Thanks to visit codestin.com
Credit goes to www.scribd.com

0% found this document useful (0 votes)
99 views6 pages

A Guide To THD and THD+N

Uploaded by

OUC209
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
99 views6 pages

A Guide To THD and THD+N

Uploaded by

OUC209
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 6

July 2020 1

Technical Articles
Matthew Beardsworth
Not all Distortion is Created Equal; A Guide to THD and THD+N

Distortion is arguably the most commonly compared


specification between audio products. Consumers often use this
as the first technical benchmark when purchasing a piece of
equipment.

Even the name “distortion” has a bad connotation. Nobody


wants distortion added to their audio, right?

This article is a discussion on what distortion (specifically THD)


actually is, how it is measured, and how different amplifiers
with the same distortion specification can actually sound very
different.
Figure 1: Time Domain Signal Plot

We can take the signal above and now view it in the


frequency domain as a spectral plot.
1. Distortion
Distortion is a generic term used to describe unwanted artifacts
added to an audio signal as it passes through an amplifier,
preamplifier, ADC or DAC. Essentially any and every
component a signal passes through (audio or other) adds some
amount of distortion.

It is an inevitability of the world we live in. Nothing is perfect.

Figure 2: Frequency Domain of the Signal Above


2. Thinking in Terms of Frequency
First, to understand THD we must think about audio signals in a Note the Y-axis displays a vertical bar that reaches the same
different way. amplitude as before. The bar is located on the X-axis at a
frequency corresponding to the frequency of the time domain
We are all familiar with how signals look vs time. We can signal.
remember high school math functions like Sine, Cosine, and
Tangent. With elapsed time, the amplitude varies positive and
negative around a center point with a fixed amplitude and Why is this useful?
frequency. The X-axis is time, the Y-axis is the amplitude at
any given point in time. This is known as the time domain since Because signals are often much more complex than a simple
our perspective is relative to time. single frequency sine wave. By using a spectral plot, we can
transform a complex time domain signal and understand all the
Let’s now think of one of these signals displayed on a set of frequencies and the associated amplitude of each of those
axes where the X-axis is the frequency of the signal, and the frequencies for additional analysis.
Y-axis is the amplitude. This is known as the frequency domain.
Our view shows the spectral (frequency and amplitude) content If we have a signal comprised of 2 frequencies and view the
of a signal. signal in the frequency domain, we can easily unravel the
contents of the signal.

Copyright © Bandwidth Audio


July 2020 2

√𝐻22 + 𝐻32 + 𝐻42 + 𝐻. .2


𝑇𝐻𝐷(%) = 100 ×
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙

Equation 1: THD% Calculation

In Equation 1, the numerator is a power summation of the


amplitudes of all the harmonics (second harmonic H2, third
harmonic H3, fourth harmonic H4, etc). The denominator is the
fundamental or input test signal amplitude. The fundamental is
Figure 3: Two Frequency Signal also referred to as the first harmonic but we will avoid using
this terminology to prevent confusion. This gives us a ratio of
the signal we care about (the fundamental) relative to all of
the unwanted signals (the harmonics).

The source of these harmonics in audio equipment is due to the


nonlinearities that exist in all circuit components as well as the
overall circuit design and topology choices made… more on
that later.

3.1 Measuring THD

Figure 4: Two Frequency Signal Broken into its Components


Below shows the flow through of an audio device, where a sine
wave fundamental signal is injected into the input of the DUT.
The output is monitored by an audio analyzer which gives us
the THD as a number.
To take this one step further, any time domain wave shape can
be created though the addition of many pure tone waves of
varying frequency and amplitude.

This also works in reverse. The most complex of waveforms can


be represented in the frequency domain as many pure tone
signals of different amplitudes.

• This is called the Fourier Series.


Figure 5: THD Test Signal Chain
Fourier, a French mathematician, proved this theory and
provided the foundation for most signal processing techniques
today.
If we look at the output from the DUT in the frequency domain,
The measurement of THD uses this concept.
we may see something like the following where the DUT has
added the harmonics H2, H3, H4 and H5.

3. THD – Total Harmonic Distortion


For audio equipment, THD is measured by injecting a known
sinusoid signal into the Device Under Test (DUT) and comparing
the output of the device to the input signal.

Since the input signal is our reference, we can think of the


distortion artifacts as harmonics (or frequency multiples) of the
fundamental signal in the frequency domain.

These harmonics are then aggregated and compared to the


input signal. Hence, the measurement we make is the total of Figure 6: Fundamental and Harmonics
all resulting harmonics or Total Harmonic Distortion.

Copyright © Bandwidth Audio


July 2020 3
So how does an audio analyzer actually compute THD?
With each of these paths working in parallel, the output
The audio analyzer duplicates the signal from the DUT on two amplitudes of each path can be compared and computed into
separate paths. the THD of the DUT.

It is worth noting here that even our fundamental source


will have some amount of distortion. Again, this is
unavoidable. The goal of any quality audio analyzer is to
provide a fundamental test signal that has substantially
lower distortion than the DUT itself. This will ensure that the
DUT is being measured accurately.

A common check of any distortion measurement equipment


is a loopback test where the DUT is removed and the
fundamental signal source is fed directly into the analyzer.

Figure 7: THD Audio Analyzer Diagram This will determine the residual distortion of our measuring
equipment.

Using specially designed filters in each path, path 1 effectively


calculates the numerator and path 2 denominator of the THD
calculation in Equation 1.
4. THD+N - Total Harmonic Distortion Plus
Noise
Path 1: The first path uses a filtering circuit to remove the
fundamental tone from the rest of the signal. This type of filter
With a solid understanding on THD, we now must make a
is called a notch filter. It is highly tuned to only attenuate a
modification… We must account for noise.
very narrow frequency band. The notch filter is placed at the
Noise, like THD, is unavoidable. If you live on earth, then the
same frequency as the fundamental, effectively removing it
physics of this planet dictate that all electrical signals will have
from the signal. This passes the remaining harmonics
noise.
downstream.
By considering noise of the DUT, we can reason that the signal
amplitude is never truly zero between each harmonic in our
spectral plots.

The noise floor of the DUT is fixed and contributes to the


overall amplitude measured by audio analyzers.

Figure 8: Notch Filter Removes Fundamental

Path 2: The second path does the exact opposite as the first. It
is a selective filter that is highly tuned to only pass a very
narrow frequency band. This is called a band pass filter. It
effectively removes all frequencies other than the fundamental.

Figure 10: Noiseless vs Noisy DUT

In figure 10, notice how the additional of noise in the right plot
sets the “floor” of our measurement. The amplitude never
decays to zero. In this example, the noise masks the higher
frequency H4 and H5 harmonics because their amplitude is
lower than the noise floor.
Figure 9: Bandpass Filter Leaves Fundamental

Copyright © Bandwidth Audio


July 2020 4
Therefore THD+N is calculated with the addition of a noise 5.1 The Load Line
term in the numerator. Noise is an additional unwanted artifact.
When an amplification device like a vacuum tube operates, its
√𝐻22 + 𝐻32 + 𝐻42 + 𝐻. .2 + 𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 2 operating conditions setup a load profile over the tubes
𝑇𝐻𝐷(%) = 100 × nominal operating characteristics. This is called a load line.
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙

Equation 2: THD+N% Calculation Let’s build a Class-A amplifier with a 6SN7 triode tube. If we
operate the tube with a 350V supply and a 35KΩ resistor
In reality, this is how most audio analyzers actually measure between the supply and the tube plate, we get a load line
distortion. The notch filter cannot remove the noise. Therefore, defined by this resistor value and the supply voltage.
by default, the measurement made is almost always a THD+N
value. Noise is a fact of life and part of the audio system. Now let’s set up the nominal operating point (known as setting
the bias) for this tube at -8V. Since audio signals are
alternating polarity, we can handle up to a +8V peak signal
4. Some manufacturers specify THD not amplitude for a maximum input signal of 0V on the tube grid.
Conversely, we can handle -8V negative signal amplitude for
THD+N minimum input signal of -16V on the tube grid.

It is true that some manufacturers do specify THD rather than


THD+N. If you don’t see the “+N” then noise is not part of the
measurement!

While not technically incorrect, this is often done to mislead


customers. For those who haven’t read this article (lucky you),
many assume THD and THD+N are the same or don’t even
notice the difference in the tiny print when comparing between
products. Because THD+N includes noise, THD+N will always
result in a higher distortion figure than just THD.

Most of if not all audio analyzers, including the gold standard


Audio Precision, measure THD+N.

To remove the unavoidable effects of noise, THD is usually


computed manually. Typically, a frequency domain spectral
analysis of the DUT is taken and the peak amplitude of each
harmonic is recorded and then computed by hand using
Equation 1.
Figure 11: 6SN7 Load Line

5. Sources of THD+N If we remove tube curves of the 6SN7 tube and look at the line
drawn, we can see where linearity comes into play.
As discussed, noise is one of the contributing factors to the total
THD+N. Higher noise means higher THD+N. Any artifact not
associated with the fundamental test signal, even harmonics of
the power line rectification (60Hz, 120Hz, 240Hz etc.) are
part of the combined noise of an audio system.

Harmonic distortion products are those which are related to the


fundamental and occur as multiples of the fundamental
frequency. For example, using a 1KHz fundamental test tone,
the first distortion product we would expect to see is 2KHz
which is the second harmonic of the fundamental. The third
harmonic would be 3KHz and so on.
Figure 12: 6SN7 Load Line
The generation of harmonics from a given fundamental input
tone is due to non-linearity in the amplifier. The input never Notice how the tube output voltage on the X-axis is not linear
appears perfectly at the output of any system. The primary relative to our bias point.
cause of nonlinearities are the amplifying devices themselves,
tubes or transistors. 208V - 75V = 133V
315V – 208V = 107V

Copyright © Bandwidth Audio


July 2020 5
Since even order distortion is always an even multiple of the
Although the input single swing is linear (+8 and -8V) the input signal, the harmonics are always “in tune”. Think of this as
output voltage is not! We have a 20% difference in the octaves on a piano. Octaves are the double of the initial
voltage across the tube for the same input signal swing! frequency. If we play middle A (440Hz) on a piano as our
fundamental, we would find our harmonics at H2: A (880Hz),
We can use this load line to draw the shape of a signal H4: A (1760Hz) and H6: E(2640Hz). These notes all go well
passing though this stage. together.

Although harmonic distortion is present and we can measure it


on an audio analyzer, to our ears, it is not very offensive or
even perceivable.

Figure 13: Signal Shape from Load Line

On the -8V side of the bias point, the output signal is


compressed. On the +8V side of bias point, the output signal is
expanded. An ideal amplifying device would amplify the
signal by the same amount for a given input signal amplitude. Figure 14: Even Order Distortion Profile

If we follow this signal for a full cycle starting at the peak of


the compression side, the signal continually expands and then Audio amplifiers with dominant even order distortion can often
compresses within a full cycle of our input. This creates a have higher levels of THD+N without listeners perceiving any
second harmonic, or small doubling frequency effect relative to distortion.
the input signal due to the asymmetrical waveform.
This is the approach often used in Class-A single ended triode
Our simple 6SN7 Class-A amplifier generates harmonics and (SET) tube amplifiers. The circuit is optimized to be as simple as
thus THD! possible, providing excellent sonic results with zero negative
feedback. Building a complex circuit to drive down THD isn’t
usually necessary if designed properly.
6. Not all Distortion is Created Equal
THD+N is useful for benchmarking a product, but it doesn’t tell 6.3 Odd Order Distortion
the full story.
Odd order distortion is not an even multiple of the input
As discussed, THD+N is a combined value of all unwanted frequency but rather an odd multiple. No more doubling here!
harmonics and noise. However, it says nothing about how the
harmonics are related in frequency.

6.1 Even Order Distortion


In the previous example, we saw how a sample Class-A
amplifier produces a small frequency doubling effect due to
the 6SN7 tube characteristics. This is known as even order
distortion. Regardless of the fundamental frequency, the output
harmonics are an even multiple of the input signal frequency.

For example, 1KHz input signal will produce 2KHz, 4KHz,


6Khz, 8KHz and so on. The harmonic train will continue until the
amplitude of the harmonics falls below the noise floor of the Figure 15: Odd Order Distortion Profile
amplifier and are no longer discernable.
To use our piano analogy, odd order harmonics would be like
playing middle A (440Hz) as our fundamental and finding our

Copyright © Bandwidth Audio


July 2020 6
harmonics falling at H3: E (1320Hz), H5: C# (2200Hz), and
H7: somewhere between F#-G (3080Hz). THD or THD+N can be used for product purchasing guidance
given that the type of amplifier and topology choices are
This more complex series can alter the sound of music and considered. However, the pursuit of continuing distortion
create dissonant sounds not musically associated with the input improvements to extremely low THD levels is an exercise in
signal. This creates sounds which clash and compete with each futility. In fact, most human studies have found that improving
other if the level or distortion is not kept in check. THD below 1% is inaudible. In other words, 1% and 0.01%
sound the same.
What sort of audio equipment creates odd order distortion?
Like most things, chasing extreme performance gains in one
Any differential amplifier by nature (for example a area can lead to a sacrifice in performance elsewhere.
differential XLR input on a preamp, or a push-pull output amp),
will create a dominant odd order harmonic profile.

If we take our simple 6SN7 Class-A amplifier from before and


duplicate it such that we have 2 inputs and 2 outputs that are
operating out of phase (a basic differential amplifier), then the
output signal will have compression on both the positive and
negative signal extremes. If we drive the amplifier very hard
into clipping, we will get a response that looks like a square
wave, flat peaks at the maximum and minimum voltage swing.

Our friend Fourier proved that a square wave can made by


summing pure sinusoidal tones at odd harmonics. Therefore,
any symmetrical distortion waveform is full of odd order
harmonics.

Furthermore, the differential nature of a differential amplifier


tends to cancel even harmonics reducing the ratio of even
order to odd order harmonics even further.

7. A Few Closing Notes


Any amplifier design will have some amount of even and odd
order harmonics. The examples given above discuss why
specific amplifier topologies and designs tend to be dominant
in even or odd order distortion, but they are not excusive to
one or the other.

Also, while not widely specified, the bandwidth used to


measure the harmonics and noise to arrive at a THD+N number
matters. If we measure THD+N over a 100KHz bandwidth, a
higher THD+N number will be measured since more noise and
harmonics will fit in a 100KHz frequency window compared to
a strict audio window of 20KHz.

In fact, most Class-D amplifiers are measured with a very


sharp AES-17 filter placed at 20KHz. This is designed to
remove the PWM switching frequency (typically 300-500KHz)
from the audio output. Without this filter, the PWM switching
could be measured by an audio analyzer as part of the
harmonic spectrum.

With this type of filter, it is not uncommon to see the THD+N


drop dramatically to very low values at 10KHz. Why?

The 2nd harmonic of 10KHz is 20Khz which is being filtered out


of the measurement! If the measurement bandwidth was
increased, then no drop would be present, however as
mentioned before, the THD+N measured everywhere else
would be higher too!
Copyright © Bandwidth Audio

You might also like