

a) The students talks carelessly [ modifying verb]

b) His writing is very tidy [ modifying adjective]
c) Joe drove the truck quite easily [ modifying adverb]

vi) PREPOSITION: A preposition how a noun or pronoun is related to another word is a

sentence, examples,

a) Mary dove to the market in her old car with a friend.

b) The ball is under the table
c) He jumps over the fence everyday

vii) CONJUNCTIONS: A conjunction is used to join two or more words, phrase or clause.
Examples,

a) John and Alie are friends

b) The man is dirty but he has enough money
c) Either senior or junior choir will sing tonight

viii) INTREJECTIONS: They show excitement or sudden emotion and are usually followed by the
use of exclamation mark [!]. Examples

a) Hi James!
b) Wow! He is good.
c) Oh God!

BORROWED WORDS IN ENGLISH:

Generally, there are many borrowed words in English and these words greatly contributed to
the vocabulary development of English Language. Most of these words have their origin from
languages such as French, Latin, Greek etc., and English speakers find pleasures in using them.

Here are examples of some borrowed words from other languages:

WORDS OF GREEK ORIGINE [BORROWED WORDS]

SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF BORROWED AND IRREGULAR NOUNS [LATIN FRENCH,
ITALIAN, GREEK]

Certain nouns which end in –‘is’ usually come from Greek. The plural of these words are formed
by changing the ‘is’ to ‘es.’

Greek Word Singular Plural [Greek & English] Meaning

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Hypothesis - hypotheses - same

Crisis - crises - same

Analysis - analyses - same

Neurosis - neuroses - same

WORDS OF FRENCH ORIGINE [BORROWED WORDS]

Most of the words which have entered into English lexicon had come from French, and they
have two possible plural forms. That is, the French and English plural forms. These words
normally end in the letters: ‘eau,’ for examples,

French Word Singular - French Plural - English Plural Meaning

Bureau - bureau x - bureaus -offices

Chateau - chateaux - chateaus -castles

Gateau - gateaux - gateaus -cakes

WORDS OF LATIN ORIGINE [BORROW WORDS]

Certain nouns have come into English dictionary from Latin should always form their plural in
the Latin way. Most of these words are scientific or technical terms. Few of them are:

Latin Word Singular English Plural Meaning

Alga - algae - same

Alumnus - alumni - same

Larva - larvae - same

Formula formulae - same

Also, remember that the plural forms of certain English nouns together with its foreign
counterparts must be memorized as they appear, because they do not follow the regular
pattern. Most of these words greatly contributed to the vocabulary development of English
Language. Such words are:

Singular - English Plural

Woman - women

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Child - children

Man - men

Datum - data

Note also that there is an exception to word ending with “ch” sound rule, if the “ch” ending is
pronounced with “k” sound; add “s” rather than “es” for the plural. Examples,

Singular Plural

Stomach - stomachs

Epoch - epochs

Certain nouns ends in two vowels plus “f” often form plurals in the normal way, with just an –s

Singular Plural

Chief - chiefs

Spoof - spoofs

There are some common nouns that end in “o” but can be spelt with either -s’ or ‘es’ in the
plural form. Examples,

Singular Plural

Banjo - banjos or banjoes

Cargo - cargos or cargoes

Some foreign singular word change letter to form the plural

Singular - plural

Addendum - addenda

Datum - data

Alumnus - alumni

Phenomenon - phenomena

Criterion - criteria

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Bear in mind that the plural form of octopus is octopuses and never octopi. This is simply
because the word ‘octopus came from Greek, not Latin and therefore the usual rules for Latin
plural won’t apply.

2. WORD BUILDING: AFFIXATIONS [PREFIXES AND SUFIXES]

Prefixes and suffixes are sets of letters that are added to the beginning or end of another word.
They are words in their own and cannot stand on their own in a sentence; if they are printed on
their own, they must have a hyphen before or after them.

a) PREFIXES: They are added to the beginning of an existing word in order to create a new word
with a different meaning. For example:

Word Prefix New word

Happy -un Unhappy
Cultural -multi Multicultural
Work -over Overwork
Space -cyber Cyberspace
Market -super Supermarket

b) SUFFIXES: Suffixes are added to the end of an existing word. For example:

Word Suffix New word

Child -ish Childish
Work -er Worker
Taste -less Tasteless
Idol -ize/ise idolize/idolize
Like -able likable
The addition of a suffix often changes a word form one word class to another. In the table
above, the verb ‘like’ becomes the adjective likable,” the noun idol becomes the verb idolize,
and the noun child becomes the adjective ‘childish.’

WORD CREATION WITH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Some prefixes and suffixes are part of our living languages, in that people regularly use them to
create new words for modern products, concepts, or situations. For example:

Word Prefix / Suffix New word

Security -bio biosecurity
Clutter -de de-clutter
Media -multi multimedia
Email -er e-mailer

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Email is an example of a word that was itself formed from a new prefix, e-, which stands for
electronic. This modern prefix has formed an over-growing number of other internet-related
words, including e-book, e-cash, e-commerce, etc.

You can read more about prefixes and suffixes on the Oxford Word blog. Here you will find
guidelines, examples, and tips for using prefix and suffix correctly.

Here is a list of most common prefixes:

Prefix Meaning Word

-Anti -against Antibiotic
-circum Around circumstance, circumvent, circumnavigate
-co With co-worker, co-pilot, co-operation
-de off, down, away from demotivate, deprive, devalue
dis oppose of, not disgrace, disappear, dishonest, disfigure
em, en cause to, put into embrace, encroach, embalm, enclose
-epi upon, close to, after epicenter, episcope, epidermis
-ex former, out of ex- president, ex-boyfriend, ex-wife,
-extra beyond, more than extracurricular, extraordinary, extra terrestrial
-ore Before forecast, foresee, foretell, foreword, foremost
-homo Same homosexual, homoplastic, mononuclear
-hyper -over, above hyperactive, hyperventilate, hypertensive
-im, in -not insert, import, increase, incredible, incorrect
-ir, Not irregular, irresponsible,
-infra beneath, below infrastructure, infrared
-inter Between interplay, interconnection, intermediate, intergalactic
-macro Large macroeconomics, macromolecule
-mis Wrongly misinterpret, misinform, miscalculate, misjudge
-mono one, singular monotone, monologue, monolithic
-non not, without nonsense, nonentity, nonparticipant
-omni all, every omnibus, omnivore, omnipotent
-para Beside parachute, paramedic, Para-lingual,
-post Before post-mortem, post-natal, postpone
-semi Half semicircle, semi-conscious, semi-final
-sub Under submerge, subcategory, subtitle
-super above, over super food, superstar, supernatural
-therm Heat thermometer, thermostat, thermodynamic
-trans across, beyond transport, transcript, transit, transpose
-tri Three Triangle, tripod, tricycle
-un Not unfinished, unfriendly, unacceptable, undo
-uni 0ne unicycle, universal, unilateral

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MORE SUFFIXES: A suffix is a letter or a group of letters that is usually attached to the end of a
word in order to form a new word, as well as alter the way it functions grammatically.

Depending on whether it is a noun, verb, adjective or adverb, a different suffix is required. For
example, the verb ‘read’ can be altered to become the noun ‘reader’ by adding the suffix -er.
The same verb can also be turned into adjective ‘readable’ by adding the suffix ‘able.’

It is extremely important to understand the definitions of both suffixes and prefixes simply
because they help us deduce the meanings of any new words that you learn at the moment.
Here is a list of some common suffixes underneath:

NOUN SUFFIXES:

Suffix Meaning Word [example]

-acy State or quality Democracy, accuracy, lunacy
-al Action or process of Remedial, denial, trial, criminal
-ance, - State or quality of Nuisance, ambience, providence, tolerance,
ence
-dom Place of state of being Freedom, chiefdom, kingdom, wisdom,
-er –or Person or object Reader, writer, bearer, creator, narrator,
-ism Doctrine, belief Judaism, skepticism, escapism, nepotism,
-ist Person or object who does Geologist, pharmacist, chemist, dentist
thing
-ity,-ty Quality of Extremity, validity, stupidity, prosperity,
-ment Condition Encroachment, argument, basement,
-ness State of being Strictness, kindness, happiness,
-ship Position held Friendship, hardship, internship, relationship,
courtship
-sion, -tion State of being Position, promotion, cohesion, expression,
education

VERB SUFFIXES

Suffix Meaning Meaning

Ate Become Mediate, pulsate, formulate, mediate,
-en Become Worsen, happen, heighten, darken
-ify, -fy Make or become Justify, simplify, magnify, satisfy
-ise, -ize Become Publicize, synthesize, exercise, minimize,

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES

-able, -ible Capable of being affordable, fallible, audible, susceptible

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-al Having the form/character Fiscal, herbal, canal, colonial
of
-esque In a manner of or resembling Picturesque, grotesque, burlesque,
-ful Notable for Peaceful, handful, careful, hopeful
-ic, ical Having the form or character Nonsensical, logical, hypothetical, medical,
of
-ious, -ous Characterized jealous, callous, pious, conscious,
-ish, Having quality of Sheepish, childish, squeamish,
-ive Having the nature of Inquisitive, informative, positive, lucrative,
-less Without Meaningless, careless, useless, hopeless,

ADVERB SUFFIXES

-ly Related to or quality Softly, slowly, happily, crazily, madly,

-ward, Direction Toward, afterwards, backwards
wards,
-wise In relation to Otherwise, likewise, clockwise
As you can see, affixes can dramatically change the definition of certain words. Knowing the
various prefixes and suffixes along with their meanings can really help to understand how
words are used, and also showed how they are spelt. Although these groups of letters [affixes]
are important and assist by forming words, however, they cannot stand alone in a sentence.

If they are written or printed alone, then they should have a hyphen before or after them to
demonstrate that they are attached to other, to form words as they are listed in the above
tables.

COMBINING FORMS

When learning the different types of prefixes, it is obvious to remember that not every word
containing these combinations is a prefix. Sometimes, words with combining forms which may
be similar to prefixes but operate absolutely different. As already stated; a prefix is a letter or a
group of letters that appear at the beginning of words, but these affixes can also be removed
from the base or root of a word, and the word would still remain as a single entity, even if the
meaning changes.

For example, ‘non,‘ means ‘not’ or ‘without,’ it is used in words such as “nonsense.” The word
‘sense’ can be separated from the prefix and it would still be a word on its own, even if the
meaning is different.

Combining forms are similar to prefixes and are sometimes known as “Chameleon Prefixes,”
because they act like them and appear at the beginning of words like them, but the combing

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form is intrinsic to the word, meaning it is part of the word and cannot be removed. They are
called Chameleons Prefixes,” because they changed their spellings and physical forms to suit
the word they attached to. So, combining forms act as prefixes but are different, because the
remaining letters cannot be separated to form an independent word.

Here are some examples of prefixes in combining forms

Prefix Meaning Examples Combinational Meaning Example word

[words] Form
-com, - With Compromise -Com, -con with, jointly Comrade, companion
con
-contra Against Contraindicate -contra against Contraceptive,
contradict
-de Oppose Devalue -de Down, away Descend, depose
-ex Former Exam, expose -ex Out Exhort
-a Not, Amoral -a, an Not, without Apathy
-not Not Inconvenient -in Into Inebriate, indulge
-homo Same Homograph -homo Same homogeneous
-magn Great Magnate -magn Great Magnificent, magnify
-para Beside Paragraph Para Beside Paradox, paraphrase
-sub Under Subset -sub Under Substitute, subsequent,
-trans Across Transnational -trans Through, across Transmit, transcend,
-tri Three Triangle -tri Three Triangle, triceps

3) TENSES OF ENGLISH:

A tense shows how human beings are able to use a language within a specified time. It can also
be defined as a way of relating actions or events to the moment of speech as long as they
expressed systematic grammatical contrast, that is, there must be some inflections of the verb
in relation to the present, past, and future tense. There are twelve different kinds of tenses, and
they are:

i) SIMPLE PRESENT TENSENCE: This tense is used to indicate that an action takes place all the
time or very frequently. It also shows facts, habitual or repeated action. Examples,

a) My mother cooks every day.

b) We always eat dinner at the same time
c) The earth moves from east to west.

Note also that the third person singular for simple present tense always end with (s, ies, or es).

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ii) PRESENT CONTINUOUS/PRODRESSIVE TENSE: This tense is used to show that an action is
taking place at the moment and it has not yet been completed. Examples,

a) John is leaving for town

b) I am reading a novel
c) They are dancing Pop Music.

iii) PERSENT PERFECT TENSE: This tense is used to indicate that an action which began in the
past is still going on at present, that is, the action has not yet being completely finished.
Examples,

a) Mr. Massaquoi has worked here for two years [ and he still does]
b) Mary has borrowed my text book
c) John and Mary have lived overseas for thirty years.

iv) PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOS/PROGRESSIVE TENSE: We use this tense when we want to
make it clear that we are speaking of an unbroken chain of events or an action that has not
been interrupted very often, the action will continuous/progress in the future. Examples,

a) Alie have been watching a play on the BBC Television.

b) The dog has been lying in front of the fire since last week.
c) Some students of Unimak have been studying English since last year.

v) PAST SIMPLE TENSE: The past simple tense as the name implies create no difficult in
understanding and using it. It is used when we wish to say that something happened, and was
definitely finished or completed in the past. Here, there is no link with the present at all.
Examples,

a) He wrote a letter to his mother.

b) Last month, we witnessed the final match between the two giant teams
c) Few weeks ago, I received an acceptance letter from Unimak University.

vi) PAST CONTINOUS/PROGRESSIVE TENSSE: This tense must be used when certain action in
the past was interrupted by another. Examples,

a) As I was leaving Yoni Campus yesterday, I met an old friend.

b) While Mariama was going to the market, she lost some money
c) The students were discussing an interesting novel, while a thief stealthily entered their
room carried their bags.

vii) PAST PERFECT TENSE: The past perfect tense is formed by combining ‘had’ [the simple past
tense of have] with the past participle form of the main verb. We mention two actions in the

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same order that they occurred, the first action and the second action- we generally put both
verbs in the simple past tense. Examples,

a) Agnes bought a dress, and she has returned it.

b) The police caught the prisoner who had already escaped.
c) He organized the meeting after he had called for interview.

viii) PAST PERFECT CONTINUONS TESNSE: As in the case of the present perfect progressive
tense, the participle form [ing] of the past perfect progressive indicates continuation of some
events or situations for some measurable period of time.

Note: The difference between the two tenses; present progressive tense and pass progressive
tense, is that, the former tells about action which continues to the moment of speaking while
the latter tells about action which continues to sometime in the past. Examples,

a) Joe had been reading English for a long time before he finally took his examinations
b) She had been sleeping before her baby screamed
c) He had been playing until it began to rain.

ix) SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: We use the simple future when we wish to convey that something
had not yet happened but will happen at some time in the future, usually, the modal verbs
‘shall’ or ‘will’ is used before the main verb in a sentence. Examples,

a) We shall go to Makeni tomorrow

b) Susan will meet her mother at the village this evening.
c) When will you be able to see the Vice Chancellor of Unimak?

x) FUTURE CONTINUOS/PROGRESSIVE TENSE: This is used to indicate that an action will take
place in the future but without indicating any exact time. Sometimes, the simple future tense is
used to indicate two actions which will take place in future, where it is anticipated that the first
action will be interrupted by the second. Examples,

a) We shall be watching T. V. when my wife enters.

b) The children will be studying by time their parents arrive home.
c) She will be dancing by the time her phone rings.

xi) FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: This tense is rather complicated as it deals with time in the future
and it conveys that something will have been completed by a certain time in the future. We use
the future perfect tense for an action that will have been done at a specified future tense.
Examples,

a) By this time next year, Mariama will have taken her exams [statement]

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 b) I am sure Yeabu won’t have found a new job next week [negative]
c) Will Joe have found a job by the end of next month’

xii) FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOS/PROGRESSIVE TENSE: This tense emphasizes the duration of
an action plan for the future execution and measures that duration in terms of some future
time. Examples,

a) By this time tomorrow, Juliana will have been doing her assignment
b) Tomorrow, by this moment, Alice will have been travelling to Qatar.
c) Next week, this time, my brother will have been working in the army.

4. VERBS:

The verb expresses the main action of a clause. A verb tells what happens or what is. Every verb
has different forms of expressing differences in time — Present, Past, and Future times.

TYPES OF VERBS

i) FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERBS

a) FINE VERBS: When there is an agreement between the verb and its subject in terms of
number and person, such a verb is known as a finite verb. Finite verbs show tense forms as well
as give complete sense to a sentence. Finite verb can be simply stated and understood. For
examples:

Finite verbs are used to show present tense. Examples,

a) Musu posts a letter to her father.

b) She was posting a letter to her father
c) They drink some milk every day.

Finite verbs are used to show past tense. Examples,

a) Musu wrote a letter to her father.

b) She was writing a letter to her father.
c) They cooked some food.

Finite verbs used to show agreement between number and person. Examples,

a) Lecturer speaks to the students.

b) Aminata has a child
c) John and Mary speech French.

Finite verbs are simply stated and understood. Examples,

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 a) Listen carefully
b) Fire
c) Dance

Note that in such imperative sentences, the subject, which is always ‘you’ and covertly
expressed is simply understood.

b) NON-FINITE VERBS: Non-finite verbs are those which may end with ‘to’, finite’, ‘ing’, ‘d’, ed’
‘en’ etc., and yet do not show tense or agreement with the subject of the sentence. Examples,

a) Kumba wants to go home.

b) John likes dancing in any nightclub.
c) The culprit has been punished.

The underlined words in the above sentences are non-finite verbs that have nothing to do with
tense or agreement between the subject and verb.

2) TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

i) TRANSITIVE VERBS: A transitive verb is one that has a direct object, expressed or implied. It
allows or admits an object. That means, a transitive verb is followed by an object [verb that acts
on an object]. Examples,

a) He has eaten some food

b) Alie writes a letter
c) The boy threw a stone

ii) INTRANSITIVE VERBS: An intransitive verb on the hand has no object. That is, it doesn’t allow
an object after it, [a verb that does not act on an object]. Examples,

a) Joe has eaten

b) Teacher laugh.
c) My friend always smiles

Note that a transitive verb can become an intransitive verb if it is used without object.

3) LEXICAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS: The verb in a clause may contain more than a single
position; for this purpose, there are two types of verbs called lexical and auxiliary verbs.

i) LEXICAL VERBS: Lexical verbs which are otherwise known as main verbs express real action.
These verbs always indicate one form of action or another. Examples,

a) He appears gorgeous in his attire.

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 b) Susan spoke well in the meeting
c) The decided the matter amicably.

Note that lexical verbs are divided into regular and irregular verbs

ii) AUXILIARY VERBS: Auxiliary verbs help lexical verbs to express their meaning. They are also
called helping verbs. They are further divided into two types: [Primary Auxiliary & Modal
Auxiliary Verbs]

a) PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS: There are three main Primary Auxiliary verbs which are
illustrated as thus:

 Do – do, does, did, done

 Have – have, has, had
 Be – be, am, is, are, was, were, being been

Note that in some sentences, two or more make up the verb and such words are called verb
phrase of a sentence. The first word in a verb phrase may be a form of ‘be’ and this form of ‘be’
is called an auxiliary verb. An auxiliary can be followed by the present participle form of a verb
which ends with - ‘ing.’ Examples,

a) John is dancing cool music

b) They are fighting for their rights.
c) I am writing on the rock.
d) He is being treated for malaria
e) I have been treated for common cold

b) MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS: In modern English, there are thirteen words which give especially
second language (L2) learners and speakers of English language just about ten times as much
trouble as any other words. They normally appear in pairs, but it is necessary to study them
separately because each has its unique uses.

PRESENT PAST PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT

Will Would Must Must Need (to)
Shall Should ought Ought (to)
May Might Dare (to) Dare (to)

5. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS: A verb which is an action word is used to indicate the
relationship between the action and the time that action occurs. When a verb is used in this
way it is called a tense. The tenses of English are formed from four main parts of a verb. (a)
infinitive, (b) the present participle (c) the past and (d) the past participle

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The principal parts of a verb

The Infinitive present The Present Participle Simple Past Past Participle
Write I am writing I wrote I have/has written
Come She is coming She came She has/ have come
Speak Alie and Abu are speaking Alie & Abu spoke They have/has spoken
Play The students are dancing The students The students have/has
danced danced

a) REGULAR VERBS: Regular verbs are verbs whose past and past participle [or perfect] forms
are formed by adding ‘d’, ‘ed’ to the base or root forms. Examples,

REGULAR VERBS

Infinitive Present Present Participle Simple Past Past Participle

Work Working Worked Have/has worked
Plait Plaiting Plaited Have/has plaited
Arrive Arriving Arrived Have/has arrived
Determine Parking Determined Have/has determined
Park Parked Have/has parked

b) IRREGULAR VERBS: Unlike regular verbs, the irregular verbs are those whose past and past
participle forms are formed in different ways. That is, the forming of their past and perfect
forms is not regular nor follows the same pattern. The following groups of irregular verbs have
past tense forms and past participle forms that follow the same pattern in structure. Examples,

IRREGULAR VERB

TYPE PRESENT TENSE PRESEN PARTICIPLE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

ONE Rise (s) Rising Rose Has/have risen
Drive (s) Driving Drove Has/have driven
Write (s) Writing wrote Has/have written
TWO BUY (s) Buying Bought Has/have bought
Seek (s) Seeking sought Has/have sought
Think (s) Thinking taught Has/have thought
THREE Eat (s) Eating Ate Has/have eaten
Give (s) Giving Gave Has/have given
Lie (s) Lying laid Has/have lain
FOUR drink (s) Drinking Drank Has/have drunk
Swim (s) Swimming Swam Has/have swum

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 Begin (s) Beginning began Has/have begun
FIVE Break (s) Breaking Broke Has/have broken
Steal (s) Stealing Stole Has/ have stolen
Wear (s) Wearing wore Has/have worn
SIX Speak (s) Speaking Spoke Has/ have spoken
Freeze (s) Freezing Froze Has/have frozen
Choose (s) Choosing chose Has/ have chosen
SEVEN Blow (s) Blowing Blew Has/have blown
Fly/flies Flying Flew Has/have flown
Throw (s) Throwing threw Has/have thrown
EIGHT Burst (s) Bursting Burst Has/have burst
Cast (s) Casting Cast Has/have cast
Split (s) Splitting Split Has/have split
NINE Come (s) Coming Came Has/ have come
Do (es) Doing Done Has/have done
Run (s) Running Ran Has/have run

CONCORD [SUBJEC VERB AGREEMENT]:

In grammar, the term concord refers to the agreement. This means that, there must be an
agreement between all parts of clause particularly between verb and the subject before we can
confirm that such a clause or sentence is correct. Verbs agree with their subjects in number and
person.

A verb must always agree with the subject. In agreements, the following rules must be
observed:

RULE 1. When the subject is singular, the verb is singular. Examples,

 She is a police
 That boy sings well
 The cat keeps its paws well.

RULE 2: When the subject is plural, the verb is plural. Examples,

 They are police men

 Those girls sing well
 Most people like cigarettes

RULE 3: When there are more singular subjects joined by ‘and,’ the verb is plural. Examples,

 John and peter are police men

 John, Abu and M

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  Joe and Brima study very well.

RULE 4: When two or more singular subjects are joined by ‘’or’’, ‘’neither ‘’ ‘’nor’’ or ‘’not’’
‘’but’’, the verb is singular. Examples:

 Neither the boy nor the man likes chocolate.

 Either he or she knows the answer.
 Not Mike but Alie was the answer.

RULE 5: (Proximity concord) When one of the two subjects connected by “or,” ’nor, or ‘’but’’ is
singular, and the other is plural, the verb agrees in number with the nearer one. Examples,

 Not only the student but the teacher was late

 Neither the boy nor the men were here.
 Not boy but the girl are dancing

RULE 6: When two subjects are connected by “or,” one differs in person, the verb agrees with
the one. Examples,

 Susan or you help him

 Either he or I have to tell the teacher
 Neither they nor he gives anything to the poor

RULE 7: when a singular subject is joined to the other subject by “with,” “as well as,” “together
with,” “in addition to,” “no less, etc.,” the verb is singular. Examples,

 My son as well as my daughter likes reading

 Marion together with her sister is going to France
 The gate in addition to the wall was painted brown

RULE 8: when the subject is separated by “all,” “both,” “but” or “and,” the verb is plural.
Examples,

 All but Joe Momoh have left

 Both Finda and Amie enjoy singing
 The lecturer and the student are discussing the matter

RULE 9: when two or more subjects preceded by “each,” “every,” the verb is singular. Examples,

 Each of the students is in the lecture room

 Every boy and girl likes presents
 Each boy and girl has to pay for the pamphlets

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RULE 10: when two singular person subjects refer to the same person or thing, the verb is
singular. Examples,

 Mr. Massaquio, my good friend and lecturer is present

 Dr. Turay, the Dean of Faculty addressed a couple of students
 Mr. swaray, the government spoke person defended the constitution of Sierra Leone

RULE 11; when two subjects are used to express one idea, the may be singular. Examples

 Bread and butter is all I need for lunch

 Cassava leaf and rice is my best sauce for dinner
 Tea and bread is all I need

RULE 12: Indefinite pronouns such as “anybody,” “anyone,” nobody,” require a singular verb.
Examples,

 Is anyone feeling cold?

 Somebody has taken my phone
 Nobody is attending that meeting

RULE 13: When a sentence begins with “there” or “here,” the verb agrees with following
subject not the introducing word. Examples,

 Here is your pen

 There is nobody in the library
 Here come the barmen

RULE 14: a collective noun takes a singular verb when it means a group. Examples,

 The team wins everything [ team means group of people]

 The exams committee is going to decide the mater
 The university staff is doing well

RULE 15: A collective noun takes a plural verb when it refers to the member in the group.
Examples,

 The team are working well together

 The committee are divided in their opinions
 The congregation are arguing among themselves

RULE 16: the titles of books, magazines, movies, newspapers, or plays take a singular verb.
Examples,

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  The River Between is the most interesting Africa Novel
 The Exclusive Newspaper is the choice of the people
 The Focus on Africa was the popular Magazine in Africa

RULE 17: plural numbers take a singular verb when they are used in the phrase to mean a sum
or unit. Examples,

 A million dollars is a lot of money

 Ten thousand Leones is not enough for my lunch
 Three years is a long period

RULE 18; some nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning. They usually take a singular
verb. Examples,

 Mathematics is a difficult subject

 Statistics is the choice of some students
 Economics is one of the important subjects in schools.

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